1) ANTENNA & ITS TYPES

Semi-directional antennas also radiate the power in a particular direction

ANTENNA providing the radiations across a large area. It is generally a point-to-point
communication used for short-to medium distance communications.
 An antenna is a metallic structure that is used to transmit radio EM
waves. We can define it as the launching of waves or radiations in  Directional antenna
space, which is efficiently accomplished with dielectric structures
called antennas.
The directional antenna radiations power in a specific direction. The power
 An antenna acts as a transducer that converts the electrical power radiated thus has a strong beam. It prevents the radiations from any
into EM waves. The electric charges are the source of the EM or interference due to the radiations in a particular direction. It has a narrow
electromagnetic waves. beam and double gain as compared to the Omi-directional antenna.
 The transmitting antenna carries the electric current, converts it into
the form of radiation, and transmits it into space. b) Wire Antennas
 The Antenna can be used as a transmitting antenna or the receiving
antenna.
Wire Antennas are the type of radio antennas that consists of the long wire
 The antenna uses voltage and current from the source suspended over the ground. The wire acts as an antenna by picking up the
(transmission line) to launch Electromagnetic waves into the signals and further radiating them. The wire antennas are further
particular medium. categorized as:

TYPES OF ANTENNAS 1. Vertical Antenna

a)Based on the directions

 The vertical antenna radiates the power in all directions It
means that it radiates less power in upward or downward
The antennas are categorized based on the direction of the radiations direction. It is used where the horizontal antenna is unable to
emitted by them. The three major types of Antenna based on the direction provide the requirements.
are Omni-directional antenna, semi-directional antenna, and directional  The shape of the vertical antenna is
antenna.  similar like a vertical rod mounted on the ground. The vertical
 Omni-directional antenna antenna can also have a physical earth connection, where it
The Omni-directional antenna radiations radio power equally in all is connected to the Earth using ground rods.
the directions. The power emitted is perpendicular to the axis. It  The radiations emitted by the vertical antenna are similar to
further declines to zero towards the axis. It is commonly used in the Omni-directional antenna. It advantages include low
applications that require communication with multiple devices. angle of radiation, ease of mounting, windage, etc.

 Semi-directional antenna

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2. Loop Antenna

 The loop antenna consists of turns in a wire. The perimeter of the loop
can be large or small, depending on the operating frequency.
 The loop can be in the shape of a square, rectangle, circle, or any
geometrical shape but in the form of a closed loop. It is shown below:

 The essential requirement of the large loop antennas is the loop's

perimeter equal to the 110% of the one-full wavelength.
 Some antennas are shaped in the form of a loop but are not loops due
to some breaks in between. For example, Halo Antenna. The Halo
Antenna is bent in the form of the loop but has breaks in between. It can  The helix antennas can use operators in either normal mode or axial
be considered as a dipole antenna. The break-in such antennas is mode. The antenna's diameter and pitch in the case of the normal mode
analyzed as the air break or air capacitor. are smaller than the wavelength. It acts as a monopole antenna in such
 Small loop antennas are generally lossy. Hence, it is suitable for low- a case. The helix antenna operating in the normal mode is also called
frequency transmissions below a broadside helical antenna.
 The antenna's diameter and pitch in the case of the axial mode are
 10MHz. Its applications include AM (Amplitude Modulation) broadcast
receivers, land mobile radio, etc. comparable to the wavelength. The antenna behaves as a directional
antenna in the axial mode. The helix antenna operating in the axial mode
is also called an end-fire helical antenna.
Helical Antenna
 The helix antenna can comprise of one, two, three, or four wires. A helix
 It consists of a wire in the form of a helix. The helical antennas can be
antenna with two wires is called a bifilar Similarly, a helix antenna with
directional or omnidirectional. The directional helical antennas are
four wires is called a quadrifilar.
generally mounted on the ground plane.
 The helix antenna behaves like an inductively loaded monopole due to
the added inductance. The inductance is due to its helical shape. The
monopole antennas can be used as the electrically short monopoles
(antenna shorter than the signal wavelength

