UNIT-1

SOFT COMPUTING TECHNIQUES

 INTRODUCTION

 APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENT CONTROL

 ARCHITECTURE FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL

 SYMBOLIC REASONING SYSTEM

 RULE-BASED SYSTEMS

 AI APPROACH

 KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION

 EXPERT SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE:

• Artificial Intelligence is one of the booming technologies of computer science which is ready to
create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines.

• It is currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging from general to specific, such as self-
driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music, Painting, etc.

• Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made
thinking power”

• AI is a branch of computer science that focuses on building intelligent machines that function and
respond just like people. Machines, particularly computer systems, simulate human intelligence
processes in this process. These include learning (acquiring knowledge and rules for using it),
reasoning (using rules to arrive at approximate conclusions), and self-correction, behave like a
human, think like humans, and able to make decisions

• AI and machine learning have numerous applications in fields such as healthcare, finance,
transportation, and entertainment, among others. As the amount of data available continues to
grow, and computational power and algorithms continue to improve, the potential for AI and
machine learning to solve complex problems and improve our lives continues to expand.

• Real intelligence is what determines the normal thought process of a human.

• Artificial intelligence is a property of machines which gives it ability to mimic the human thought
process.

• AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a great scope in
future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.

• Artificial Intelligence is concerned with the design of intelligence in an artificial device. The term
was coined by McCarthy in 1956.

WHY AI:

• With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world problems
very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.

• With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google
Assistant, Siri, etc.

• With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where survival
of humans can be at risk.

• AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.

GOALS OF AI:

1. Replicate human intelligence

2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks

3. An intelligent connection of perception and action

4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:

1. Proving a theorem

2. Playing chess

3. Plan some surgical operation

4. Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user

• Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and requires lots of
other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we should know that how
intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a
combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding,
etc.
 SUBSETS OF AI:

o Machine Learning

o Deep Learning

o Natural Language processing

o Expert System

o Robotics

o Machine Vision

o Speech Recognition

ADVANTA
GES OF AI:

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:

• High Accuracy with less errors: One of the biggest achievements of Artificial Intelligence is that
it can reduce human error. Unlike humans, a computer machine can't make mistakes if
programmed correctly, while humans make mistakes from time to time. Therefore, Artificial
Intelligence uses some set of algorithms by gathering previously stored data, reducing the chances
of error and increasing the accuracy and precision of any task. Hence, Artificial Intelligence helps
to solve complex problems that require difficult calculations and can be done without any error.

• High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of that AI
systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game. Unlike humans, a machine helps to take
decisions faster than a human and carry out actions quicker. While taking a decision, humans
analyze many factors while the machine works on what it is programmed and delivers the results
faster. The best example of the faster decision can be seen in an online chess game in the third
 level. It is impossible to beat a computer machine because it takes the best possible step in a very
short time, according to the algorithms used behind it.

• High reliability: We perform so many repetitive works in our day-to-day life, such as automatic
replies to emails, sending birthday and anniversary quotes and verifying documents, etc.
Therefore, Artificial Intelligence (AI) helps to automate the business by performing these
repetitive jobs.

• Useful for risky areas: It is also one of the biggest advantages of Artificial Intelligence. The
technology of developing AI Robots can overcome many risky limitations of humans and do risky
things for us such as defusing a bomb, oil and coal mining and exploring the deepest part of the
ocean, etc. So, it helps in any worst situation, either human or natural disasters too. AI Robots can
be used in such situations where intervention can be hazardous.

• Daily Application: Now, we are all completely dependent on mobile and the internet for our daily
routine. We use several applications like Google map, Alexa, Apple's Siri, Window's Cortana,
OK Google, taking a selfie, making a phone call, replying to a mail, etc. Further, we can also
predict the weather for today and upcoming days with the help of various AI-based methods.

• Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving car
which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security purpose, Natural
language processing to communicate with the human in human-language, etc.

• 24X7 Support: Unlike humans, a computer does not require breaks and refreshers. A normal
human can continue work till 8-9 hours, including breaks and refreshers, while a computer
machine can work 24x7 without any breaks and don't even get bored, unlike humans. Chatbots
and helpline centres can be seen as the best example of 24/7 support of various websites
continuously engaged in receiving customers queries and automatically resolved by Artificial
Intelligence.

• New Inventions: For new inventions, AI is helping humans almost in each sector, it can be
healthcare, medical, educational, sports, technology, entertainment or research industry etc. Using
advanced AI-based technologies, doctors can predict various dangerous diseases like cancer at a
very early stage.

• Digital Assistance: Digital Assistance is one of the most powerful methods that help various
highly advanced organizations to interact with users without engaged human resources. Digital
Assistance helps users by gathering previous users queries and providing solutions that users
want. The best example of digital Assistance can be seen on various websites in the form of
chatbot support. A user asks something, and the computer machine provides relevant information
 like banking, education, travel, and ticket booking sites. Some chatbots are designed so that it's
become hard to determine whether we're chatting with a chatbot or a human being.

DISADVANTAGES OF AI:

• High Cost: We are living in a technological world where we have to manipulate ourselves
according to society. Similarly, a computer machine also requires time to time software and
hardware updates to meet the latest requirements. Hence, AI also need repairing and maintenance,
which need plenty of costs.

• Risk of unemployment: A robot is one of the implementations of Artificial intelligence, and it is

replacing jobs and leading to serve unemployment (In some cases). Hence, according to some
people, there is always a risk of unemployment because of robots and chatbots instead of humans.
For example, in some more technology-oriented countries such as Japan, robots are widely used in
manufacturing industries to replace human resources. However, this is not always the truth
because as it replaces humans to enhance efficiency, it is also making more jobs opportunities for
humans.

• Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they cannot
work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained, or
programmed.

• No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does not
have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and may
sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.

• Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are getting more
dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.

• Increasing human’s Laziness: The new inventions of Artificial Intelligence are making humans
lazier towards their work, resulting in humans being completely dependent on machines and
robots. If this continues for more upcoming years, then our next generations will become entirely
dependent on a machine, resulting in further unemployment and health issues.

• Emotionless: We have always learned since childhood that computers or machines don't have
emotions. Humans work like a team, and team management is a key factor for completing a target.
However, there is no doubt that machines are much better when working efficiently, but it is also
true that they never replace the human's connection that makes the team.

• No Original Creativity: The biggest disadvantage of Artificial Intelligence is its lack of

creativity. Artificial Intelligence is a technology that is completely based on pre-loaded data.
 However, Artificial Intelligence can learn over time with this pre-fed data and past experiences,
but it cannot be creative like humans.

• No Ethics: Ethics and morality are the two most important features of humans, but it isn't easy to
incorporate both of these into Artificial Intelligence. AI is rapidly increasing uncontrollably in
each sector, so if this continues for the upcoming decades, it may eventually wipe out humanity.

• No improvement: Artificial Intelligence is a technology completely based on pre-loaded data and

experience, so it cannot be improved as human. It can perform the same task repeatedly, but if you
want some improvement and changes, you have to change the command for the same. However, it
can store unlimited data that humans cannot, but also it cannot be accessed and used like human
intelligence.

APPLICATIONS OF AI:

AI in Astronomy
o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI technology can
be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin, etc.

AI in Healthcare

o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry and
going to have a significant impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans. AI can
help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that medical help can
reach to the patient before hospitalization.

AI in Gaming

o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess, where
the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
AI in Finance

o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine learning
into financial processes.

AI in Data Security

o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very rapidly in
the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure. Some examples such as
AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to determine software bug and cyber-attacks in a better way.

AI in social media

o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user profiles,
which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize and manage
massive amounts of data. AI can analyse lots of data to identify the latest trends, hashtag, and
requirement of different users.

AI in Travel & Transport

o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various travel
related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels, flights, and best
routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots which can make human-
like interaction with customers for better and fast response.

AI in Automotive Industry

o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for better
performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make your
journey more safe and secure.

AI in Robotics:

o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are programmed
such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we can create intelligent
robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid robot
named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like humans.
AI in Entertainment

o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some entertainment
services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms, these services show the
recommendations for programs or shows.

AI in Agriculture

o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best result.
Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field. Agriculture is
applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive analysis. AI in
agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.

AI in E-commerce

o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more

demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated products
with recommended size, color, or even brand.

AI in education:

o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be accessible easily
at any time and any place.

INTRODUCTION TO SOFT COMPUTING

COMPUTING:

Computation is a process of converting the input of one form to some other desired output form using
certain control actions.

There are 2 types of computing:

1) Hard computing
2) Soft computing

Hard computing uses traditional mathematical methods to solve problems, such as algorithms and
mathematical models. It is based on deterministic and precise calculations and is ideal for solving
problems that have well-defined mathematical solutions.

SOFT COMPUTING(Computational Intelligence):

• L.A.Zadeh coined the term of soft computing in 1980s

• Human mind is a role model for soft computing.

• Soft computing uses techniques such as fuzzy logic, neural networks, genetic algorithms, and
other heuristic methods to solve problems. It is based on the idea of approximation and is ideal
for solving problems that are difficult or impossible to solve exactly.

