Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

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Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

An integrated buoy-satellite based coastal water quality nowcasting system:

India’s pioneering efforts towards addressing UN ocean decade challenges
T.M. Balakrishnan Nair a, 1, V.V.S.S. Sarma b, Aneesh A. Lotliker a, K.R. Muraleedharan c,
Alakes Samanta a, Sanjiba Kumar Baliarsingh a, *, S. Shivaprasad a, T.R. Gireeshkumar c,
Susmita Raulo a, S.P. Vighneshwar a, R Venkat Shesu a, Murali Krishna a, N. Kiran Kumar a,
R. Chandrasekhar Naik a, Sudheer Joseph a, K. Annapurnaiah a, E. Pattabhi Rama Rao a,
T. Srinivasa Kumar a
a
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Govt. of India, Hyderabad, 500090, India
b
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Regional Centre, Visakhapatnam, 530017, India
c
CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Regional Centre, Kochi, 682018, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Jason Michael Evans The Indian coastal waters are stressed due to a multitude of factors, such as the discharge of industrial effluents,
urbanization (municipal sewage), agricultural runoff, and river discharge. The coastal waters along the eastern
Keywords: and western seaboard of India exhibit contrasting characteristics in terms of seasonality, the magnitude of river
Water quality influx, circulation pattern, and degree of anthropogenic activity. Therefore, understanding these processes and
Autonomous observatory
forecasting their occurrence is highly necessary to secure the health of coastal waters, habitats, marine resources,
Coastal
and the safety of tourists. This article introduces an integrated buoy-satellite based Water Quality Nowcasting
Pollution
Bay of bengal System (WQNS) to address the unique challenges of water quality monitoring in Indian coastal waters and to
Arabian sea boost the regional blue economy. The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has
launched a first-of-its-kind WQNS, and positioned the buoys at two important locations along the east (Visa­
khapatnam) and west (Kochi) coast of India, covering a range of environmental conditions and tourist-intensive
zones. These buoys are equipped with different physical-biogeochemical sensors, data telemetry systems, and
integration with satellite-based observations for real-time data transmission to land. The sensors onboard these
buoys continuously measure 22 water quality parameters, including surface current (speed and direction),
salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter,
chlorophyll-a, turbidity, dissolved methane, hydrocarbon (crude and refined), scattering, pCO2 (water and air),
and inorganic macronutrients (nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate, silicate). This real-time data is transmitted
to a central processing facility at INCOIS, and after necessary quality control, the data is disseminated through
the INCOIS website. Preliminary results from the WQNS show promising outcomes, including the short-term
changes in the water column oxic and hypoxic regimes within a day in coastal waters off Kochi during the
monsoon period, whereas effluxing of high levels of CO2 into the atmosphere associated with the mixing of
water, driven by local depression in the coastal waters off Visakhapatnam. The system has demonstrated its
ability to detect changes in the water column properties due to episodic events and mesoscale processes.
Additionally, it offers valuable data for research, management, and policy development related to coastal water
quality.

1. Introduction nutrients through several natural processes such as river discharge,

upwelling, and wind-driven mixing (Hutchings et al., 1995). These
Coastal ecosystems harbour diverse marine life due to being rich in ecosystems are highly pressurized by anthropogenic activities, such as

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: baliarsingh.s@incois.gov.in (S.K. Baliarsingh).
1
Steering Committee, Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), UNESCO.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120477
Received 23 October 2023; Received in revised form 15 February 2024; Accepted 20 February 2024
Available online 27 February 2024
0301-4797/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