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 C) Aperture Antennas The increase in the size of the horn increases phase error. It further
provides the horn antenna a wider radiation pattern.
A common example of the Aperture Antenna is the Horn Antenna.  When the horn antenna is combined with the parabolic reflector, the
antenna thus formed is called horn-reflector antenna.
1. Horn Antenna
d) Dipole Antenna
 It is shaped like a horn that directs the radio waves in the form of beam.
 The horn antennas are used at microwave and Ultra High Frequencies. The  The Dipole antenna consists of two straight wires that lie along the
frequency range generally lies above 300MHz. The working of a horn same axis. It is also called a doublet. It is the most common used class
antenna is similar to that of a musical of the antenna. The two wires or conductors of the dipole antenna are
instrument trumpet. connected to the transmitter or receiver.
 The diagram of the horn antenna is shown below:  Other variants of dipole antenna include turnstile antenna, halo
antenna, batwing antenna, etc.
 The dipole antennas smaller than one half the wavelength is called
as short dipole antennas. It has very low radiation resistance.
 The dipole antenna is further categorized as half-wave dipole antenna,
monopole antenna, Quarter-wave monopole antenna, and Hertzian
dipole.

1. Half-wave Dipole Antenna

 As the name implies, the length of the half wave dipole antenna is half
a wavelength. It is the most common used type of dipole antenna.
 The half-wave dipole's radiation pattern is zero around the axial
direction and maximum perpendicular to the
 conductor.
 The half-wave dipole antenna is used in applications where full-wave
dipole becomes large to use.
 The horn antenna allows the radiation of the wave energy with minimum
reflection. The other types of horn antenna are ridged horn, exponential 2. Monopole Antenna
horn, conical horn, etc.
 The wavefronts of the horn antenna are spherical. The phase due to the  The monopole antenna consists of a single rod or conductor that is
spherical wavefronts increases smoothly from the edges towards the mounted on the ground plane or any other conductive surface. One side of
center. the feedline (cable that connected the antenna with the transmitter or

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 receiver) antenna is connected to the lower end of the dipole. The other  The types of monopole antenna include umbrella antenna. The
end is connected to the ground that acts as the Earth for the antenna. umbrella antenna is generally used as the transmitter at frequencies
 The radiation pattern of the monopole antenna is also Omni-directional. below 1MHz.
A monopole antenna can be considered as vertical dipole antenna whose
bottom half is replaced by a conducting plane. It is placed at right angles to 3. Quarter-Wave Monopole Antenna
the upper remaining half of the dipole, as shown below:
 It is a type of monopole antenna.
 The antenna is generally one-quarter of the wavelength of the radio
waves.
 The common types of Quarter wave monopole antenna are quarter
wave whip antenna and quarter wave rubber ducky antenna.
 The quarter wave whip antenna consists of multiple rods or straight
wire that radiates vertically and horizontally. It is also called a ground-
plane antenna.
 The rubber ducky antenna wire in the form of a helix is sealed in
a rubber jacket to protect the antenna. It is used in portable FM
(Frequency Modulation) radios, walkie-talkies, etc.

4. Hertzian Dipole

 The radio waves reaching the upper half of the antenna get reflected by  Hertzian dipole carriers a uniform current, which is represented as:
the ground plane. The reflected waves thus form the missing part of the I=Io cosωt
vertical dipole antenna. Hence, a monopole antenna is a perfect  Hertzian dipole signifies the infinitesimal current element Idl, which serves
conducting antenna. as a building block for the field of the real antennas. The tiny current
element practically is not possible but is considered as a reference for the
practical antennas.
 The Hertzian dipole has a constant current over its short length along the
conductor. Hence, it is used for the analysis of more complex geometrical
antennas.

