Statistical Process Control

Introduction to Statistical Process Control

The Value SPC Can Add to Quality, Operations, Supply Chain Management,
and Continuous Improvement Programs
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Variation and What it Means to be in Control and Capable
Control Charts for Attributes
Introduction to Control Charts
Hands-on - Control Charts in Minitab -17
Basic Control Charts for Variables
Hands-on - Basic Control Charts for Variables in Minitab -17
Advanced Control Charts for Variables
Hands-on - Advanced Control Charts for Variables in Minitab -17
Control Charts for Attributes
Hands-on - Control Charts for Attributes in Minitab -17
Other control charts
Process Capability
Hands-on - Process Capability in Minitab -17
SPC in Service Sector/ Industries
Case Studies in SPC
Latest trends in SPC including AI
 Discussion Topics

• Proportion Defective Chart (p-chart)

‣ Examples
‣ Number Defective Chart (np-chart)
• Count Chart or Number of Nonconformities in a Fixed-Size Sample (c-chart)
‣ Count Chart for Nonconformities per Unit Where Sample Size May Vary (u-chart)

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 Introduction

• Charts for variables are continuous measurement information such as height,

weight, length, concentration, and pressure
• Charts for attributes are go or no-go or count information such as number of
defective units, the number of defects in a unit, the number of complaints received
from dissatisfied customers, and the number of patients whose meals were
delivered more than 15 minutes late
• Control charts for variables are generally based on normal distribution whereas
control charts for attributes are based in different distributions
• Theory behind both types of charts and signals that indicate an out-of-control
condition are the same

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 Introduction

• While charts for attributes generally contain count data, it is important to clearly
define what is being counted - to select the right chart
‣ Count of Defective Products (a product that cannot be sold or delivered as is
because it does not meet the required specifications) use n-chart and p-chart
‣ Count of Non-conformities or defects (A product may have a theoretically infinite
number of defects. Whether the presence of defects renders the product
nonconforming is determined by the specifications. There may be a limit to the
number of minor defects that are allowed in a product before it is rendered as
nonconforming) use c-chart and u-chart
• The distinction between a defective (nonconforming) product and a defect (a
nonconformity) is key to selecting the appropriate control chart
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 p-chart

• Evaluates stability of a process in terms of the

percentage (or proportion) of the total number of units
in a sample in which a defect occurs
• Binomial distribution is the basis for the p-chart
• Often used when large quantities of product are
produced relatively quickly. E.g, an injection molding
process, which produces small parts with short cycle
times in multiple cavity molds
• It can combine multiple KQCs using just one chart - Interesting Reading
Attributes Control Charts with Large Sample Sizes
however information about specific KQCs is not https://doi.org/10.1080/00224065.1996.11979703
preserved
• Requires large sample sizes 5
a.k.a. percent chart, a fraction nonconforming chart, a fraction defective chart, proportion defective chart
•
 p-chart for fixed sample size - Example
An injection molding operation was producing a plastic boot that covers the end of an The implementation team made sure that the process was set up as designed and took
electronics cable. The parts were produced automatically on a large molding machine using a 25 samples over the course of three shifts of production. They used the data from these
50-cavity mold with a short molding cycle. Many thousands of these parts were produced samples to construct the trial control chart (below). The process was shown to be in
during each hour of production. There are a number of attributes that must be inspected for. control and SPC was instituted as the standard operating procedure (SOP) for this
A problem with any one attribute renders the part nonconforming. Typically, the company process using the control limits established during the trial period. About two months
considered each shift’s production to be a lot and evaluated each lot using an acceptance later, the implementation team revisited the process and found that SPC was working
sampling plan. The major disadvantage of this plan is that problems that occur early in a shift as designed and that all expectations were being achieved.
are not detected until well into the next shift. Since a rejected lot must be inspected 100
percent (which was considered to be rework), considerable extra cost can be incurred as a
result of failing to identify a problem as early as possible.
This process was chosen as the organization’s pilot study for the implementation of
statistical process control (SPC). The implementation team decided to sample the process
four times per shift using a sample size of 200 with immediate inspection of the sample units.
The results of the inspection would be recorded on a p-chart. The expectations for this SPC
implementation were:

• Quicker recognition of process problems so that corrective can be taken more quickly with
the result of fewer defective parts produced
• A savings in inspection costs since the SPC sampling plan would require the inspection of
800 units per shift compared with the 1250 units per shift under the acceptance sampling
plan
• A savings in rework costs since the number of units subject to 100 percent inspection if a
process problem is found would be about one quarter as many as with the acceptance
sampling plan. This is because in this case we sample the output four times as often using
SPC as with acceptance sampling so the number of items produced before a problem is
detected is one-fourth as many as with acceptance sampling
• Reduced product variation, which should manifest as better quality as perceived by the 6
customer
 p-chart for variable sample size - Example