• These algorithms are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation.

• Soft computing is the reverse of hard (conventional) computing.

• It provides precise approximation, cost-effective and quick solutions to the complex real-life
problems for which hard computing solution does not exist.

• Soft Computing is the study of science of reasoning, thinking, analyzing and detecting that
correlates the real-world problems to the biological inspired methods.

• These Intelligent systems are supposed to possess humanlike expertise within a specific domain,
adapt themselves and learn to do better in changing environments, and explain how they make
decisions or take actions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SC:

o Soft computing provides an approximate but precise solution for real-life problems.
o The algorithms of soft computing are adaptive, so the current process is not affected by any kind
of change in the environment.

o The concept of soft computing is based on learning from experimental data. It means that soft
computing does not require any mathematical model to solve the problem.

o Soft computing helps users to solve real-world problems by providing approximate results that
conventional and analytical models cannot solve.

o It is based on Fuzzy logic, genetic algorithms, machine learning, ANN, and expert systems.

ADVANTAGES OF SC:

1. Robustness: Soft computing techniques are robust and can handle uncertainty, imprecision,
and noise in data, making them ideal for solving real-world problems.
2. Approximate solutions: Soft computing techniques can provide approximate solutions to
complex problems that are difficult or impossible to solve exactly.
3. Non-linear problems: Soft computing techniques such as fuzzy logic and neural networks
can handle non-linear problems effectively.
4. Human-like reasoning: Soft computing techniques are designed to mimic human-like
reasoning, which is often more effective in solving complex problems.
5. Real-time applications: Soft computing techniques can provide real-time solutions to
complex problems, making them ideal for use in real-time applications.
DISADVANTAGES OF SC:

1. Approximate solutions: soft computing techniques provide approximate solutions, which

may not always be accurate.
2. Computationally intensive: soft computing techniques can be computationally intensive,
making them unsuitable for use in some real-time applications.
3. Lack of transparency: soft computing techniques can sometimes lack transparency, making it
difficult to understand how the solution was arrived at.
4. Difficulty in validation: The approximation techniques used in soft computing can
sometimes make it difficult to validate the results, leading to a lack of confidence in the
solution.
5. Complexity: Soft computing techniques can be complex and difficult to understand, making
it difficult to implement them effectively.
APPLICATIONS OF SC:

o It is widely used in gaming products like Poker and Checker.

o Our everyday appliances such as Microwave and Rice cooker, Washing Machine, Heater,
Refrigerator, and AC are becoming smart because of Artificial intelligence, machine learning
 and fuzzy logic. They not only communicate with the user about their usage but they can also
adjust their settings according to the workload at that very moment.

o Apart from all these usages, it is also used in Robotics work. This is one of the very upcoming
fields to use soft computing’s fuzzy logic and expert systems techniques. It helps manage
industries efficiently in production and inventory management.

o Image processing and Data compression are also popular applications of soft computing.

o Used for handwriting recognition.

o Communication requires a very dynamic environment. Soft computing uses an artificial neural
network and fuzzy logic to determine when there is a sudden surge in demand and accordingly
allocates resources for that particular node and save the cost through reduced usage of bandwidth.

o In transportation right from the production of cars in the factory to be on the road for navigation,
traffic prediction, troubleshooting and diagnostics of the car fuzzy logic and evolutionary
computing are widely used.

o In healthcare, one wrong decision can result in loss of lives or permanent damage to the patients.
But soft computing uses a group of its various logic and found to be quite accurate in terms of
diagnosis and results. Doctors are increasingly turning towards soft computing to diagnose the
patient’s illness from the symptoms accurately. Moreover, early diagnosis of critical diseases has
also helped save numerous lives.

ELEMENTS OF SC:

• Soft computing is viewed as a foundation component for an emerging field of conceptual

intelligence. Fuzzy Logic (FL), Machine Learning (ML), Neural Network (NN), Probabilistic
Reasoning (PR), and Evolutionary Computation (EC) are the supplements of soft computing.

• Soft Computing: Soft Computing could be a computing model evolved to resolve the non-
linear issues that involve unsure, imprecise and approximate solutions of a tangle. These sorts of
issues square measure thought of as real-life issues wherever the human-like intelligence is
needed to resolve it.

The three types of techniques used by soft computing:

  Fuzzy Logic (for knowledge representation via fuzzy If – Then rules)

 Artificial Neural Network (ANN) (for learning and adaptation)

 Genetic Algorithms (for evolutionary computation)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOFT COMPUTING AND HARD COMPUTING:

S.NO Soft Computing Hard Computing

Soft Computing is liberal of inexactness, Hard computing needs a exactly state analytic
1.
uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. model.

Soft Computing relies on fuzzy logic and Hard computing relies on binary logic and
2.
probabilistic reasoning. crisp system.

Soft computing has the features of Hard computing has the features of
3.
approximation and dispositionality. exactitude(precision) and categoricity.

4. Soft computing is stochastic in nature. Hard computing is deterministic in nature.

Soft computing works on ambiguous and

5. Hard computing works on exact data.
noisy data.

Soft computing can perform parallel Hard computing performs sequential

6.
computations. computations.

Soft computing produces approximate

7. Hard computing produces precise results.
results.

Soft computing will emerge its own Hard computing requires programs to be
8.
programs. written.

9. Soft computing incorporates randomness . Hard computing is settled.

10. Soft computing will use multivalued logic. Hard computing uses two-valued logic.
S.NO Soft Computing Hard Computing

11 Takes less computational time. Takes more computational time.

Neural Networks such as Madaline, Adaline, Any numerical problem or traditional methods
12
Art Networks of solving using personal computers.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AI AND SOFT COMPUTING:

S.No. A.I. SOFT COMPUTING

Artificial Intelligence is the art and science of Soft Computing aims to exploit tolerance for
1
developing intelligent machines. uncertainty, imprecision, and partial truth.

AI plays a fundamental role in finding

Soft Computing comprises techniques which are
2 missing pieces between the interesting real-
inspired by human reasoning.
world problems.

Branches of AI: Branches of soft computing:

1. Reasoning 1. Fuzzy systems
3
2. Perception 2. Evolutionary computation
3. Natural language processing 3. Artificial neural computing

AI has countless applications in healthcare They are used in science and engineering
4 and widely used in analysing complicated disciplines such as data mining, electronics,
medical data. automotive, etc.

Goal is to stimulate human-level intelligence It aims at accommodation with the pervasive

5
in machines. imprecision of the real world.

They do not require all programs to be written,

6 They require programs to be written.
they can evolve its own programs.

7 They require exact input sample. They can deal with ambiguous and noisy data.

Artificial Intelligence mainly deals with Soft computing mainly deals with the
8
making the machines intelligent. imprecision and probabilities.
S.No. A.I. SOFT COMPUTING

AI is also used to solve problems that is at the

human level like pattern identification, Soft computing solves the complicated real-
9 problem resolution, plan execution, world situations to bring better solutions that
automating analytical jobs, detecting some researchers cannot quantitatively describe.
efficiencies and performance enhancement.

APPROACHES TO INTELLIGENT CONTROL

CLASSICAL CONTROL (NORMAL CONTROL):

Open loop control system:

 Signal is sent to plant in order to make it move to a certain position.

 No Feedback to tell if the target has been reached

Control loop control system:

 Output of the plant is feedback to the input side.

 Error between input and output is applied to a controller which then controls the plant.

INTELLIGENT CONTROL:

 The term Intelligent control was coined in the 70's by K.S. Fu.

 Intelligent control describes the discipline where control methods are developed that attempt to
emulate important characteristics of human intelligence.

 Intelligent control is a class of control techniques that use various artificial

intelligence computing approaches like neural networks, Bayesian probability, fuzzy
logic, machine learning, reinforcement learning, evolutionary computation and genetic algorithms
 CLASSICAL CONTROL INTELLIGENT CONTROL
Mathematical Modeling - Abstract Modeling - Designer input the
Basic Concept Designer designed the system behavior to the system and then system
which includes system dynamics attempt to abstractly define the system
Need to know prior information Does not need to know all about the
about the system dynamics system dynamics and conditions
Characteristics Suitable for system that can be Appropriate for complex system
easily model
Open loop system Fuzzy logic
Closed loop system ArtificialNeural Networks
Examplesof System modelling Genetic Algorithm
Methods Support Vector machine
Swarm Intelligence
Particle Intelligence
Characteristics of IC:

1) Adaptation and Learning

2) Autonomy and Intelligence

3) Structures and Hierarchies

4) planning under large uncertainty and

5) coping with large amounts of data

Applications of IC:

1) Space System and Robotics

2) Manufacturing Systems

3) Aircraft and Spacecraft

4) Healthcare

5) Consumer product

Approaches of Intelligent Control:

The Sub domains in intelligent Control:

1) Neural Network control

2) Bayesian control

3) Fuzzy control
4) Machine Control

5) Genetic control

6) Intelligent Agents (cognitive or conscious control)

7) Reconfigurable Control

8) Reinforcement Learning

9) Expert System

10) Neuro-fuzzy control

Intelligent control system is an automatic control technology that can autonomously drive intelligent
machines to achieve control goals without human intervention. For many complex systems, it is
difficult to establish an effective mathematical model and use conventional control theory for
quantitative calculation and analysis, and a control method that combines quantitative and qualitative
methods must be used.