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2) Radiation Pattern of an Antenna The H-plane pattern is the thee-plane pattern versus phi for a constant
value of angle at 90 degrees. The component of the Hertzian dipole is
The radiation pattern is also called as the antenna pattern. It is the three- a sine. Hence, the maximum value of the normalized E-plane is unity.
dimensional plot of the radiations from the antenna at the far field. It means
that the radiation pattern of an antenna is also known as a far-field pattern.  Characteristics of Radiation pattern of an antenna
Let's discuss some characteristics of the radiation pattern of an antenna:
The square of the amplitude E is called a power pattern.
 The strength of the radio waves depends on the antenna source. The
Where, angular dependence of such radio waves in the field of antenna design
E is the voltage or field pattern when the amplitude of a particular field is known as radiation pattern of an antenna. In other fields like lasers,
component is plotted. optics, the pattern obtained is known as a near-field pattern.
Let's consider the case of the Hertzian dipole.  The near-field or Fresnel's pattern is generally defined over a plane is
The normalized E-plane pattern is shown below: front of the source, while the far-field pattern is determined at the
range of an antenna.
 The fundamental theory of the antenna is that the receiving pattern of
the receiving antenna is similar to the far-field pattern of the antenna
while transmission.
 The radiation pattern in some of the antennas is also called an
interference pattern. It is because radiations from different parts can
interfere at some angle.
 The Omni-directional antennas have a symmetric radiation pattern due
to equal power radiated in all directions. These axial-symmetric
antennas are monopole antennas, and dipole antennas.
Similarly, its H-plane or Horizontal pattern is:  Let's consider an example of a polar radiation plot. It consists of left and
right lobes, as shown below:
 In the case of the directive
antenna, the lobe in the direction of
propagation is considered as the
largest lobe. It is the main lobe of the
radiation pattern so obtained. The
other side lobes represent the
radiations in an unwanted direction.

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 3) Effect of Ground on the Antenna
There are three regions of an antenna, as shown in the above image.
 The reflections from the ground are considered as the multipath for the These three regions are numbered I, II, and III.
radio waves. The ground plane for some of the types of antenna is
important. In the case of a monopole antenna, the reflections from the Let's discuss these three regions in detail.
ground work as a replacement of the lower half of the antenna.
 According to Fresnel's coefficient, half of the Electromagnetic waves striking Region I
the ground are reflected, while half of it is transmitted into the ground. If the It is called the oscillatory field region. It is generally close to the source
ground is a good conductor, all of the EM waves might get reflected. (marked as S). It is the region within the 1/r^3.
 Similarly, a lossy ground can absorb large amount of striking power.
 The ground behaves as a lossy dielectric medium for frequencies less than Region II
30MHz. We can also consider it as the range for the low frequencies to high It is called the near field region. It range lies between the 1/r^3 and 1/r^2.
frequencies.
 The antenna can be horizontally polarized or vertically polarized. In the case Region III
of a horizontally polarized antenna, the large portion of energy from the It is called the far field region.
antenna at the frequency range between 3 and 30MHz reflects the ground.
It suffers from TIR or Total Internal Reflection. The reflected waves can either Region II is also called as Fresnel's field, while region III is called as
suppress or strengthen the direct wave with a reversed phase. Fraunhofer field. The distance between these two fields is:
 The ground reflects the vertically polarized radiations in the case of high
conducting surfaces. Otherwise, it is not well-reflected.
 The ground at frequencies above 30 MHz or Ultra High Frequencies becomes
a poor reflector.

4) Regions of an antenna

Similarly, the boundary between these two regions can be calculated as:

The equivalent radiation power is given by:

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  The ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction from an antenna
to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions, is termed as
directivity.
 If that particular direction is not specified, then the direction in which
maximum intensity is observed, can be taken as the directivity of
that antenna.
 The directivity of a non-isotropic antenna is equal to the ratio of the
radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation intensity of
the isotropic source.
 Mathematical Expression
The radiated power is a function of the angular position and the
radial distance from the circuit. Hence, it is expressed by
considering both the terms θ and Ø.

Where,
Rrad is the radiation resistance of the Hertzian dipole. The larger the value
of the radiation resistance, the more power can be delivered to space. It
means that we require antennas with large radiation resistance to deliver
large amount of power to space.

5) ANTENNA PARAMETERS

a) Directivity Where
 According to the standard definition, “The ratio of maximum radiation
intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotropic  ϕ(θ,ϕ)max is the maximum radiation intensity of subject antenna.
or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called  ϕ0 is the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna (antenna with
the directivity.” zero losses).
 An Antenna radiates power, but the direction in which it radiates
matters much. The antenna, whose performance is being observed, is b) Aperture Efficiency
termed as subject antenna.
 Its radiation intensity is focused in a particular direction, while it is  According to the standard definition, “Aperture efficiency of an
transmitting or receiving. Hence, the antenna is said to have antenna, is the ratio of the effective radiating area (or effective area)
its directivity in that particular direction. to the physical area of the aperture.”

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  An antenna has an aperture through which the power is radiated.
This radiation should be effective with minimum losses. The physical
area of the aperture should also be taken into consideration, as the
effectiveness of the radiation depends upon the area of the
Where
aperture, physically on the antenna.