the direct discharge of industrial effluents, municipal sewage, subma­ are rapidly warming due to higher atmospheric pollutants than the
rine groundwater discharge, and atmospheric pollutants (Hader et al., global average (Sridevi and Sarma, 2021). The rapid acidification of
2020). In addition, the heavy traffic of ships and boats increases hy­ coastal waters of the east coast of India was reported to be mainly caused
drocarbon concentrations in the upper ocean, which may have a toxic by increased deposition of atmospheric pollutants (Sarma et al., 2021;
effect on marine organisms (McGrath et al., 2017; Paquin et al., 2018). Kumari et al., 2021). Ocean acidification, driven by excessive atmo­
The unique circulation and surface current structure at specific locations spheric CO2 absorption, risks marine life with calcium carbonate pro­
threaten the tourists bathing in the coastal waters. The sewage from the tective shells, like corals and some plankton species, disrupting marine
urban regions brings organic debris to the coast, enhancing the patho­ food webs and the broader ecosystem (Hofmann et al., 2010; Doney
genic bacterial load in the coastal waters (Prasad et al., 2015). Its con­ et al., 2020). These drivers can reshape coastal ecosystems by affecting
sumption during bathing may cause water-borne diseases, such as marine species’ behavior and distribution, including coral reefs and
cholera, diarrhea, etc. Coastal waters are used for activities like swim­ their dependent species. Elevated temperatures can also impact fish
ming, fishing, and boating, and therefore, monitoring helps identify and migration, affecting fisheries and coastal communities.
mitigate health risks from contaminants as well as safeguarding public Besides ocean warming and acidification, coastal hypoxia expansion
well-being (World Health Organization, 2003). The coastal regions cater is a global concern for oceans. The Indian coastal waters face various
to a wide range of ecosystem services, boosting the country’s blue extreme conditions, such as oxygen minimum zones or hypoxic condi­
economy in terms of fisheries, aquaculture, maritime transportation, tions. Such conditions are mainly caused by natural processes, such as
and tourism (Costanza et al., 2014). The blue economy components coastal upwelling and stratification driven by river waters (Gupta et al.,
thrive in healthy marine environments. Safeguarding the quality of 2009; Sarma et al., 2013). Changes in land use, agricultural activities,
coastal waters and forecasting currents and wave patterns would help to urbanization, industrialization, and new port constructions along the
avoid unwanted situations such as the drowning of people, pathogenic Indian coast make it especially vulnerable to human-induced disrup­
bacterial contamination, and health-related issues. Monitoring provides tions, significantly altering material flows to coastal waters and
information for managing resources sustainably and boosting regional impacting biogeochemistry and marine ecology, including marine
economies (Christie, 2005). The beaches attract tourists, and allied ac­ resources.
tivities contribute to a significant fraction of the country’s economy, and The recurrence of HAB leads to the deterioration of water quality in
maintaining good water quality increases its contribution to the the Indian coastal water and is attributed to a complex interplay of
economy. natural and anthropogenic factors (Oyeku and Mandal, 2021; Samanta
Coastal areas are vulnerable to climate change, including rising sea et al., 2023). Specifically, several anthropogenic factors, such as aqua­
levels, intensified storms, ocean acidification, and nutrient loading culture practices, the introduction of non-native species, wastewater
associated with shifts in the ecosystem structure (Laurent et al., 2018; Lu discharges, excessive input of nutrients into water bodies from agricul­
et al., 2018). Monitoring physical, chemical, and meteorological vari­ tural runoff, and industrial discharges, promote the rapid growth of
ables associated with biology provides evidence to address these impacts algae. HABs also exert cascading effects on marine biota and coastal
on coastal ecosystems. The release of anthropogenic nutrients to the populations attributed to the consequent events of oxygen depletion,
coastal zones may trigger Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs), which release fish kills, changes in food web dynamics, economic impact on fisheries
toxins that may be harmful to marine life and human health upon their and tourism, etc (Baliarsingh et al., 2016; Samanta et al., 2023). Despite
consumption (Anderson, 2009). Monitoring nutrient loads in coastal the high sensitivity of Indian coastal waters to natural and human in­
waters aids in predicting and managing HAB events, protecting eco­ fluences, there is a lack of high-frequency time-series observation on
systems and public health (Davidson et al., 2014). physical, chemical and biological processes. While some studies have
Coastal areas in the Indian subcontinent support a sizable popula­ been conducted at specific locations, long-term data from fixed sites in
tion, and their livelihoods are closely linked to the coastal ocean. The Indian coastal waters is scarce. Though two coastal stations on the east
hydrography and biogeochemistry of the east and west coastal waters and west coasts were established and measured for a few decades (Sarma
significantly differ due to various forcings (Shetye et al., 1991, 1996; et al., 2021; Shenoy et al., 2011, 2012), these measurements are biased
Gauns et al., 2005). For instance, intense upwelling occurs along the by the tide and coarse temporal resolution. Establishing and maintaining
southwest coast of India during the summer monsoon period, where measurements with high temporal resolution in the coastal waters is
comparatively weak river discharge was noticed, in contrast to that crucial to address this gap (Mathew et al., 2021; Samanta et al., 2023;
observed along the east coast of India (Sarma et al., 2013). Similarly, the Baliarsingh et al., 2023). A network of coastal stations, particularly
atmospheric pollutants over the east coast of India are several-fold moored buoys equipped with sensors for measuring biogeochemical
higher than on the west coast (Sarma et al., 2021). The input of nutri­ parameters and traditional physical and atmospheric measurements,
ents through submarine groundwater discharge is higher on the south­ with real-time data transmission capabilities, is essential for addressing
west coast of India than on the northwestern coast (Kumar et al., 2021). this lacuna. Envisioning a system for monitoring and understanding the
The magnitude of industrial effluents and municipal sewages are vari­ coastal processes for nowcasting of water quality as well as model
able along India’s east and west coasts. Therefore, the human pressure validation, the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
on the coastal ecosystem is not uniform along the Indian coast due to (INCOIS) has initiated the “Coastal Monitoring” programme, funded by
variable input of pollution and waste disposal, which are ever-growing the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India, to develop
(Islam and Tanaka, 2004). The magnitude of pollutants and their a state-of-the-art Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS) augmented
impact exhibit significant variations over different timescales (Shaik with autonomous coastal water quality observatory and ocean remote
et al., 2015) due to tidal oscillations, episodic heavy winds, precipita­ sensing data for the Indian coast. Against this backdrop, this article in­
tion, and eddies (Sarma et al., 2013). troduces WQNS to address the unique challenges of water quality
Natural disasters, such as cyclones, depressions, and storm surges, monitoring in Indian coastal waters.
and anthropogenic activities, such as modification in the freshwater
discharge through the construction of dams and inter-linking of rivers, 2. System setup
and deposition of atmospheric pollutants, can enhance the nutrient
composition, vertical fluxes, and ecosystem structure (Balakrishnan The WQNS is an advanced monitoring and data transmission system
Nair, 2006; Sarma et al., 2010, 2021; Acharyya et al., 2012; Sridevi that provides real-time information on water quality conditions in
et al., 2023). The occurrence of cyclones modifies phytoplankton coastal waters. WQNS consists of a real-time data monitoring mecha­
biomass, primary production (Maneesha et al., 2011; Sarma et al., nism through autonomous water quality observatories, ocean remote
2019), and trace gas flux (Kumari et al., 2019). The Indian coastal waters sensing data, wireless mediums for transmitting data, a data processing

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

system, and a web-based data visualization application. A schematic of 2.1. Sensors

the WQNS is presented in Fig. 1.
Measurements of specific water quality parameters are vital to assess
the condition of water quality in coastal areas. The seasonal reversal of
the current direction occurs in the coastal waters of India, resulting in

Fig. 1. Top Panel: Detail framework of Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS). Bottom Panel (Lef): General arrangement of the buoy. Bottom Panel (Right): India
map showing the observatory deployment locations (red-filled circles). Red and black lines with arrows represent the boundary currents during summer and winter,
respectively. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

significant variability in the physical, chemical, and biological proper­ Table 1