FUZZY LOGIC:

• Fuzzy Logic (FL) is a method of reasoning that resembles human reasoning. This concept was
introduced by Lofti Zadeh in 1965 based on the Fuzzy Set Theory. This concept provides the
possibilities which are not given by computers, but similar to the range of possibilities generated
by humans.

• The conventional logic block that a computer can understand takes precise input and produces a
definite output as TRUE or FALSE, which is equivalent to human’s YES or NO.

• In the Boolean system, only two possibilities (0 and 1) exist, where 1 denotes the absolute truth
value and 0 denotes the absolute false value. But in the fuzzy system, there are multiple
possibilities present between the 0 and 1, which are partially false and partially true.

 CERTAINLY YES

 POSSIBLY YES

 CANNOT SAY

 POSSIBLY NO

 CERTAINLY NO

• In the real world there exists much fuzzy knowledge, that is, knowledge which is vague,
imprecise, uncertain, ambiguous, inexact, or probabilistic in nature.
• The computing systems, based upon classical set theory and two-valued logic, cannot answer to
some questions, as human does, because they do not have completely true answers.

• Fuzzy Set theory is an extension of classical set theory where elements have degrees of
membership.

• A Fuzzy Set is any set that allows its members to have different degree of membership, called
membership function, in the interval [0, 1].

• A in fuzzy set A, defined in the universal space X, X which assumes values in the range [0, 1].

• A fuzzy set A is written as a set of pairs {x, A(x)} as A = {{x, A(x)}}, x in the set X where x is an
element of the universal space X, and A(x) is the value of the function A for this element.

• The value A(x) is the membership grade of the element x in a fuzzy set A.
• The Fuzzy logic can be implemented in systems such as micro-controllers, workstation-based or
large network-based systems for achieving the definite output. It can also be implemented in both
hardware or software.

Characteristics Of Fuzzy Logic:

• Following are the characteristics of fuzzy logic:

1. This concept is flexible and we can easily understand and implement it.

2. It is used for helping the minimization of the logics created by the human.

3. It is the best method for finding the solution of those problems which are suitable for approximate
or uncertain reasoning.

4. It always offers two values, which denote the two possible solutions for a problem and statement.

5. It allows users to build or create the functions which are non-linear of arbitrary complexity.

6. In fuzzy logic, everything is a matter of degree.

7. In the Fuzzy logic, any system which is logical can be easily fuzzified.

8. It is based on natural language processing.

9. It is also used by the quantitative analysts for improving their algorithm's execution.

10. It also allows users to integrate with the programming.

Membership Function:

• The membership function is a function which represents the graph of fuzzy sets, and allows
users to quantify the linguistic term. It is a graph which is used for mapping each element of x to
the value between 0 and 1.

• This function is also known as indicator or characteristics function.

• This function of Membership was introduced in the first papers of fuzzy set by Zadeh. For the
Fuzzy set B, the membership function for X is defined as: μ B:X → [0,1]. In this function X, each
element of set B is mapped to the value between 0 and 1. This is called a degree of membership or
membership value.

Fuzzy Set:

• The set theory of classical is the subset of Fuzzy set theory. Fuzzy logic is based on this theory,
which is a generalisation of the classical theory of set (i.e., crisp set) introduced by Zadeh in 1965.

• A fuzzy set is a collection of values which exist between 0 and 1. Fuzzy sets are denoted or
represented by the tilde (~) character. The sets of Fuzzy theory were introduced in 1965 by Lofti
 A. Zadeh and Dieter Klaua. In the fuzzy set, the partial membership also exists. This theory
released as an extension of classical set theory.

• This theory is denoted mathematically as A fuzzy set (Ã) is a pair of U and M, where U is the
Universe of discourse and M is the membership function which takes on values in the interval [ 0,
1]. The universe of discourse (U) is also denoted by Ω or X

NEURAL NETWORK:

 A neural network is a system composed of many simple processing elements operating in

parallel whose function is determined by network structure, connection strengths, and the
processing performed at computing elements or nodes.
 They are physical cellular systems which can acquire, store, and utilize experiential
knowledge.
 ANN perform classification, data mining and prediction process and easily manage the noisy
input data by categorizing it into the groups or mapping to an expected output.
 For example, it is used in the image and character recognition, business forecasting where the
patterns are learnt from the data sets and a model is created to recognize these patterns.

GENETIC ALGORITHM:

 Genetic Algorithms and evolutionary techniques are employed to solve the optimization
and designs related problems where an optimal solution can be recognized but no
predefined correct answer would be provided.
 The real-life applications of the genetic algorithm which uses heuristic search techniques
are robotics, automotive design, optimized telecommunication routing, biometric
invention, and so on.
 ARCHITECTURE FOR INTELLIGENT CONTROL:

The Architecture of an intelligent control system typically integrates various computational techniques to
handle complex, dynamic, and uncertain environments. Here's an overview of its main components:

1. Sensors and Actuators

Sensors: Collect data from the environment, including physical parameters like temperature, pressure,
motion, etc.

Actuators: Execute control commands to manipulate the environment or system being controlled.

2. Preprocessing and Signal Conditioning

Converts raw sensor data into a suitable format for further processing.

May include filtering, noise reduction, and normalization.

3. Knowledge Base

Stores domain-specific knowledge, including rules, models, and historical data.

Can include databases of past experiences, rules for decision-making, or models of the system.

4. Inference Engine
 • Processes inputs using the knowledge base to make decisions.

• Typically uses techniques such as fuzzy logic, expert systems, neural networks, or other soft
computing methods.

• Generates control signals based on current and past states, and predefined rules or learned models.

5. Decision-Making System

• Evaluates the outputs of the inference engine.

• Incorporates optimization algorithms, to select the best action.

• May involve multi-criteria decision-making processes.

6. Learning System

• Enables the system to adapt over time.

• Utilizes machine learning algorithms to update the knowledge base and inference engine.

• Can implement techniques such as reinforcement learning, supervised learning, or unsupervised

learning.

7. Control Execution

• Translates decisions into commands that are sent to the actuators.

• May include real-time monitoring and adjustment to ensure accuracy and stability.

8. Human-Machine Interface (HMI)

• Allows human operators to interact with the system.

• Provides visualization, control inputs, and feedback on system performance.

9. Communication Network

• Facilitates data exchange between different components of the system.

• Ensures synchronization and real-time control across distributed systems.

10. Feedback Loop

• Continuously monitors the system’s performance and environmental changes.

• Adjusts the control strategies based on feedback to maintain desired outcomes.

• This architecture is modular, allowing different components to be tailored to specific applications,

such as robotics, autonomous vehicles, industrial automation, or smart grids. The integration of
various AI techniques makes it possible for the system to operate effectively in complex,
uncertain, and dynamic environments.

There are 2 categories of components:

1) Software elements:
 Knowledge Base----similar to a data base, stores rules and relationships between
the data elements.
 Inference Engine----is the processing (program) element. Performs reasoning using
knowledge base content and inputs.
 Knowledge base manager----resource and consistency management of the
knowledge base and relationships between knowledge items.
2) Users:
 Knowledge Engineer----design, implement, verify and validate the system
 User----person or (process/plant/device) that connects to the inference engine

• Intelligent systems are usually described by analogies with biological systems by, for example,
looking at how human beings perform control tasks, recognize patterns, or make decisions,
planning actions at different levels, learning from past experience, identifying changes against
the system behaviour, such as performance degradation, failures, cross-coupling and then
reacting appropriately.

• Therefore, intelligent control techniques are important for dealing with complex systems under
such a new paradigm.

• Such area is a fusion of systems and control, computer science and operations research.
 SYMBOLIC REASONING SYSTEM

Symbolic Artificial Intelligence, also known as Good Old-Fashioned AI (GOFAI), uses human-
readable symbols that represent real-world entities or concepts as well as logic (the
mathematically provable logical methods) in order to create ‘rules’ for the concrete manipulation
of those symbols, leading to a rule-based system.

Symbolic AI involves the explicit embedding of human knowledge and behavior rules into
computer programs.

The role of symbols in artificial intelligence

Symbols are things we use to represent other things. Symbols play a vital role in the human
thought and reasoning process. If I tell you that I saw a cat up in a tree, your mind will quickly
conjure an image.

We use symbols all the time to define things (cat, car, airplane, etc.) and people (teacher, police,
salesperson). Symbols can represent abstract concepts (bank transaction) or things that don’t
physically exist (web page, blog post, etc.). They can also describe actions (running) or states
(inactive). Symbols can be organized into hierarchies (a car is made of doors, windows, tires,
seats, etc.). They can also be used to describe other symbols (a cat with fluffy ears, a red carpet,
etc.).