Mathematical Expression  ηe is the antenna efficiency.

The mathematical expression for aperture efficiency is as follows −
 Prad is the power radiated.
 Pinput is the input power for the antenna.

d) Antenna Gain
where  According to the standard definition, “Gain of an antenna is the
ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction to the radiation
 εA is Aperture Efficiency. intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
 Aeff is effective area. antenna were radiated isotropically.”
 Ap is physical area.  Simply, gain of an antenna takes the directivity of antenna into
account along with its effective performance. If the power accepted
by the antenna was radiated isotropically (that means in all
c) Antenna Efficiency
directions), then the radiation intensity we get can be taken as a
referential.
 According to the standard definition, “Antenna Efficiency is the ratio
 The term antenna gain describes how much power is transmitted
of the radiated power of the antenna to the input power accepted
in the direction of peak radiation to that of an isotropic source.
by the antenna.”
 Gain is usually measured in dB.
 Simply, an Antenna is meant to radiate power given at its input, with
 Unlike directivity, antenna gain takes the losses that occur also into
minimum losses. The efficiency of an antenna explains how much an
account and hence focuses on the efficiency.
antenna is able to deliver its output effectively with minimum losses
in the transmission line.This is otherwise called as Radiation
Mathematical Expression
Efficiency Factor of the antenna.
The equation of gain, G is as shown below.
Mathematical Expression
The mathematical expression for antenna efficiency is given below −

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Where f) VSWR & Reflected Power

 G is gain of the antenna. According to the accepted definition of the voltage standing wave ratio, it
 ηe is the antenna’s efficiency. is the ratio of the greatest voltage to the lowest voltage in a standing wave.
 D is the directivity of the antenna.
The power cannot be properly disseminated if the circuitry, transmission
line, and antenna impedances are not compatible. The electricity is partially
e) Impedance Matching reflected back instead.

The usual definition states that "Impedance matching" occurs when the The essential traits are:
approximate values of the impedances of a transmitter and receiver are
equal or when they are opposite. 1. The phrase "VSWR" denotes the impedance mismatch.

Between the electronics and the antenna, impedance matching is required. 2. VSWR stands for Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. Another term for it is
In order to maximize power transfer between the antenna and the receiver SWR.
or transmitter, the electronics, transmission line, and antenna impedances
3. The value of VSWR will increase with the degree of impedance
all should be compatible.
mismatch.
 Need for impedance Matching 4. For effective radiation, VSWR should ideally be 1:1

A resonant device is one that produces more power within a narrow range 5. The power lost from the forward power is known as reflected power.
of frequencies. Such resonant devices include antennas, whose output is Reflected power and VSWR both point to the same conclusion.
improved if the impedance is matched. The unit of impedance (Z) is Ohms.
g) Bandwidth
1. If the antenna impedance equals the impedance of empty space, the
The standard definition of bandwidth is "a band of frequencies in a
power emitted by the antenna will be successfully radiated.
wavelength, designated for the particular transmission."
2. The output impedance of the antenna being utilized as the receiver
should match the input impedance of the receiver amplifier circuit. The signal is spread across a number of frequencies when it is sent or
received. This specific frequency band is reserved for a certain signal so that
3. For a transmitter antenna, the transmission line impedance, the other signals won't interfere with it while it's being transmitted.
transmitter amplifier's output impedance, and the antenna's input
impedance all need to match. 1. The range of frequencies between higher and lower frequencies
through which a signal is carried is known as the bandwidth.

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 2. Once allocated, the bandwidth is unavailable to other users. i) Effective Aperture Size
3. To assign distinct transmitters different bandwidths are created Effective aperture size is defined so that the power density at a receive
from the entire spectrum. antenna when multiplied by its effective aperture size, AR, yields the power
output from the antenna at its connector. An antenna has an effective size
Absolute Bandwidth is another name for the bandwidth we just discussed. that is more than its actual physical size because of its influence on the EM
fields around it. The effective aperture size of an antenna is the area of the
h) Radio Intensity surface that captures all of the power passing through it and delivers this
power to the output terminals of the antenna.
 "The power per unit solid angle is used to define radiation intensity."
 An antenna's maximum intensity is indicated by the radiation it The effective aperture area of a receive antenna, AR, is related to the
emits, which is more intense in a certain direction. Radiation receive antenna gain, GR, as follows
intensity is nothing more than the emission of radiation to the
greatest degree achievable.
 Mathematical Expression for Radio Intensity
 The power radiated is multiplied by the square of the radial distance
to obtain the radiation intensity.
where λ is the wavelength of the radio signal. The effective aperture area
of an antenna can have little to do with its physical size; e.g., a wire
antenna has almost no physical size but has a significant effective aperture
size.
Where,
If Sr is the transmitted power density at the receive antenna, the power
U - Radiation Intensity received is