ties. The equatorward flow of currents brings low saline, low concen­ Details of parameters/sensors installed onboard the autonomous water quality
trations of nitrate and phosphate, high concentration silicate, high observatory.
chlorophyll-a, relatively basic pH, and low pCO2 levels. The contrasting Sl. Parameters Remarks/Indicators/ Measurement Make/
features are observed when the current reverses to the poleward direc­ (Sensor Depth) Significance method Model
tion (Sarma et al., 2018). Ship-based time-series observations suggested 1. Surface Current Water mass Acoustic Nortek
Speed (0.5 m) movement Aquadopp
that coastal currents play a significant role in food-web dynamics,
2. Surface Current
greenhouse gas fluxes at ocean-to-atmosphere interface, formation of Direction (0.5
algal blooms, and intensification of oxygen minimum zones. In order to m)
capture all these signatures, temperature, salinity, currents (speed and 3. Salinity (6.0 m) Freshwater influx, Conductivity Seabird
River discharge, SEAPHOX.
direction), dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll-a, nutrients, turbidity, bloom
Terrigenous
indicators (phycocyanin and phycoerythrin), pH, pCO2 and CH4 sensors discharge,
were installed on the buoy. Among these sensors, most of the sensors Upwelling
measure directly the targeted parameters, except bloom indicators pa­ 4. Water Upwelling/Mixing, Thermistor
rameters. Due to measurements of multidisciplinary data, the under­ Temperature Water vapour over
(6.0 m) the ocean, Climate
standing of basic biogeochemical processes, interactions among
change
land-ocean-atmosphere, and human impact on these processes is 5. pH (6.0 m) Acidity or basicity of Potentiometric
possible. However, the optical sensors are prone to lose their accuracy water, Ocean
due to biofouling; hence frequent calibration is warranted. Nevertheless, acidification
6. Dissolved Oxygen solubility, Optical
accurate measurement of these parameters help in understanding the
Oxygen (6.0 m) Biochemical Oxygen
health and suitability of coastal waters for various purposes, including Demand, Aquatic
human use, and aquatic life. Considering the ecological perturbations organism’s health
and impacts of climate change, better insight into biogeochemical pro­ 7. Phycocyanin Cyanobacteria Optical Seabird
cesses in ensuring public safety, and to take appropriate decisions about (6.0 m) bloom ECO triplet
8. Phycoerythrin
coastal resource use, a set of parameters using selected sensors were
(6.0 m)
installed onboard the buoy component of the WQNS and their details are 9. Coloured Organic matter
given in Table 1. Dissolved pollution, Light
Organic Matter penetration in the
(6.0 m) water column,
2.2. Autonomous water quality observatory design
Ocean colour
parameter
The autonomous buoy-based coastal water quality observatory 10. Chlorophyll-a Phytoplankton Optical Seabird
(hereafter, coastal observatory) measures the environmental parameters (6.0 m) biomass, Primary ECOFLNTU
at the deployed locations in the coastal waters. Sensors for measuring production,
Phytoplankton
parameters, listed in Table 1, are installed in the coastal observatory
bloom, Ocean colour
with the provision to add new sensors. The sensors are installed on the parameter
buoy at depths between surface level and 6 m, depending on the sensor 11. Turbidity (6.0 Water column Optical
type (Table 1). All sensor readings, except nutrients, are logged inter­ m) transparency,
Sediment discharge,
nally at an interval of 30 min and transmitted through telemetry at user-
Bottom sediment
defined intervals, while nutrients are measured at 3-h intervals. The resuspension
long-term time-interval for nutrient measurements was chosen, taking 12. Dissolved Methane cycling, Semiconductor Frantech
into consideration the capacity of the reagent chemicals in the sensors. methane (6.0 m) Greenhouse gas with METS
The nutrient measurements at 3-h intervals can cover the complete tidal global warming Methane
potential
cycle, and the chemicals in the mooring can last for one month. The GPS-
13. Hydrocarbon- Oil Spill/Oil Optical Seabird
based location tracker is utilized to track the coastal observatory’s Crude (6.0 m) Pollution SEAOWL
location. The buoy setup is powered by rechargeable, sealed- 14. Hydrocarbon-
maintenance-free lead-acid batteries recharged by solar panels. Key Refined (6.0 m)
15. Scattering at Light backscattering
components of the coastal observatory are a data logger, sensors, power
700 nm (6.0 m)
management system (solar charge controller, solar panels, batteries), 16. Partial pressure CO2 ingassing- Optical Pro
junction box with cabling, INSAT transmitter, HF, and GPRS for data of CO2 air (0 m) outgassing, Oceanus
transmission. The other important parts of the coastal observatory are 17. Partial pressure Carbonate chemistry CO2 Pro
the mast, passive radar reflector, pressure relief valve, vandalism mea­ of CO2 water
(0.5 m)
sures (360◦ viewing camera), beacon lamp, location tracker, and anti-
18. Nitrite-NO2 (0.5 Algal bloom, Colorimetric Systea WIZ
biofouling measures. A schematic of the coastal observatory is illus­ m) Primary production, wet Chemistry MP3
trated in Figs. 2 and 3. 19. Nitrate-NO3 Eutrophication,
(0.5 m) Nutrient Cycling
20. Ammonium-
2.3. Observatory mooring
NH4 (0.5 m)
21. Phosphate-PO4 Systea WIZ
Oceanographic moorings (Fig. 3) are secured to the seabed using (0.5 m) MP2
mooring lines attached to one or multiple anchors. These lines extend 22. Silicate-SiO4
upwards from the anchors to buoyant floats positioned within the water (0.5 m)

column or on the sea surface. Typically, the mooring consists of a flex­

ible segment connecting the surface buoy and the sinker weight. This be affixed, along with flotation devices that prevent the line and in­
segment acts as a buffer, restraining the buoys against the forces struments from sinking to the ocean floor. Connecting shackles and links
generated by wind, waves, and currents, even during extreme weather are commonly employed to join the various components of the mooring
events. Moorings generally consist of three fundamental parts: a means system and to ensure the instruments remain in alignment. The
of anchoring such as an anchor, chain, or line where instrumentation can

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Fig. 2. Water quality observatory configuration.