Being able to communicate in symbols is one of the main things that make us intelligent.
Therefore, symbols have also played a crucial role in the creation of artificial intelligence.

Symbolic Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a subfield of AI that focuses on the processing and
manipulation of symbols or concepts, rather than numerical data. The goal of Symbolic AI is to
build intelligent systems that can reason and think like humans by representing and manipulating
knowledge and reasoning based on logical rules.

Symbolic AI algorithms work by processing symbols, which represent objects or concepts in the
world, and their relationships. The main approach in Symbolic AI is to use logic-based
programming, where rules and axioms are used to make inferences and deductions.

In a nutshell, symbolic AI involves the explicit embedding of human knowledge and behaviour
rules into computer programs.

The basis for intelligent mathematical software is the integration of the "power of symbolic
mathematical tools" with the suitable "proof technology".
 How Symbolic AI differs from other AI Techniques

Symbolic AI differs from other AI techniques, such as machine learning and deep learning, in
that it does not require vast amounts of training data. Instead, Symbolic AI is based on knowledge
representation and reasoning, making it more suitable for domains where knowledge is well-
defined and can be represented in logical rules.

Machine learning, on the other hand, requires large datasets to learn patterns and make
predictions. Deep learning uses neural networks to learn features directly from data, making it
suitable for domains with complex and unstructured data.

When to use each technique depends on the problem domain and available data. Symbolic AI is
suitable for domains with well-defined and structured knowledge, while machine learning and
deep learning are suitable for domains with large amounts of data and complex patterns.

What are the Benefits of Symbolic AI?

Symbolic AI has several advantages, including:

 Interpretability: Symbolic AI provides transparency in the reasoning process, making it easier to

understand how a system arrived at a conclusion.

 Knowledge representation: Symbolic AI can represent complex knowledge in a formal and

structured way, allowing for easy manipulation and reasoning.

 Flexibility: Symbolic AI is highly flexible and can be adapted to different domains by modifying
the rules and knowledge base.

What are the Limitations of Symbolic AI?

Symbolic AI has some limitations, including:

 Incomplete knowledge: Symbolic AI requires complete and well-defined knowledge to function

correctly. In domains where knowledge is incomplete, Symbolic AI may not be effective.

 Scalability: Symbolic AI can become computationally expensive as the number of symbols and
rules increases, making it difficult to scale to large domains.

 Difficulty with handling uncertain or ambiguous information: Symbolic AI relies on precise

and unambiguous representations of knowledge, limiting its ability to reason effectively with
uncertain or ambiguous data.
 Limited ability to learn and adapt: Symbolic AI systems require manual programming and may
not allow for real-time learning and adaptation.

RULE BASED SYSTEMS

 Rule-based systems are one of the earliest and most well-established types of AI.

• A rule-based system is a system that applies human-made rules to store, sort and manipulate data.
In doing so, it mimics human intelligence.

• A rule-based system in artificial intelligence is a type of expert system that uses a set of
predefined rules to make decisions or provide solutions to problems. These rules are derived from
the knowledge of human experts in a particular domain, which are then codified into a set of rules
that the system can use to reason about new situations.
• This type of system is often used in applications that require the ability to reason with complex,
uncertain or incomplete information, such as medical diagnosis, financial analysis, and fraud
detection, manufacturing, logistics. The advantage of using rule-based systems is that they can
provide a transparent and interpretable framework for decision-making, and they can be easier to
maintain and update compared to other AI models that use more complex algorithms.
• However, a potential drawback of rule-based systems is that they may not be able to handle
situations outside of the predefined rules, and in cases where the rules are incomplete or incorrect,
the system may provide inaccurate or incomplete solutions.
• Rule-based systems require a set of facts or source of data, and a set of rules for manipulating that
data. These rules are sometimes referred to as ‘If statements’ and are frequently expressed in
human-friendly language, such as " ‘IF X happens THEN do Y," to make them easier for readers
to comprehend.

• The steps can be simplified to:

1. First comes the data or new business event.

2. Then comes the analysis: the part where the system conditionally processes the data against its
rules.
 3. Then comes any subsequent automated follow-up actions.

• Some of the important elements of rule-based systems include:

 A set of facts

These facts are assertions or anything that is relevant to the beginning state of the system.

 Set of Rules

This set contains all the actions that should be performed within the scope of a problem and defines
how to act on the assertion set. In the set of rules facts are represented in an IF-THEN form.

 Termination Criteria or Interpreter

This determines whether a solution exists or not and figures out when the process should be
terminated.

How does a Rule-based System Work?

• A rule-based system in AI generates an output by using a collection of inputs and a set of rules.
The system first determines which principles apply to the inputs. If a rule is applicable, the system
executes the corresponding steps to generate the output. If no guideline is applicable, the system
might generate a default output or ask the user for more details.

• Rule-based systems outlines triggers & the actions that should follow (or are triggered). For
example, a trigger might be an email containing the word “invoice”. An action might then be to
forward the email to the finance team.

• These rules most often take the form of "if" statements. "IF" outlines the trigger, "THEN"
specifies the action to complete. So, if you want to create a rule-based system capable of handling
100 different actions, you’d have to write 100 different rules. If you want to then update the
system and add actions, then you would need to write new rules.

• In short, you use rules to tell a machine what to do, and the machine will do exactly as you tell it.
From there, rule-based systems will execute the actions until you tell it to stop.

Creation of Rule –based Systems:

The following actions are required to develop a rule-based system:

 Determine the issue:

Decide what issue needs to be resolved by a rule-based system.

 Establish the rules:

Establish a collection of guidelines that can be used to address the issue. The laws ought to be
founded on professional expertise or data analysis.
 Implement the rules:
In a rule-based structure, implement the rules. Software tools that enable the development and
administration of rule-based systems can be used for this.

 Test and evaluate:

Verify that the rule-based system in AI operates as intended. Take stock of how it's performing and
make any required modifications.

Main components of a rules-based system:

A typical rule-based system has seven basic components:

• The knowledge base: It holds the domain knowledge that is necessary for problem solving. In a
rules-based system, the knowledge gets represented as a set of rules. Every rule specifies a
relation, recommendation, directive, strategy or heuristic and has the IF (condition) THEN
(action) structure. As soon as the condition part of the rule is satisfied, the rule gets triggered and
the action part gets executed.

• The database: The database has a set of facts that are used to compare against the IF (condition)
part of the rules that are held in the knowledge base.
• The inference engine: The expert system uses the inference engine to derive the logic and arrive
at a conclusion. The inference engine's task is to connect the facts kept in the database with the
rules specified in the knowledge base. The inference engine is also known as the semantic
reasoner. It infers information or performs required actions on the basis of input and the rule base
that's present in the knowledge base. The semantic reasoner involves a match-resolve-act cycle
that works like this:

 Match - A section of the production rule system gets matched with the contents of the working
memory to gain a conflict, where there are several instances of the satisfied productions.

 Conflict-Resolution - After the production system is matched, one of the production instances in
the conflict is selected for execution for the purpose of determining the progress of the process.

 Act - The production instance selected in the previous stage is s executed, impacting the contents
of the working memory.

 Explanation facilities: The user can use the explanation facilities to question the expert system on
how it came to a particular conclusion or why a particular fact is necessary. The expert system
must be able to defend its logic, recommendations, analyses, and conclusions.

 User interface: The user interface is the channel through which the user interacts with the expert
system to find a solution to an issue. The user interface should be as simple and intuitive as
possible, and the dialogue should be as helpful and friendly as possible.

 These five elements are critical for any rule-based system. They are the core components of the
rule-based system. But the system might have some additional components as well. A couple of
these components could be the external interface and the working memory.

 External interface: The external interface enables an expert system to work and interact with
external data files and programs that are written in conventional(traditional) computer
programming languages like C, Pascal, FORTRAN and Basic.

 Working memory: The working memory stores temporary information and data. It keeps track of
transient data and knowledge.

characteristics of rule-based systems:

 They are made up of the combined knowledge of human experts in the problem domain.

 They represent knowledge in a very declarative manner.

 They make it possible to use various knowledge representations paradigms.

 They support the implementation of non-deterministic search and control strategies.

 They help in describing fragmentary, ill-structured, heuristic, judgemental knowledge.

 They are robust and have the ability to operate using uncertain or incomplete knowledge.

 They can help with rule-based decision making.

 The rules are written simply for humans to comprehend, making rule-based systems simple to
troubleshoot and maintain.

 Given a set of inputs, rule-based systems will always create the same output, making
them predictable and dependable. This property is known as determinism.

 A rule-based system in AI is transparent because the standards are clear and open to human
inspection, which makes it simpler to comprehend how the system operates.

 A rule-based system in AI is scalable. When scaled up, large quantities of data can be handled by
rule-based systems.

 Rule-based systems can be modified or updated more easily because the rules can be divided
into smaller components.

Advantages of Rule-based Systems in AI:

 Transparency and Explain ability:

Because the rules are openly established, rule-based systems are transparent and simple to
comprehend. This makes it simpler for programmers to comprehend and adjust the system and for
users to comprehend the rationale behind particular actions.