A manufacturing company uses an automated system to apply labels to its

products. Each labeled product is inspected using a pixel camera system,
which detects any missing, crooked, or torn labels and removes the
mislabeled product from the process flow. The inspection system
automatically logs the number of units inspected and the number of units
rejected. This allows the calculation of the proportion of the units inspected
that are nonconforming. These data are plotted hourly on a p-chart. Since the
number of units inspected per hour varies, the control limits for the control
chart must be adjusted based on the sample size. Control chart shows that
the process is out of control because sample 25 is above UCL.
The first action the company took was to determine the root cause for the
out-of-control point. They then took appropriate corrective action, followed
by taking a new sample to verify that the corrective action brought the
process back into control.
The company also periodically reviews the control chart to determine how
well the process is meeting expectations. The CL on this control chart is
0.05251, indicating that more than 5 percent of the labeled units are
nonconforming. The organization in this case was not satisfied with this level
of nonconforming product and initiated a planned improvement project with
the goal of reducing the mean number of nonconforming labels produced by
the process. 7
 np-chart (Number-Defective Chart)

Number

N-p chart
• A variation of p-chart that uses number instead proportion, Thus, constant sample size must be used
• Advantage over p-chart is that direct numbers are more easily understood by operators than proportions

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Data for charts same as p-chart for fixed sample size example
 c-chart and u-chart

• c-chart and u-chart are normally used for relatively complex products where a single
defect does not render the whole product defective. For example, a 1 sq-m plastic
sheet will not be declared defective if it has 1 or 2 small bubbles. However, you may
have a pre-set limit/ standard (for example 10 small bubbles, or 5 large bubbles, or a
combination etc) which renders the product defective/ unusable
• c-chart is used for fixed sample size whereas u-chart is used for variable sample sizes
(for example - if all sheets of plastic are 1 sq-m, c-chart will be used, if sheets have
different sizes, u-chart will be used)
• Poisson distribution is the basis for c-chart and u-chart

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 np-chart vs c-chart - Example

Each automobile moving off the end of the assembly line is hand inspected for
Sample # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
minor defects in the paint finish. The specification allows a maximum of eight
minor defects per automobile. More than eight minor defects render the # of defects 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
automotive finish nonconforming or defective. The results of recent
inspections are shown in the table.
Note that while there is a clear trend of increasing numbers of defects in the
samples over time, none of the samples would be considered to be
nonconforming until the 10th sample. When plotted on an np-chart, samples 1
through 9 would plot as zero defectives, indicating no significant variation in
the process. In fact, the process appears to be absolutely stable with zero
defective paint finishes until point 10. Clearly the np-chart does not accurately
depict the real state of control of the process.
The correct control chart to use in this situation is the c-chart. The c-chart,
shown in the figure shows that the process is out of control at point 8 using the
“8 points in a row on a rising trend” run rule. The c-chart clearly shows that the
process is deteriorating over time. The out-of-control signal at point 8 is
received before we exceed the specification limit of eight minor defects, which
provides time to investigate and correct the problem before we have produced
a defective finish. While this is a contrived example, it clearly illustrates the
importance of selecting the correct control chart for the job. When counting
non- conformities (defects) in samples of fixed size, the c-chart is the correct
control chart to use. 10
 u-chart - Example

The manufacturer of coated polyester film uses an automatic inspec- tion process to
identify defects in the coating. The specific location of these defects is automatically
recorded so that the manufacturer knows exactly where within the run the defects
are located. Each hour, the number of defects is recorded along with the length of
the coated product produced in linear feet. Data for 16 hours of production are
contained in the table.

Since we are tracking defects and sample size varies, the correct control chart to use
in this situation is the u-chart. The u-chart, shown in the figure, indicates that the
process is in control. Notice that the UCL and LCL vary as a result of adjustments due
to variations in sample size. When counting nonconformities (defects) in samples of
variable size, the u-chart is the correct control chart to use.

The manufacturer was not happy with the level of defects in the coated rolls. The CL
on the u-chart is 0.002577835, indicating that there are approximately 0.00258
defects per linear foot. Based on the information on the u-chart in the figure, the
manufacturer recognized that the process was in control—operating as currently
designed. So a project to improve the process was initiated with a goal of reducing
the number of defects per linear foot by 25 percent within three months.
Sample # 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

# of defects 27 17 16 24 22 28 19 26 24 21 25 19 20 26 28 19
Linear feet produced 9250 8100 8500 8900 8650 9040 8750 9100 9200 8850 7250 8850 8750 8950 8800 9100 11
Summary

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Questions?