observatory is powered by five batteries, each battery 12V, 100Ah To provide value-added information on phytoplankton blooms along
connected in parallel and recharged through four 65W solar panels with parameters measured by the coastal observatory, regions covering
protected with a polarity reversal diode. The battery panels are sealed the buoy locations have been added to INCOIS - ABIS and has been
under regular operation and do not generate hydrogen gas. augmented with the data dissemination page of the WQNS. ABIS has
been integrated with WQNS for users interested in detailed algal bloom
2.4. Software configuration and Graphical User Interface information. Augmentation of ABIS with WQNS enables the users for
comprehensive evaluation of the algal bloom events in relation to
The data on different parameters are acquired from the coastal ob­ collocated water quality parameters. On the other hand, it is also aimed
servatory in real-time and presented in a Graphical User Interface (GUI). to improve the performance of ABIS through continuous
The dashboard is available on the workstation at the two locations. The validation-calibration by using the high-frequency time-series data on
GUI displays critical information about the coastal observatory’s loca­ chlorophyll-a measured by the coastal observatory. In particular, in situ
tion, battery voltage, values of all the water quality parameters, and measurements by the coastal observatory will be very useful for the
statistical data about the parameters. The dashboard, consisting of the performance assessment of satellite retrieval algorithms and provide an
front end, back end, and a database to store coastal observatory data, avenue for tuning existing algorithms or the genesis of regional algo­
was created using free, open-source software (Fig. 4). rithms. Furthermore, the coastal observatory’s capacity to measure
phycocyanin and phycoerythrin offers crucial insights into the evolution
of blue-green algae and their blooms, ultimately contributing to ABIS’s
2.5. Wireless communication ability to characterize algal blooms more effectively.

The data collected and stored by sensors are transmitted to a PC and

processed into a human-readable format. WQNS uses three techniques of 2.7. Quality control
telemetry, namely the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT), Radio
Frequency (RF) communication through HF, and the General Packet Active biofouling is anticipated in the coastal waters and may
Radio Service (GPRS) modem. These telemetries get activated at any damage the quality of data collected by the sensor. In order to examine
time based on functioning and availability of signal. the deterioration of the quality of the data, several experiments were
conducted. At each location, three sets of each sensor were procured,
2.6. Augmenting water quality observatory with Algal Bloom Information and one set of sensors is always in the laboratory, and it is called a
Service (ABIS) master sensor. Before sensors were attached to the coastal observatory,
they were calibrated following traditional methods (Table 2) and with
The rising occurrence of algal blooms poses a significant implication the master sensor. The coastal observatory is moored for one month, and
because of their adverse impacts on fisheries, marine ecosystems, and during this period, the buoy location is occupied using a mechanized
water quality. The Algal Bloom Information Service (ABIS) disseminated boat, and samples were collected close to the buoy location and
by INCOIS (Samanta et al., 2019; Baliarsingh et al., 2020, 2022) is compared with sensor-based data. After 30 days, the sensors were
actively producing and distributing near real-time information retrieved from the coastal observatory and brought to the laboratory,
regarding the spatial and temporal presence and expansion of phyto­ and measured each parameter along with the master sensor. The dif­
plankton blooms, alongside related data, across the North Indian Ocean. ference in measurements between the master and moored sensor was
This is accomplished using satellite-derived ocean colour data (Fig. 5). noted, and this difference was accounted for the biofouling impact on

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understanding the exchange of oxygen between the air and the sea.
AOU, on the other hand, indicates the variation between the measured
dissolved oxygen and the expected oxygen solubility at the given tem­
perature and salinity conditions. AOU offers insights into the collective
biological processes affecting oxygen levels, encompassing both oxygen
consumption and production. These two derived parameters are pro­
cessed at the data processing facility and fed into the data dissemination
system (Fig. 6).

2.9. Data dissemination through web domain for public monitoring

Disseminating water quality nowcasting data through a web domain

for public monitoring effectively provides real-time information to the
public, researchers, policymakers, and other stakeholders interested in
the water quality information at the specific locations. INCOIS-WQNS
disseminates near real-time variability of biogeochemical parameters
through web-based infographics to serve the needs of various stake­
holders and contribute to informed decision-making regarding water
quality and environmental management (Fig. 6).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Significance of coastal observatory locations

The coastal observatories are strategically positioned at the two

important locations (Visakhapatnam on the east coast and Kochi on the
west coast) of the Indian coastal waters, covering a range of environ­
mental conditions (Fig. 1). Visakhapatnam is the center of the east coast
of India, which is devoid of direct discharge of freshwater by any river;
however, the seasonal reversal in currents bring Ganges River-
influenced waters during October–December whereas relatively high
saline water dominates during other periods (Sarma et al., 2018). This
region receives urban and industrial discharges and is also related to
port operations. Seasonal hypoxic conditions at depths below 50 m were
observed during March–May caused by weak coastal upwelling and
October–December when strong salinity stratification occurs (Sarma
et al., 2013). The coastal Bay of Bengal acts as a strong sink for the at­
mospheric CO2 between October and December, associated with the
spread of low salinity water from the Ganges River discharge whereas
source to the atmosphere during other periods caused by coastal up­
welling (Sarma et al., 2012, 2018). The disposal of sewage in the coastal
waters has also affected the water quality by increasing the bacterial
abundance, mainly pathogenic, in the shore waters (Prasad et al., 2015).
Based on the isotopic composition of nitrogen in particulate organic
matter, the spread of nitrogen pollution from anthropogenic activities
was observed up to a range of 25 km from the coast (Sarma et al., 2020).
The rapid acidification of coastal waters was reported due to the depo­
Fig. 3. Top Panel: Schematic of observatory mooring, Middle Panel: Field sition of atmospheric pollutants, the spread of river discharge, and
photographs showing water quality observatory in coastal waters off Kochi coastal upwelling along the coastal Bay of Bengal (Sarma et al., 2021).
(left) and Visakhapatnam (right), and Bottom Panel: Biofouling and algal Millions of tourists visit Visakhapatnam City annually, with an
growth were noticed in the sensors and cage after 18 days of deployment increasing trend over the years. Visakhapatnam City is among the
(right). Copper mesh wrapped over the water intake pump and the sen­
rapidly developing urban centers in South and Southeast Asia. With its
sors (left).
swift industrialization, there’s a pressing need for ongoing monitoring of
the environmental parameters in this area to understand the
sensors. It was noticed that the impact is 2–5% on some sensors, which is human-induced pressures on the coastal environment (Miranda et al.,
below the sensors’ accuracy. 2020).
Coastal waters of Kochi forms a part of the southeastern Arabian Sea
2.8. Generation of derived parameters and is connected to Cochin Backwaters, the northern end of the Vem­
banad Lake system. The coastal waters off Kochi are influenced mainly
Two important environmental parameters, i.e., oxygen saturation by freshwater discharge (Revichandran et al., 2012). Seasonally
and Apparent Oxygen Utilization (AOU), are derived from the real-time reversing monsoon wind system, which reverses the surface circulation
feed from the coastal observatory after a reasonable period of scrutiny. and freshwater discharge, is the major physical process for variation in
Oxygen saturation, expressed as a percentage, represents the proportion hydrographical conditions (Seena et al., 2019). The summer monsoon,
of oxygen concentration measured compared to the oxygen concentra­ originating from the southwest, spans from June to September, while the
tion of water in equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere, taking winter monsoon, originating from the northeast, lasts from December to
into account potential temperature and salinity. This metric is crucial for February. The study area experiences strong coastal upwelling during

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Fig. 4. Graphical user interface widget screen.