 Efficiency:
Rule-based systems work quickly and effectively since they don't need a lot of data or intricate
algorithms to function. Instead, they merely conclude by applying rules to a specific scenario.

 Accuracy:
Because they rely on a set of clear rules and logical inferences, rule-based systems have the
potential to be very accurate. The system will produce the right outcomes if the rules are written
correctly.

 Flexibility:
Rule-based systems are updated and modified by adding or modifying the rules. Because of this,
they can easily adjust to new situations or knowledge.

 A rule-based system is generally cost-efficient and accurate in terms of its results.

 The outputs generated by the system are dependent on rules so the output responses are stable and
not random.
  The coverage for different circumstances is less, whatever scenarios are covered by the Rule
Based system will provide high accuracy. The error rate goes down because of the predefined
rules.

 It's feasible to reduce the amount of risk in terms of system accuracy.

 Optimizing the speed of the system is easier as you know all the parts. So providing instant
outputs, is not a big issue.

Disadvantages of Rule-based Systems in AI:

 Restricted Capabilities for Learning:

Rule-based systems are created to function according to predetermined rules and logical
inferences. They are incapable of growing from mistakes or adjusting to novel circumstances. As a
result, they may need to improve at addressing complicated or dynamic situations. The self-
learning capacity in a rule-based system is less as it generates the result as per the rules.

 Time Consuming:

• Writing and generating rules for a complex system is quite challenging and time-
consuming. Complex pattern identification is a challenging task in the Rule Based method as it
takes a lot of time and analysis.

 Difficulty Handling Uncertainty:

Rule-based systems may need more clarity or complete information. Any ambiguity in the data
can result in errors or bad outcomes because they need precise inputs and rules to make a decision.

 High Maintenance Costs:

A rule-based system is built upon a lot of data, deep knowledge of the domain, and a lot of manual
work.

 To keep the rules accurate and up to date, rule-based systems need continual maintenance. The
cost and effort needed to maintain the system rise along with its complexity.

 Difficulty Handling Complex Interactions:

Complicated interactions can be difficult for rule-based systems, especially when several separate
rules or inputs are involved. Sometimes, the consequences of this can be conflicting or
inconsistent.

Rule-based System vs. Learning-based Systems:

Rule-Based Systems Learning-Based Systems

Uses a set of predetermined rules to make Learns from data to make decisions
 decisions
Knowledge is acquired through machine learning
Rules are created by human experts
algorithms
Limited ability to adapt to new situations Can adapt to new situations by learning from data
Transparent decision-making process Decision-making process may not be transparent
Scalable by adding or modifying rules Scalable by retraining the model
Consistent in decision-making Decision-making may not always be consistent
May require significant time for training the
Fast decision-making
model

Rule-based System vs. Machine Learning System:

Rule-Based Systems Machine Learning

Uses a set of predetermined rules to make
Uses statistical models to make decisions
decisions
Rules are created by human experts Models are trained using data
Can adapt to new situations by retraining the
Limited ability to adapt to new situations
model
Transparent decision-making process Decision-making process may not be transparent
Scalable by adding more data or retraining the
Scalable by adding or modifying rules
model
Consistent in decision-making Decision-making may not always be consistent
May require significant time for training the
Fast decision-making
model
Examples: Medical diagnosis, fraud detection Examples: Image recognition, speech recognition
Examples of Rule-based Systems:

• Healthcare, finance, and engineering are just a few examples of the sectors and applications that
use rule-based systems. Following are some instances of a rule-based system in AI:

 Medical Diagnosis:
Based on a patient's symptoms, medical history, and test findings, a rule-based system in AI can
make a diagnosis. The system can make a diagnosis by adhering to a series of guidelines
developed by medical professionals.

 Fraud Detection:
Based on particular criteria, such as the transaction's value, location, and time of day, a rule-based
system in AI can be used to spot fraudulent transactions. The system, for the additional
examination, can then flag the transaction.
 Quality Control:
A rule-based system in AI can ensure that products satisfy particular quality standards. Based on a
set of guidelines developed by quality experts, the system can check for flaws.

 Decision support systems:

They are created to aid decision-making, such as choosing which assets to buy or what to buy

Conclusion to Rule based Systems:

 A rule-based system in AI uses a set of rules to generate judgments or suggestions.

 Because they can swiftly evaluate data and deliver precise answers, these systems are common in
the banking, healthcare, and customer service sectors.

 A system that relies on a collection of predetermined rules to decide what to do next is known as
a rule-based system in AI. These laws are predicated on several circumstances and deeds. For
instance, if a patient has a fever, the doctor may recommend antibiotics because the patient may
have an infection. Expert systems, decision support systems, and chatbots are examples of apps
that use rule-based systems.

 Rule-based systems benefit from being transparent because the rules are clearly stated, simplifying
comprehension of how the system came to a particular decision.

 The rule-based system in AI should be as effective as possible. Thus, it's critical to carefully
design, test, and iteratively improve the rules based on user feedback and new data.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPROACH

There are 4 Approaches of Artificial Intelligence Learning:

1. Acting Humanly: The Turing Test approach – Acting like a human.

2. Thinking Humanly: The cognitive modeling approach – Thinking like a person.

3. Thinking Rationally: The laws of thought approach – Thinking rationally is a logical process and
it concludes based on symbolic logic. The famous syllogisms, “Socrates is a man; all men are
mortal; therefore, Socrates is mortal.”

4. Acting Rationally: The rational agent approach – Rational agent acts to achieve high value and
brings the best possible outcome for any given task.

Thinking Humanly (The Cognitive Approach):

• Thinking humanly, or a cognitive approach is an approach to artificial intelligence (AI) and

machine learning that is inspired by the way humans think and learn. The cognitive approach aims
 to develop AI systems that can mimic human thought processes and behaviours, such as
perception, reasoning, and problem-solving.

• This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding human cognition and how it can be
replicated in machines, rather than focusing solely on statistical or mathematical models.

• One example of the cognitive approach is the development of expert systems, which are computer
programs that can solve complex problems in a particular domain, such as medical diagnosis or
financial planning.

Acting Humanly (The Turing Test Approach):

• Acting humanly, also known as the Turing Test approach, is an approach to artificial intelligence
(AI) and machine learning that focuses on creating machines that can simulate human-like
behaviour and thought processes to the point where they are indistinguishable from humans.

• The Turing Test approach is based on the idea that a machine can be considered intelligent if it can
convincingly pass a test that was proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan
Turing.

• The Turing Test involves a human evaluator engaging in a natural language conversation with a
machine and a human, without knowing which is which. If the machine can successfully convince
the evaluator that it is the human, then it is considered to have passed the Turing Test.

• The Turing Test approach has led to the development of a wide range of AI technologies,
including chatbots, virtual assistants, and recommendation engines.

Thinking Rationally (The Laws of Thought Approach):

• Thinking rationally, or the laws of thought approach is an approach to artificial intelligence (AI)
and machine learning that is based on the principles of formal logic and reasoning. The laws of
thought approach aims to develop AI systems that can reason logically and make decisions based
on a set of predefined rules.
• In the laws of thought approach, AI systems are designed to reason deductively, by starting with a
set of premises and using logical rules to conclude. This approach is often used in expert systems,
where a knowledge base of facts and rules is used to solve complex problems in a particular
domain.

Acting Rationally (The Rational Agent Approach):

• Acting rationally, also known as the rational agent approach, is an approach to artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning that focuses on creating intelligent agents that can act in
the world to achieve their goals. The rational agent approach is based on the idea of rationality,
which involves making decisions that maximize the chances of achieving one's goals, given the
available information and resources.

• The rational agent approach emphasizes the importance of designing agents that can reason under
uncertainty and adapt to changing environments, rather than simply following a set of predefined
rules.

• One example of the rational agent approach is reinforcement learning, which involves training an
agent to make decisions in an environment based on rewards and punishments. The agent learns to
maximize its rewards by trying different actions and observing the outcomes.

• Machine Learning approach: This approach involves training machines to learn from data and
improve performance on specific tasks over time. It is widely used in areas such as image and
speech recognition, natural language processing, and recommender systems.
• Evolutionary approach: This approach is inspired by the process of natural selection in
biology. It involves generating and testing a large number of variations of a solution to a
problem, and then selecting and combining the most successful variations to create a new
generation of solutions.
• Neural Networks approach: This approach involves building artificial neural networks that are
modeled after the structure and function of the human brain. Neural networks can be used for
tasks such as pattern recognition, prediction, and decision-making.
• Fuzzy logic approach: This approach involves reasoning with uncertain and imprecise
information, which is common in real-world situations. Fuzzy logic can be used to model and
control complex systems in areas such as robotics, automotive control, and industrial
automation.
• Hybrid approach: This approach combines multiple AI techniques to solve complex problems.
For example, a hybrid approach might use machine learning to analyze data and identify
patterns, and then use logical reasoning to make decisions based on those patterns.
Issues of Artificial Intelligence:
 Bias and Discrimination: AI algorithms are only as good as the data they are trained on. If the
training data is biased or incomplete, the AI system may make discriminatory or biased
decisions. , For example,, facial recognition technology is less accurate when identifying people
of colour, which can lead to biased outcomes in law enforcement or security contexts.