r - Radial distance

Wrad - Power radiated

The power density at a distance d (ignoring multipath effects),is
 The radiation intensity of an antenna is shown by the equation
above. Additionally, the radial distance function is denoted by the
symbol Φ.
 Watts/steradian or Watts/radian2 is the unit used to measure
radiation intensity.
 The focus of the beam and its effectiveness in that direction
have a direct impact on the radiation intensity of an antenna.
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where PT is the power input to the transmit antenna with antenna gain GT. vary due to a number of different factors, such as the antenna type, antenna
The power delivered by the receive antenna is design, orientation, and radio frequency.
Antenna beamwidth and gain have an inverse relationship. Decreasing the
beamwidth i.e., a narrow beamwidth will result in a higher gain. This is because,
with a narrow beamwidth, power transfer will be increased in a particular direction.

j) RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNA Antenna beamwidth is a helpful analytical parameter for a number of
practical applications, including:
Radiation Pattern of Antenna shows the distribution of energy radiated by
the antenna in space. More simply, the radiation pattern is a trace out that  To plan antenna coverage in a given area.
corresponds to the radiation properties of the antenna in space coordinates
 To determine whether neighboring antennas will interfere with
(i.e., with respect to angle and distance).
each other.
It is a graphical way of showcasing the radiation from the antenna as a
function of direction and also known as Field Strength Pattern.  To assist in improving the performance of communication links.
The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation  Network mobility development.
pattern of the antenna. Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical
representations of the distribution of radiated energy into space, as a  Half Power Beam Width (HPBW):
function of direction.
It is the angle between the two points (called half power points or -3 dB point) on
the radiation pattern where the power is half of the maximum value. A narrower
L) beam width of an antenna
HPBW indicates a more directional antenna with a higher gain, while a wider HPBW
Antenna beamwidth is the angular span of the main lobe of the antenna indicates a less directional antenna with a lower gain
radiation pattern, which is the region of the pattern where most of the
power is radiated. The beamwidth is commonly measured at the angle
between two points on either side of the main lobe (also known as the half-
power points or -3dB point), where the power radiated drops to half of its
maximum value. The beamwidth is measured in degrees, and it may be
measured in the horizontal or vertical planes.

The beamwidth of an antenna is an important parameter because it

determines the directionality and coverage area of the antenna. A narrow
beamwidth indicates a highly directional antenna that is well-suited for long-
range communication, while a wider beamwidth is better suited for short-
range communication and for covering a broader area. The beamwidth will

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  First null beamwidth (FNBW):
Here R represents the resistance of the input terminal of the antenna.
It is the angle between the first nulls adjacent to the main lobe where the
power is zero. The FNBW is an important parameter for antenna designers
Further on considering the imaginary part, we will have
because it determines the antenna's ability to reject signals/interference
from unwanted directions. A narrower FNBW indicates a better ability to
reject signals from unwanted directions, while a wider FNBW indicates a
lower ability to reject signals/interference from unwanted directions.
So, if we have a transmitting antenna that is radiating some power then
impedance Z will be present behind it. This is known as the impedance of
m) Input Impedance of Antenna the antenna.
This impedance is a merger of resistance and reactance thereby forming a
Definition: The input impedance of antenna is basically the impedance complex value.
offered by the antenna at its terminals. It is defined as the ratio of voltage
to the current across the two input terminals of the antenna. Generally, Antenna Resistance
the antenna impedance is given as:
Suppose we have an antenna with input terminals x and y:

We have already discussed in our previous article that antennas are used
in wireless communication in order to transmit the signal in the form of
waves. It is designed to change electrical energy into the electromagnetic
signals at the transmitting end. While electromagnetic signal back to
electrical one at the receiving end.