Fig. 5. Algal Bloom Information Service (ABIS) aboard Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS).

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Table 2 (scattering at 700 nm, hydrocarbon crude and refined), PRO OCEANUS
Brief summary of the laboratory analysis protocols. (pCO2 air and water), METS (methane), and SYSTEA (nitrate, nitrite,
Parameter Method Conditions Reference ammonium, phosphate, and silicate) have its respective sampling pumps
and intakes ambient water from the respective depth to the sensor, for
Depth Comparison with CTD In situ SeaBird 19
Plus V2 measurement. The oxygen sensor of the SEAPHOX module is designed
Temperature Comparison with CTD In situ SeaBird 19 for use in a CTD’s pumped flow path, providing optimal correlation with
Plus V2 CTD measurements and thereby ensuring proper optical measurement of
Salinity Comparison with Autosal At room the dissolved oxygen concentration. However, biofouling/algal growths
temperature
DO Winkler’s method At room Knap et al.
were noticed in the water intake pump/nozzle during the test period.
temperature (1996) Therefore, to prevent such growth, sensors and water intake systems
pH Spectrophotometric At 25 ◦ C Knap et al. were wrapped with copper mesh and successfully protected the equip­
method (1996) ment from severe biofouling, enhancing the sensors’ endurance, by
Nitrate Spectrophotometric At room Knap et al.
which the servicing period extended from 2 weeks to a month (Fig. 3).
method temperature (1996)
Nitrate + Autoanalyzer, SKALAR- At room Knap et al. Additionally, the intake pump’s plumbing’s black tubing also blocks
Nitrite SAN++ temperature (1996) light, reducing insitu algal growth. Every month, during the coastal
Ammonium Autoanalyzer, SKALAR- At room Knap et al. observatory’s maintenance, copper mesh and plumbing were replaced.
SAN++ temperature (1996) The performance assessment of a coastal observatory at its deploy­
Phosphate Autoanalyzer, SKALAR- At room Knap et al.
SAN++ temperature (1996)
ment location is critical in ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the
Silicate Autoanalyzer, SKALAR- At room Knap et al. data it generates. Such assessments are essential for various applica­
SAN++ temperature (1996) tions, including environmental monitoring, research, and resource
pCO2 Air, pCO2 Under pCO2 system In situ Pierrot et al. management. Monthly field surveys are conducted near the observatory
Water (General Oceanics, USA) (2009)
to accomplish this. Physical, chemical, and biological parameters are
Methane GC-FID At room McAuliffe
temperature (1971) measured separately using standard protocols during each field survey.
Chlorophyll Turner Fluorometer At room Knap et al. A brief summary of the methods and analytical conditions for different
temperature but (1996) parameters is detailed in Table 2. Several measurements were made at
in dark room temperature and then computed for in situ temperature conditions.
CDOM Spectrophotometer At room Sarma et al.
The coastal observatory data are validated using the field survey data to
temperature (2018)
Current speed Comparison with Current In situ Aanderaa ensure its quality and reliability. Validation involves checking for data
meter RCM 9 completeness, consistency, and adherence to predefined quality stan­
Current Comparison with Current In situ Aanderaa dards. Any data gaps or inconsistencies are also addressed. The perfor­
Direction meter RCM 9
mance assessment of the coastal observatory at its deployment location
is a systematic and ongoing process ensuring the data collected is ac­
summer, associated with high primary and secondary productions curate, reliable, and fit for its intended purpose. The comparison of
(Kumar and Kumar 1996; Habeebrehman et al., 2008; Joshi and Rao, measurements by sensors and laboratory measurements of the same
2012). The study region receives pollutants from the port activities, such sample for both locations is given in Table 3. For all parameters, except
as ballast water, oil spills from oil-carrying tankers, Merchant and Naval nutrients, <10% deviation was adopted as an acceptance criterion,
vessels, and dredging activities, etc. The freshwater from river discharge whereas 25% for nutrients. The high percentage deviations (>25%
carries highly variable optically active substances, making the coastal discrepancy) between sensor and validation data primarily occurred
water more complex from the remote sensing perspective. The strong when nutrient concentrations were below 5 μmol/l. Thus, these high
freshwater discharge from the backwaters protrudes to the coast as a percentage deviations are still based on only fairly small absolute de­
buoyant plume with high suspended load and terrestrial efflux, ulti­ viations. Different standards used for the analysis of specific parameters
mately hinter the light penetration to the deep layers, which results in are provided in Table 4.
the lowest primary production in the area (Srinivas and Kumar, 2006;
Habeebrehman et al., 2008; Seena et al., 2019). The study area draws 3.3. Preliminary results from the coastal observatory
special attention because of the occurrence of seasonal mud banks at
certain locations during the southwest monsoon period (Balachandran, 3.3.1. Kochi: west coast of India
2004; Karnan et al., 2017; Muraleedharan et al., 2018) and phyto­ The coastal observatory was deployed in the coastal waters off Kochi
plankton blooms (Kumar et al., 2018; Samanta et al., 2023). During the (9◦ 51.154′N; 76◦ 11.955′E) at a bathymetry of 20 m. The deployment
summer monsoon period, strong CO2 flux to the atmosphere was re­ location was chosen to address the estuarine-land-atmosphere interac­
ported from this region due to coastal upwelling (Sarma, 2003). tion with the coastal ocean and its role in biogeochemical cycles
(Mathew et al., 2021). The first measurement was carried out from 25th
May, 2022 (tail end of the pre-monsoon) to 20th August, 2022 (peak
3.2. Performance assessment of coastal observatory at deployment southwest monsoon). After that, the coastal observatory was operational
location from 17th October, 2022 to 22nd December 2022. During 2023, it was
operational from 15th May 2023 to 3rd October 2023. The
After a series of intercomparison tests with sensor-derived data and high-resolution dataset generated from the coastal observatory por­
laboratory analysis, the observatory was deployed in the coastal waters trayed the physical and biogeochemical processes at different time
off Kochi from 3rd to 21st March, 2022 and collected data at half-hourly scales (hourly to inter-annual), from diurnal to seasonal shifts in the
intervals. During this period, the battery charging/discharging cycles coastal environment.
and performance of the coastal observatory were examined with respect Strong and steady southward currents (Fig. 7) were noticed during
to the biofouling, algal growth, and, finally, drift in the values. Some of the southwest monsoon period, which carries terrestrial influx from the
the optical sensors, such as ECO FLNTU (chlorophyll-a and turbidity) inlet regions far south of the domain. Similarly, northward currents were
and ECO-Triplet (CDOM, phycocyanin, and phycoerythrin), are equip­ observed mainly during the winter monsoon period. Significant east-
ped with a bio-wiping mechanism, which cleans the sensor area before west currents noticed in the diagram indicate the existence of tidal
every measurement. Especially the sensors such as SEAPHOX (depth, currents. Hence, it can be inferred that the large-scale coastal currents
water temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH), SEA OWL and tidal forcings significantly influence currents observed off Kochi.