 Privacy and Security: AI systems often collect and process large amounts of personal data,
posing significant privacy and security risks. , For example,, Chatbots and virtual assistants may
record and store sensitive conversations that could be accessed by unauthorized parties.

 Unemployment and Job Displacement: As AI systems become more sophisticated, there is a

concern that they will displace human workers in many industries. This could lead to high levels
of unemployment and economic disruption.

 Lack of Transparency and Accountability: AI systems can be complex and opaque, making it
difficult to understand how decisions are being made. This lack of transparency can make it
difficult to hold AI systems accountable for their actions.

 Safety and Reliability: AI systems that are used in safety-critical contexts, such as self-driving
cars or medical diagnosis, must be reliable and safe. There is a concern that these systems may fail
or make incorrect decisions, which could have serious consequences.

 Ethical Considerations: AI raises several ethical considerations, such as the use of autonomous
weapons or the potential for AI systems to manipulate or deceive people.

 Regulation and Governance: As AI becomes more prevalent, there is a need for effective
regulation and governance to ensure that AI systems are developed and used responsibly and
ethically.

Note: Overall, it is important to address these issues and concerns to ensure that AI is developed
and used responsibly and ethically, which benefits society as a whole.

Conclusion:

 Algorithms in AI learning has different technique and strategy for solving problems resulting in
unique algorithms.

 Approaches to AI learning have their strengths and weaknesses, and they can complement each
other in creating a more comprehensive understanding of intelligence.

 While AI technology continues to advance at a rapid pace, the current state of the field is still
limited by the capabilities of reactive machines with limited memory and without a full
understanding of human cognition.
 AI can be classified into weak AI or narrow AI, which is designed to perform a specific task or set
of tasks within a limited domain, and strong AI or general AI, which is designed to be capable of
human-like intelligence.

 Some of the most popular AI-based technologies include natural language processing, machine
learning, computer vision, robotics, and chatbots.

 Several issues must be addressed to ensure the responsible development and deployment of AI
technologies. These issues include bias and discrimination in AI systems, lack of transparency and
interpretability in decision-making processes.

KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION

• Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. And using this
knowledge, they are able to perform various actions in the real world. But how machines do all
these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning???

• Hence, we can describe Knowledge representation as following: Knowledge Representation is a

in AI that is concerned with how to formally “think” i.e., how to use a symbol system to represent
“a domain of discourse” that which can be talked about, along with functions that may or may not
be within the domain of discourse that allow inference (formalized reasoning) about the objects
within the domain of discourse to occur.

o It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real-world problems such as
diagnosis a medical condition or communicating with humans in natural language.

o It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge in artificial intelligence.
Knowledge representation is not just storing data into some database, but it also enables an
intelligent machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it can behave
intelligently like a human.

What to Represent:

Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI systems:

o Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars contains strings, trumpets
are brass instruments.

o Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.

o Performance: It describe behaviour which involves knowledge about how to do things.

o Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.

o Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.

o Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents is the knowledge base.
It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used
as a technical term and not identical with the English language).

• Knowledge: Knowledge is awareness or familiarity gained by experiences of facts, data, and

situations. Following are the types of knowledge in artificial intelligence:

Types of knowledge:

Following are the various types of knowledge:

1. Declarative Knowledge

2. Procedural Knowledge

3. Meta-knowledge

4. Heuristic knowledge

5. Structural knowledge

1. Declarative Knowledge:

o Declarative knowledge is to know about something.

o It includes concepts, facts, and objects.

o It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.

o It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge

o It is also known as imperative knowledge.

o Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do
something.

o It can be directly applied to any task.

o It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.

o Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.

3. Meta-knowledge:

o Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:

o Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a field or subject.

o Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of approaches,

and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:

o Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.

o It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and grouping of
something.

o It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.

The relation between knowledge and intelligence:

• Knowledge of real-worlds plays a vital role in intelligence and same for creating artificial
intelligence. Knowledge plays an important role in demonstrating intelligent behaviour in AI
agents. An agent is only able to accurately act on some input when he has some knowledge or
experience about that input.

• Let's suppose if you met some person who is speaking in a language which you don't know, then
how you will able to act on that. The same thing applies to the intelligent behavior of the agents.

• As we can see in below diagram, there is one decision maker which act by sensing the
environment and using knowledge. But, if we remove the knowledge part here, it will not be able
to display any intelligent behavior.
Cycle of Knowledge Representation in AI:

An Artificial intelligence system has the following components for displaying intelligent behavior:

o Perception

o Learning

o Knowledge Representation and Reasoning

o Planning

o Execution

• The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact with the real world and what
components help it to show intelligence.

• AI system has Perception component by which it retrieves information from its environment. It
can be visual, audio or another form of sensory input. with the help of this component, you can
retrieve data from the environment, find out the source of noises and check if the AI was damaged
by anything. Also, it defines how to respond when any sense has been detected.

• The learning component is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception component.
The goal is to build computers that can be taught instead of programming them. Learning focuses
on the process of self-improvement. In order to learn new things, the system requires knowledge
acquisition, inference, acquisition of heuristics, faster searches, etc.
• The main component in the cycle is Knowledge Representation and Reasoning which shows the
human-like intelligence in the machines. Knowledge representation is all about understanding
intelligence. Instead of trying to understand or build brains from the bottom up, its goal is to
understand and build intelligent behaviour from the top-down and focus on what an agent needs to
know in order to behave intelligently. Also, it defines how automated reasoning procedures can
make this knowledge available as needed.

• The Planning and Execution components depend on the analysis of knowledge representation
and reasoning. Here, planning includes giving an initial state, finding their preconditions and
effects, and a sequence of actions to achieve a state in which a particular goal holds. Now once the
planning is completed, the final stage is the execution of the entire process.

Approaches to knowledge representation:

There are mainly four approaches to knowledge representation, which are given below:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

2. Inheritable knowledge:

3. Inferential knowledge:

4. Procedural knowledge:

1. Simple relational knowledge:

o It is the simplest way of storing facts which uses the relational method, and each fact about a
set of the object is set out systematically in columns.

o This approach of knowledge representation is famous in database systems where the

relationship between different entities is represented.

o This approach has little opportunity for inference.

Player Weigh Ag
t e
Player 65 23
1
Player 58 18
2
Player 75 24
3
2. Inheritable knowledge:

o In the inheritable knowledge approach, all data must be stored into a hierarchy of classes.
o All classes should be arranged in a generalized form or a hierarchal manner.

o In this approach, we apply inheritance property.

o Elements inherit values from other members of a class.

o This approach contains inheritable knowledge which shows a relation between instance and
class, and it is called instance relation.

o Every individual frame can represent the collection of attributes and its value.

o In this approach, objects and values are represented in Boxed nodes.

o We use Arrows which point from objects to their values.

Eg:

3. Inferential knowledge:

o Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of formal logics.

o This approach can be used to derive more facts.

o It guaranteed correctness.

o Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

1. Marcus is a man

2. All men are mortal

Then it can be represented as;

man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

4. Procedural knowledge:
 o Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which describes how to do
specific things, and how to proceed.

o In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.

o In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP language and Prolog
language.

o We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using this approach.

o But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.

Requirements for knowledge Representation system:

A good knowledge representation system must possess the following properties.

1.RepresentationalAccuracy:
KR system should have the ability to represent all kind of required knowledge.

2.InferentialAdequacy:
KR system should have ability to manipulate the representational structures to produce new
knowledge corresponding to existing structure.

3.InferentialEfficiency:
The ability to direct the inferential knowledge mechanism into the most productive directions by
storing appropriate guides.

4. Acquisitional efficiency- The ability to acquire the new knowledge easily using automatic
methods.

Techniques of Knowledge Representation in AI:

• There are four techniques of representing knowledge such as:

• There are mainly four ways of knowledge representation which are given as follows:
 1. Logical Representation

2. Semantic Network Representation

3. Frame Representation

4. Production Rules

Logical Representation

Logical representation is a language with some definite rules which deal with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. It represents a conclusion based on various conditions and lays down some
important communication rules. Also, it consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which
supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.

Syntax Semantics

 It decides how we can construct legal

sentences in logic.  Semantics are the rules by which we

 It determines which symbol we can can interpret the sentence in the logic.

use in knowledge representation.  It assigns a meaning to each sentence.

 Also, how to write those symbols.

Advantages:

 Logical representation helps to perform logical reasoning.

 This representation is the basis for the programming languages.

Disadvantages:

 Logical representations have some restrictions and are challenging to work with.

 This technique may not be very natural, and inference may not be very efficient.

Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks work as an alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, you can represent your knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of
nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those objects. Also, it
categorizes the object in different forms and links those objects.

This representation consist of two types of relations:

 IS-A relation (Inheritance)

 Kind-of-relation
Advantages:

 Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.

 Also, it conveys meaning in a transparent manner.

 These networks are simple and easy to understand.

Disadvantages:

 Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime.

 Also, these are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent quantifiers.

 These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.

Frame Representation

A frame is a record like structure that consists of a collection of attributes and values to describe an entity
in the world. These are the AI data structure that divides knowledge into substructures by representing
stereotypes situations. Basically, it consists of a collection of slots and slot values of any type and size.
Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Advantages:

 It makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.

 Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.

 It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations.

  Also, it is easy to include default data and search for missing values.

Disadvantages:

 In frame system inference, the mechanism cannot be easily processed.

 The inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.

 It has a very generalized approach.

Production Rules

In production rules, agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production rule fires
and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem. Whereas, the action part carries out the associated problem-solving steps. This
complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.

The production rules system consists of three main parts:

 The set of production rules

 Working Memory

 The recognize-act-cycle

Advantages:

 The production rules are expressed in natural language.

 The production rules are highly modular and can be easily removed or modified.

Disadvantages:

 It does not exhibit any learning capabilities and does not store the result of the problem for future
uses.

 During the execution of the program, many rules may be active. Thus, rule-based production
systems are inefficient.

EXPERT SYSTEMS

• The other name of expert systems is knowledge based systems.They are used for the real-world
problems like expert quality advice, diagnosis and recommendations.

• Expert System: An expert system is an AI software that uses knowledge stored in a knowledge
base to solve problems that would usually require a human expert thus preserving a human
 expert’s knowledge in its knowledge base. They can advise users as well as provide explanations
to them about how they reached a particular conclusion or advice.

• An expert system is a computer program that is designed to solve complex problems and to
provide decision-making ability like a human expert. It performs this by extracting knowledge
from its knowledge base using the reasoning and inference rules according to the user queries.

• Building of an expert system requires a human expert that extract the required knowledge.

Note: It is important to remember that an expert system is not used to replace the human experts;
instead, it is used to assist the human in making a complex decision. These systems do not have
human capabilities of thinking and work on the basis of the knowledge base of the particular
domain.

• It solves the most complex issue as an expert by extracting the knowledge stored in its knowledge
base. The system helps in decision making for complex problems using both facts and heuristics
like a human expert. It is called so because it contains the expert knowledge of a specific domain
and can solve any complex problem of that particular domain. These systems are designed for a
specific domain, such as medicine, science, medical diagnosis, accounting, coding, games etc.

• The performance of an expert system is based on the expert's knowledge stored in its knowledge
base. The more knowledge stored in the KB, the more that system improves its performance. One
of the common examples of an ES is a suggestion of spelling errors while typing in the Google
search box.

• The expert system is a part of AI, and the first ES was developed in the year 1970, which was the
first successful approach of artificial intelligence.

Block diagram of an expert system:

Components of Expert System:

• An expert system mainly consists of three components:

o User Interface

o Inference Engine

o Knowledge Base

1. User Interface

With the help of a user interface, the expert system interacts with the user, takes queries as an
input in a readable format, and passes it to the inference engine. After getting the response from
the inference engine, it displays the output to the user. In other words, it is an interface that helps
a non-expert user to communicate with the expert system to find a solution.

2. Inference Engine (Rules of Engine)

o The inference engine is known as the brain of the expert system as it is the main processing unit of
the system. It applies inference rules to the knowledge base to derive a conclusion or deduce new
information. It helps in deriving an error-free solution of queries asked by the user.

o The function of the inference engine is to fetch the relevant knowledge from the knowledge base,
interpret it and to find a solution relevant to the user’s problem. There are two types of inference
engine:

• Deterministic Inference engine: The conclusions drawn from this type of inference engine are
assumed to be true. It is based on facts and rules.

• Probabilistic Inference engine: This type of inference engine contains uncertainty in

conclusions, and based on the probability.
 • Explanation Module –
This module helps the expert system to give the user an explanation about how the expert system
reached a particular conclusion.

• The inference engine acquires the rules from its knowledge base and applies them to the known
facts to infer new facts. Inference engines can also include an explanation and debugging abilities.

• The Inference Engine generally uses two strategies for acquiring knowledge from the Knowledge
Base, namely –

• Forward Chaining

• Backward Chaining

• Forward Chaining: It starts from the known facts and rules, and applies the inference rules to
add their conclusion to the known facts. Forward Chaining is a strategic process used by the
Expert System to answer the questions – What will happen next. This strategy is mostly used for
managing tasks like creating a conclusion, result or effect. Example – prediction or share market
movement status.

• Backward Chaining: It is a backward reasoning method that starts from the goal and works
backward to prove the known facts. Backward Chaining is a strategy used by the Expert System to
answer the questions – Why this has happened. This strategy is mostly used to find out the root
cause or reason behind it, considering what has already happened. Example – diagnosis of
stomach pain, blood cancer or dengue, etc.

3. Knowledge Base

o The knowledgebase is a type of storage that stores knowledge acquired from the different experts
of the particular domain. It is considered as big storage of knowledge. The more the knowledge
base, the more precise will be the Expert System.
 o It is similar to a database that contains information and rules of a particular domain or subject.

o One can also view the knowledge base as collections of objects and their attributes. Such as a Lion
is an object and its attributes are it is a mammal, it is not a domestic animal, etc.

o Components of Knowledge Base

o Factual Knowledge: The knowledge which is based on facts and accepted by knowledge
engineers comes under factual knowledge.

o Heuristic Knowledge: This knowledge is based on practice, the ability to guess,

evaluation, and experiences.

o Knowledge Representation: It is used to formalize the knowledge stored in the knowledge base
using the If-else rules.

o Knowledge Acquisitions: It is the process of extracting, organizing, and structuring the domain
knowledge, specifying the rules to acquire more and more knowledge from various experts, and
store that knowledge into the knowledge base.

Participants in the development of Expert System:

There are three primary participants in the building of Expert System:

1. Expert: The success of an ES much depends on the knowledge provided by human experts. These
experts are those persons who are specialized in that specific domain.

2. Knowledge Engineer: Knowledge engineer is the person who gathers the knowledge from the
domain experts and then codifies that knowledge to the system according to the formalism.
Knowledge Engineering is the term used to define the process of building an Expert System and
its practitioners are called Knowledge Engineers. The primary role of a knowledge engineer is to
make sure that the computer possesses all the knowledge required to solve a problem. The
knowledge engineer must choose one or more forms in which to represent the required knowledge
as a symbolic pattern in the memory of the computer.

3. End-User: This is a particular person or a group of people who may not be experts, and working
on the expert system needs the solution or advice for his queries, which are complex.

Architecture of Expert System:

 The explanation system provides information to the user about how the inference
engine arrived at its conclusions. This can often be essential, particularly if the
advice being given is of a critical nature, such as with a medical diagnosis system. If
the system has used faulty reasoning to arrive at its conclusions, then the user may
be able to see this by examining the data given by the explanation system.
 The fact database contains the case-specific data that are to be used in a particular
case to derive a conclusion.
 In the case of a medical expert system, this would contain information that had
been obtained about the patient’s condition.
 The user of the expert system interfaces with it through a user interface, which
provides access to the inference engine, the explanation system, and the
knowledge-base editor.
 The inference engine is the part of the system that uses the rules and facts to derive
conclusions. The inference engine will use forward chaining, backward chaining, or
a combination of the two to make inferences from the data that are available to it.
 The knowledge-base editor allows the user to edit the information that is contained
in the knowledge base.
 The knowledge-base editor is not usually made available to the end user of the
system but is used by the knowledge engineer or the expert to provide and update
the knowledge that is contained within the system.

Characteristics of an Expert System:

 Human experts are perishable, but an expert system is permanent.

 It helps to distribute the expertise of a human.

 One expert system may contain knowledge from more than one human experts thus making the
solutions more efficient. The expert system provides high performance for solving any type of
complex problem of a specific domain with high efficiency and accuracy.

 It decreases the cost of consulting an expert for various domains such as medical diagnosis.

 They use a knowledge base and inference engine.

o Understandable: It responds in a way that can be easily understandable by the user. It can take
input in human language and provides the output in the same way.

o Reliable: It is much reliable for generating an efficient and accurate output.

o Highly responsive: ES provides the result for any complex query within a very short period of
time.

 Expert systems can solve complex problems by deducing new facts through existing facts of
knowledge, represented mostly as if-then rules rather than through conventional procedural code.

 Expert systems were among the first truly successful forms of artificial intelligence (AI) software.

NEED OF EXPERT SYSTEMS:

• Before using any technology, we must have an idea about why to use that technology and hence
the same for the ES. Although we have human experts in every field, then what is the need to
develop a computer-based system. So below are the points that are describing the need of the ES:

1. No memory Limitations: It can store as much data as required and can memorize it at the time of
its application. But for human experts, there are some limitations to memorize all things at every
time.

2. High Efficiency: If the knowledge base is updated with the correct knowledge, then it provides a
highly efficient output, which may not be possible for a human.
 3. Not affected by emotions: These systems are not affected by human emotions such as fatigue,
anger, depression, anxiety, etc.. Hence the performance remains constant.