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Fig. 6. Image showing a composite view of Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS) page on INCOIS website(https://incois.gov.in/portal/wqns/water_qualit
y.jsp).

A large variation in the dissolved oxygen concentration (2–5 ml/l) well-oxygenated waters due to the intrusion of the Bay of Bengal waters
was noticed in accordance with temperature and pH during the fall (Figs. 9 and 10). The pH in the water column was almost uniform except
inter-monsoon period (Fig. 8). During this period, a slight freshening of for a few low values for a short duration, which coincided with high
the water column was noticed, where salinity values were inversely methane (290 nM) and pCO2 (600 ppmv) concentrations. The CDOM
varied to temperature (Fig. 9). This is a clear indication of the prevalence data reflects the typical seasonal variability characterized by a mixed
of coastal upwelled water and its mixing with low saline surface waters organic matter with considerable contribution from the autochthonous-
over the shelf even after the southwest monsoon period. The data from allochthonous origin during the post-monsoon period (Minu et al.,
the coastal observatory addressed the intensity and duration of upwelled 2020). This could be attributed to the Bay of Bengal water intrusion and
waters and their mixing rates during this period. The high chlorophyll-a also to the influx of low-saline waters from the Cochin backwaters. The
(>1 mg/m3) concentrations during October could be attributed to the ship-based data could not be able to capture the changes in the
persistence of coastal upwelling in this region (Fig. 10). The elevated biogeochemical processes during the transition from non-monsoon to
levels of phycocyanin and phycoerythrin concentrations confirmed the monsoon period in the study region. However, the coastal observatory
occurrence of cyanobacteria in the coastal waters. In agreement with the has sufficiently high data acquisition frequency to resolve such short
coastal observatory data, ABIS also depicted elevated levels of chloro­ events. In general, the coastal waters of Kochi experience frequent algal
phyll-a in coastal waters off Kochi, which were restricted mostly to the blooms, including diatom, dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria (D’Silva
coastal region (Suppl. Fig. 1). Overall, the coastal observatory effec­ et al., 2012). However, during the period of mooring of the coastal ob­
tively detected elevated levels of chlorophyll-a, whereas the satellite servatory, there were algal bloom events were not observed. However it
provided the extent of spatial spread. is possible to capture such signatures in the future. The high-frequency,
A drastic change in the hydrographic properties was observed from long-term real-time data records through the coastal observatories and
the first week of November as warming (1.5 ◦ C) and freshening (by 1.8 near real-time mapping by the ABIS over a large spatial scale around the
PSU) of the coastal waters. It is evident that the coastal waters were mooring location can provide valuable insights to understand the bloom
transforming from an upwelling-dominated system to warm, low saline, dynamics and develop algal bloom predictive capabilities.

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Table 3
Intercomparison between sensor measurements and in situ (laboratory) measurements.
Sl. Parameter Unit Visakhapatnam Kochi
No
Value measured directly by Lab test Deviation Value measured directly by Lab test Deviation
sensor results (%) sensor results (%)

1. Temperature ◦
C 26.385 26.387 0.03 28.037 28.243 0.7
2. Salinity PSU 26.448 26.450 0.01 29.0369 29.037 0.0
3. DO mg/ 3.277 3.261 0.49 2.16 2.18 0.9
l
4. pH pH 7.895 7.802 1.19 7.386 7.393 0.1
5. Nitrate μM 0.29 0.22 31.82a 4.8 4.0 20
6. Nitrate-Nitrite μM 0.82 1.3 36.92a 0.68 0.84 19
7. Ammonium μM 0.03 0.043 30.23a 26.9 11.84 127a
8. Phosphate μM 0.1 0.012 733a 4.23 3.06 38a
9. Silicate μM 0.14 0.17 17.65 38.7 48.21 19
10. pCO2 Air PPM 401.4 408 1.62 412.33 – –
11. pCO2 Water PPM 992.8 943.2 5.26 899.27 – –
12. Methane μM 0.582 – – 0.64 0.60 6.7
13. Chlorophyll μg/l 0.363 0.35 3.7 0.1936 0.18 7.6
14. Turbidity NTU 4.787 4.732 1.2 1.421 1.38 3.0
15. CDOM PPB 3.454 3.232 6.9 2.8928 – –
16. Current speed m/s 0.161 0.149 8.1 0.058 0.063 7.9
17. Current Deg 243.1 239.1 1.7 268.03 271.38 1.2
Direction
a
Despite establishing a 25% deviation as the acceptable threshold for nutrients, the target couldn’t be met at low concentrations, such as <2 μM of nitrate. Efforts are
currently being made to enhance performance in this regard.

from ~28.5 to 27.7 ◦ C on 28th August 2023. Similarly, low sea level
Table 4
pressure of ~995 hpa was observed during 4–7th September 2023, fol­
Different standards used for the analysis of specific parameters.
lowed by a decrease in air temperature by 2 ◦ C between 9 and 12th
S. Parameter Source of calibration standard September (Fig. 11). The cooling air temperature led to the mixing of the
No.
water column between 9 and 12th and 15–17th September 2023. As a
1 Salinity IAPSO Standard Seawater, Ocean Scientific International result of these mixing events, waters that are rich in nutrients, poor in
Ltd., UK.
oxygen and chlorophyll-a were pumped to the surface from the sub­
2 pH Dr. A.G. Dickson, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, USA
3 Nutrients Dr. Michio Aoyama, Meteorological Research Institute, surface waters as evidenced by the increase in nutrients (nitrate, phos­
Japan phate, and silicate), low oxygen and chlorophyll-a concentrations
4 pCO2-gas Specialty gases and equipment, USA (Figs. 12 and 13). The pH, pCO2, and CH4 concentrations also responded
5 Chlorophyll DHI standards, Sweeden to the mixing events as a decrease in pH and an increase in pCO2 and
CH4 levels were observed, which were much above the atmospheric
3.3.2. Vishakhapatnam: east coast of India levels (Fig. 14).
The coastal observatory off Visakhapatnam was deployed on 21st The decrease in salinity was observed at two periods (2–7th and
August 2023 and collected successfully one-month long data. The 20–24th) in September 2023 associated with a change in the direction of
coastal waters around the observatory mooring region experienced surface currents. The water flowed from offshore (northeast) from the
several episodic mixing events associated with the local depressions/ last week of August and turned eastward between 2 and 7th September,
rainfall. A slight low depression associated with rainfall, ranging be­ bringing low saline coastal water to the coastal observatory’s location. A
tween 20 and 50 mm, was observed during 24–28th August, associated similar change in the direction of current occurred from 20 to 24th
with a decrease in air temperature (Fig. 11). This triggered the mixing of September, associated with a decrease in salinity, suggesting the
coastal water as evidenced by the decrease in sea surface temperature advection of coastal waters to the coastal observatory’s location

Fig. 7. Measured currents in the coastal waters off Kochi (Left) and off Visakhapatnam (Right).

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Fig. 8. Seasonal to inter-annual variation of pH, water temperature, and dis­

solved oxygen in coastal waters off Kochi.

Fig. 9. Seasonal to inter-annual variation of methane, salinity, pCO2 (air), and

pCO2 (water) in coastal waters off Kochi.
Fig. 11. Time-series observation of sea level pressure, air temperature, rainfall,
sea surface temperature (SST), and salinity in the coastal waters off
Visakhapatnam.

Fig. 10. Seasonal to inter-annual variation of chlorophyll-a, CDOM, phycocy­

anin, and phycoerythrin in coastal waters off Kochi.

(Fig. 15). Despite both times, advection of coastal waters was observed,
however, the magnitude of change in salinity associated with nutrients
were different due to different current speed. The current speed during
2–7th September was lower (~0.2 m/s) than 20–24th September 2023
(up to 0.6 m/s), suggesting that more magnitude of coastal waters was
advected to the buoy location during the latter period associated with
high nutrients concentrations (Figs. 12 and 15). The strong alongshore
component (V) in comparison to the cross-shore component (U), in
which southward-moving currents (-ve part of the V component) were
dominated in the October month that shifted northward during
November to early December (Fig. 15). Similarly, west-ward moving
currents were also dominated in the late October month, which depicts
the occurrence of coastal upwelling during this period. Even though
weak, northward moving currents were noticed in November and Fig. 12. Time-series variation of temperature, nitrate, phosphate, and silicate
December carrying low saline, oligotrophic waters from the Bay of in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam.
Bengal to the coastal observatory region (Fig. 15). The periodic changes
in the current pattern associated with biogeochemical features need to Episodic events are highly important in modifying the upper ocean
be understood with long-term datasets. biogeochemical properties and ecosystem structure. Though the sea­
The measurement by a suite of sensors moored in the coastal ob­ sonal variability in the physical and biogeochemical properties is rela­
servatory has given the opportunity to examine how episodic events tively well understood, however, the role of episodic events is absolutely
modify different biogeochemical properties in the coastal ocean. unclear. The coastal observatory could capture the mesoscale/

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

information on mixing patterns, pollutants inputs, and their impact on

the ecosystem. Due to harsh environments and high biological produc­
tion, the sensor quality may be degraded due to biofouling, resuspension
of sediments, and extreme atmospheric events. Therefore, it is manda­
tory to do routine calibration of sensors, clean, and set them up properly
on a regular basis. Further, organisms attaching to the sensors can
disrupt the data, so special measures like coatings and cleaning are used
to prevent this. Some sensors, especially those measuring inorganic
macronutrients, require more maintenance, including regular cleaning
and the use of specific chemicals. In the present case, the targeted ac­
curacy of measurements for nutrients using chemical methods was not
achieved; efforts are underway to improve this.
There is also a need to plan to handle the potential threats, including
theft, vandalism, and natural hazards. Collaboration with local author­
ities to ensure the safety of coastal observatories is essential. Addressing
these challenges in marine water quality observatories requires a
multidisciplinary approach involving scientists, engineers, data man­
agers, and policymakers. Regular assessment, adaptive management,
Fig. 13. Time-series variation of salinity, Chlorophyll-a, and dissolved oxygen
and collaboration with relevant stakeholders are essential for the
in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam.
continued success of marine observatories in providing valuable insights
into the state of our oceans and coastal areas. The ocean is constantly
changing, and it is challenging to distinguish between variability driven
by natural and anthropogenic forcing. To address this, long-term data
collection, along with satellite sensor data and numerical approaches,
are required.