4. Expertise in a domain: There are lots of human experts in each domain, and they all have
different skills, different experiences, and different skills, so it is not easy to get a final output for
the query. But if we put the knowledge gained from human experts into the expert system, then it
provides an efficient output by mixing all the facts and knowledge

5. High security: These systems provide high security to resolve any query.

6. Considers all the facts: To respond to any query, it checks and considers all the available facts
and provides the result accordingly. But it is possible that a human expert may not consider some
facts due to any reason.

7. Regular updates improve the performance: If there is an issue in the result provided by the
expert systems, we can improve the performance of the system by updating the knowledge base.

Capabilities of the Expert System:

o Advising: It is capable of advising the human being for the query of any domain from the
particular ES.

o Provide decision-making capabilities: It provides the capability of decision making in any

domain, such as for making any financial decision, decisions in medical science, etc.

o Demonstrate a device: It is capable of demonstrating any new products such as its features,
specifications, how to use that product, etc.

o Problem-solving: It has problem-solving capabilities.

o Explaining a problem: It is also capable of providing a detailed description of an input problem.

o Interpreting the input: It is capable of interpreting the input given by the user.

o Predicting results: It can be used for the prediction of a result.

o Diagnosis: An ES designed for the medical field is capable of diagnosing a disease without using
multiple components as it already contains various inbuilt medical tools.

Advantages of Expert System:

 Low accessibility cost.

 Fast response.

 Low error rate.

 Capable of explaining how they reached a solution.

 o These systems are highly reproducible.

o They can be used for risky places where the human presence is not safe.

o Error possibilities are less if the KB contains correct knowledge.

o The performance of these systems remains steady as it is not affected by emotions, tension, or
fatigue.

o They provide a very high speed to respond to a particular query.

Disadvantages of Expert System:

 The expert system has no emotions. Do not have human-like decision-making power. Like a
human being, it cannot produce a creative output for different scenarios.

 Common sense is the main issue of the expert system. Cannot possess human capabilities.

 It needs to be updated manually. It does not learn itself.

 Not capable to explain the logic behind the decision.

 Cannot produce correct result from less amount of knowledge. The response of the expert system
may get wrong if the knowledge base contains the wrong information.

 Requires excessive training.

o Its maintenance and development costs are very high.

o Knowledge acquisition for designing is much difficult.

o It is developed for a specific domain. For each domain, we require a specific ES, which is one of
the big limitations.

Applications of Expert system:

The application of an expert system can be found in almost all areas of business or government. They
include areas such as –

 Different types of medical diagnosis like internal medicine, blood diseases and show on.

 Diagnosis of the complex electronic and electromechanical system.

 Diagnosis of a software development project.

 Planning experiment in biology, chemistry and molecular genetics.

 Forecasting crop damage.

 Diagnosis of the diesel-electric locomotive system.

  Identification of chemical compound structure.

 Scheduling of customer order, computer resources and various manufacturing task.

 Assessment of geologic structure from dip meter logs.

 Assessment of space structure through satellite and robot.

 The design of VLSI system.

 Teaching students specialize task.

 Assessment of log including civil case evaluation, product liability etc.

 In designing and manufacturing domain

It can be broadly used for designing and manufacturing physical devices such as camera lenses
and automobiles.

 In the knowledge domain

These systems are primarily used for publishing the relevant knowledge to the users. The two
popular ES used for this domain is an advisor and a tax advisor.

 In the finance domain

In the finance industries, it is used to detect any type of possible fraud, suspicious activity, and
advise bankers that if they should provide loans for business or not.

 In the diagnosis and troubleshooting of devices

In medical diagnosis, the ES system is used, and it was the first area where these systems were
used.

 Planning and Scheduling

The expert systems can also be used for planning and scheduling some particular tasks for
achieving the goal of that task.

Difference between AI and Expert system:

S.No Artificial Intelligence Expert System

AI is the ability of a machine or a
Expert systems represent the most successful
computer program to think, work, learn
demonstration of the capabilities of AI.
1 and react like humans.
AI involves the use of methods based on
Experts systems are computer programs
the intelligent behavior of humans to solve
designed to solve complex decision problems.
2 complex problems.
Characteristics of AI- Characteristics of Expert System-
 Facial Recognition  High Efficiency and Accuracy
  Automate Simple and Repetitive
Tasks
 Chatbots  Highly responsive
3  Natural language processing  Understandable
 Imitation Of Human Cognition Reliability
 Deep Learning
Cloud Computing
Components of AI:
Components of Expert System:
Natural Language Processing (NLP)
Inference engine
Knowledge representation
Knowledge base
Reasoning
User interface
4 Problem solving
Knowledge acquisition module
Machine learning
AI is the study is systems that act in a way
Expert system represent the most successful
5 to any observer would appear to be
demonstration of the capabilities of AI
intelligent.
AI systems are used in a wide range of
Expert systems provide expert advice and
industries, from healthcare to finance,
guidance in a wide variety of activities.
6 automotive, data security, etc.
Categories of Problems that can be solved-
Categories of Problems that can be solved-
 Using classification and diagnosis object
 Look for trends, patterns, and
is identified based on stated qualities. To
connections.
exemplify, Medical condition diagnosis
 Look for inefficiencies.
 Monitoring entails comparing data to
 Result forecasting on the basis of
recommended behavior on a regular
historical trends
basis.
 Make informed decisions based on
 Prediction: For example, forecasting the
facts
7 state of the stock market.
 Put plans into action.
Configuring a system according to standards is
Improve yourself by learning new things.
known as design.
Applications- Applications-
 E-Commerce  Hospitals
 Education  Medical facilities
 Lifestyle  Help desks management
8  Navigation  Loan analysis
 Robotics  Warehouse optimization
 Human Resource  Stock market trading
  Healthcare
Airline scheduling & cargo schedules and others
Gaming and others
Examples- Natural Language Processing
(NLP) tools, Proactive healthcare
management, Automated financial
Examples- DENDRAL, MYCIN, and others.
investing, Virtual travel booking agents,
9 Self-driving cars, Manufacturing robots,
Conversational marketing bots, and others.
Difference between Human expert and Expert system:

S.No Human Experts Expert System

Use knowledge in the form of rules of It processes knowledge expressed in the form
1 thumbs or heuristics to solve problem in a of rules and use symbolic reasoning in narrow
narrow domain. domain.
In a human expert we deal with human
brain in which knowledge exists in a
compiled form. Human expert is an It provide a clear separation of knowledge
2 individual who has capability of from its processing.
recognizing the things in a superior way.
Ex: a doctor
Expert system helps in tracing the rules that
It is capable of explaining line of reasoning produced during a solving a problem and also
3 and providing the details. explain how a that particular conclusion was
reached and why specific data was needed.
4 It uses inexact reasoning and also able to It permits inexact reasoning but able to deal
deal with incomplete, uncertain and fuzzy with incomplete, uncertain and fuzzy
information. information.
5 It enhances the quality of problem solving It enhances the quality of problem solving by
because of years of learning and practical the addition of new rules or by adjusting the
training old ones in the knowledge base and when new
knowledge is acquired, changes are easy to
observe.
6 Human expert can be available at a specific Expert system can be available whereever and
working day. at any time
7 To solve any problem, human expert can To solve any problem, expert system takes a
take variable time very short interval of time.
8 It is not replaceable. It can be replaceable.
some popular examples of the Expert System:
 o DENDRAL: It was an artificial intelligence project that was made as a chemical analysis expert
system. It was used in organic chemistry to detect unknown organic molecules with the help of
their mass spectra and knowledge base of chemistry. It used a substance’s spectrographic data to
predict its molecular structure.

o MYCIN: It was one of the earliest backward chaining expert systems that was designed to find the
bacteria causing infections like bacteraemia and meningitis. It was also used for the
recommendation of antibiotics and the diagnosis of blood clotting diseases. It can also recommend
drugs based on the person’s weight.

o PXDES: It is an expert system that is used to determine the type and level of lung cancer. To
determine the disease, it takes a picture from the upper body, which looks like the shadow. This
shadow identifies the type and degree of harm.

o CaDeT: The CaDet expert system is a diagnostic support system that can detect cancer at early
stages.

o R1/XCON
It could select specific software to generate a computer system wished by the user.

o DXplain
It was also a clinical support system that could suggest a variety of diseases based on the findings
of the doctor.

Development of MYCIN Expert System:

The working of a MYCIN expert system follows the below to build an MYCIN:

o Firstly, ES should be fed with expert knowledge. In the case of MYCIN, human experts
specialized in the medical field of bacterial infection, provide information about the causes,
symptoms, and other knowledge in that domain.

o The KB of the MYCIN is updated successfully. In order to test it, the doctor provides a new
problem to it. The problem is to identify the presence of the bacteria by inputting the details of
a patient, including the symptoms, current condition, and medical history.

o The ES will need a questionnaire to be filled by the patient to know the general information
about the patient, such as gender, age, etc.

o Now the system has collected all the information, so it will find the solution for the problem
by applying if-then rules using the inference engine and using the facts stored within the KB.

o In the end, it will provide a response to the patient by using the user interface.