4. Conclusion

INCOIS has put a first-of-kind initiative for the Indian coastal waters
towards autonomous measurement of physical, chemical, and biological
parameters using a moored-buoy-based water quality observatory and
web-based data visualization system. Data acquisition and its analysis
revealed the occurrence of hypoxic waters and their persistence on the
shelf off Kochi during the southwest monsoon period. Similarly, the
changes in biogeochemical processes in the coastal waters during heavy
river discharge periods and the incursion of the Arabian Sea’s high
salinity water were monitored through this observatory. In addition to
the real-time measured parameters, derived environmental parameters
add valuable insights to the understanding of ambient water quality.
Additionally, the augmentation of the remote sensing-based Algal Bloom
Information Service (ABIS) with real-time data from coastal observa­
tories enables an understanding of the consequences of algal bloom in
terms of water quality deterioration. Furthermore, data from coastal
observatories and near-real-time mapping by the ABIS over a large
spatial scale near the observatory deployment location can offer
insightful information for comprehending the dynamics of the bloom
Fig. 14. Time-series variation of salinity, pH, pCO2 (air and water), and dis­ and enhancing algal bloom prediction capabilities. This forms India’s
solved methane in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam. first marine Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS), providing real-
time information to stakeholders, including fishery resource managers,
atmospheric extreme events very well, and such events are difficult to tourists, tourism industries, ecologists, fishermen, researchers, and en­
study using ship-based observations. Continuing the measurements in vironmentalists. Taking advantage of high-frequency real-time mea­
the future may enable to measure the role of cyclones and depressions, surement efficacy, INCOIS-WQNS envisions monitoring long-term
which are common in the period of October to December, on biogeo­ changes in water quality parameters that will enable an understanding
chemical properties and trace gas fluxes associated with pollutant of the impacts of climate change and ecological response to natural and
release to the coastal ocean through surface runoff (Sarma et al., 2021; anthropogenic perturbations. Currently, WQNS acquires in situ data
Kumari et al., 2019). from two strategic locations, one along the east coast (Visakhapatnam)
and the other on the west (Kochi), through an autonomous moored-
3.4. Challenges and recommendations buoy-based observatory. The initial observations from the WQNS have
shown promising results, e.g., the alternating oxic and hypoxic regimes
Marine water quality observatories are required to examine the role that occur within a day in the coastal waters off Kochi during the
of anthropogenic impact on coastal ecosystems and to manage the sus­ monsoon season and the evidence of water mixing provided by the
tainable use of coastal resources. The physical, chemical, and biological signatures of decreasing temperature associated with the local de­
properties of coastal waters vary at the time scale of minutes to hours pressions in the coastal waters off Visakhapatnam. INCOIS envisages
due to atmospheric episodic events and tidal cycles. The ship/boat- expanding the WQNS network to cover other biogeochemical hotspots of
based observations cannot be able to capture such variabilities and the Indian coastal waters.
unmanned automated sensors can be able to give a wealth of

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T.M. Balakrishnan Nair et al. Journal of Environmental Management 354 (2024) 120477

Fig. 15. Time-series currents (U, V components) in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam.

CRediT authorship contribution statement interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
T.M. Balakrishnan Nair: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
original draft, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Formal Data availability
analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization, Supervision. V.V.S.S.
Sarma: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualiza­ The near real-time data from the Water Quality Nowcasting System is
tion, Validation, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal anal­ available for public monitoring at https://incois.gov.
ysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Aneesh A. Lotliker: Writing – in/portal/wqns/water_quality.jsp
original draft, Project administration, Investigation, Supervision,
Conceptualization. K.R. Muraleedharan: Writing – review & editing, Acknowledgements
Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Resources,
Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Alakes The authors wish to pay a posthumous tribute to the late Dr. Satya
Samanta: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visuali­ Prakash for his profound and enduring contributions to this research. Dr.
zation, Software, Resources, Methodology. Sanjiba Kumar Baliar­ Satya was an eminent scientist at the Indian National Centre for Ocean
singh: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Information Services (INCOIS). Although Dr. Satya Prakash is no longer
Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. S. Shivaprasad: Writing – with us, his work and insights continue to be a vital part of this study.
review & editing, Resources, Methodology, Project Administration. T.R. Specifically, Dr. Satya played a pivotal role in shaping the research di­
Gireeshkumar: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data rection, providing foundational knowledge and implementation plans
curation. Susmita Raulo: Writing - review & editing, Writing – original for India’s first marine Water Quality Nowcasting System. His expertise
draft, Visualization, Resources, Methodology. S.P. Vighneshwar: Soft­ and dedication were instrumental in guiding this research, and his
ware, Resources. R Venkat Shesu: Visualization, Software, Resources. absence is deeply felt. The authors also thank the Indian Coast Guard
Murali Krishna: Software, Resources. N. Kiran Kumar: Software, Re­ and port authorities of Kochi and Visakhapatnam for the necessary lo­
sources. R. Chandrasekhar Naik: Investigation, Formal analysis, Data gistics support. Thanks are also extended to the observatory deploy­
curation. Sudheer Joseph: Writing – review & editing, Writing – orig­ ment/recovery team. We also express our gratitude to Dr. M.
inal draft, Supervision, Project administration. K. Annapurnaiah: Su­ Ravichandran, Secretary, MoES, and Dr. S.S.C Shenoi, former Director,
pervision, Software, Resources. E. Pattabhi Rama Rao: Writing – INCOIS, for their continuous support to this programme. We sincerely
original draft, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition. thank the anonymous reviewers for their insightful suggestions that
T. Srinivasa Kumar: Writing – original draft, Supervision, Project helped to strengthen the manuscript. This is INCOIS contribution no.
administration, Funding acquisition, Supervision. 513 and NIO contribution no. 7202.

Declaration of competing interest Appendix A. Supplementary data

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.

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org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120477. Kumari, V.R., Sarma, V.V.S.S., Rao, G.D., Viswanadham, R., Navita, B., Srinivas, T.N.R.,
Krishna, M.S., Reddy, N.P.C., 2019. Modifications in the trace gases flux by a very
severe cyclonic storm, Hudhud, in the coastal Bay of Bengal. J. Earth Syst. Sci. 128,
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