So, it basically integrates the electric field and magnetic field in order to
generate voltage and current so as to actuate electrical devices. Thus the
antenna impedance at a point is also given as the ratio of electric field to
the magnetic field at that particular point.

Hence we can say that the impedance provided by the antenna at its input
terminal is known as antenna impedance. The power radiated by the input terminal of the antenna is given as:

We know that when a certain voltage is provided to any transmitting

antenna then it generates current by following ohm’s law.

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Since the total input power is the sum of radiated power and power loss, Thus we can say that the input resistance will be the sum of radiation
resistance and the loss resistance. Therefore the figure below represents
the input impedance of antenna:
Thus we can write it as:

This is so because all the supplied power is not radiated as some amount of
power is lost.

Hence the radiated power will be:

While loss / dissipated power will be:

Derivation of supplied power to the Antenna
On substituting the obtained value of Pr and PL in eq 1, we will have:
Suppose we have a configuration given below:

Also putting the value of Pin we will have

As the total current will be the sum of radiation current and loss current.
Therefore writing the above equation as:

On simplifying
Here the two input terminals x and y of the antenna are connected across
a generator.

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One must note here that the generator will also have some internal The resistive part of the antenna which we have already derived is given
impedance. So, consider the impedance of the generator be Zg. as:
We know that the impedance is given as:

Let us now consider the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit shown above in

Therefore order to determine the power delivered to Rr for radiation and the power
dissipated in the form of heat in RL.
So, firstly we need to determine the current within the loop itself,

 Here Rg denotes the resistance of the generator

 While Xg denotes reactance of the generator
So, drawing the equivalent circuit of the generator antenna configuration
Therefore, by ohm’s law
given above:
Here Vg is the maximum generator voltage while Zt denotes the total

impedance present in the loop. Thus

Further on simplifying,

Since RA = Rr + RL
Therefore, we will have
For transmitting antenna, the impedance will be given as

 Here ZA is the impedance of the antenna,

 RA is the antenna resistance, Further
 XA denotes antenna reactance

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So, considering the magnitude form Also, the power dissipated on the internal resistance of the generator will
be given as:

Thus we can say the radiation power Pr will be

The condition of maximum delivered power to the antenna is achievable
in case of conjugate matching. This means

So, on substituting the value of Ig

So, we will have

Thus the power by the generator to the antenna for radiation will be

The dissipated power

Therefore

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Similarly

The supplied power by the generator

And

Therefore,

So, we can say the overall power generated by the generator is the sum of
the power dissipated by the internal resistance of the generator and the
power supplied to the antenna, in case of conjugate matching.

It is noteworthy here that the generated power must be equal to the sum While, out of the overall power which is supplied to the antenna by the
of radiated power and the dissipated power in the form of heat. generator, a part is radiated utilizing radiation resistance, while the rest is
dissipated in the form of heat. This dissipated power in the form of heat
alters the efficiency of the antenna.

So, on substituting

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6) HORN ANTENNAS Horn Antenna Design

What is Horn Antenna? In this antenna, the fraction of incident energy can be radiated from the
entry of the waveguide and the rest of the energy will be reflected back
A Horn antenna is a type of aperture antenna which is specially designed for from the same entry because of the open entry, the poor impedance
microwave frequencies. The end of the antenna is widened or in the horn matching will exist in between the space & waveguide. Also, at the edges of
shape. Because of this structure, there is larger directivity so that the the waveguide, diffraction affects the poor radiating capacity of the
emitted signal can be easily transmitted to long distances. Horn antennas waveguide.
operate in microwave frequency, so the frequency range of these antennas So to overcome the drawbacks of the waveguide, its end is opened in an
is super high or ultra-high which ranges from 300 MHz – 30 GHz. electromagnetic horn form. So that a smooth transition can be allowed in

These antennas are used as feed horns for big antennas like parabolic between the space & waveguide thus offering better directivity toward the
antennas directive antennas, etc. The benefits of using these antennas are radio wave.
simple design & adjustment, low SWR (standing wave ratio), moderate By changing the waveguide like a horn structure, the existing discontinuity
directivity, and broad bandwidth. in between the space & waveguide, 377 ohms impedance is eliminated. So
this provides the incident energy to be emitted in the forwarding direction
Horn Antenna Design & Working by decreasing the diffraction on the edges. Therefore the transmitting
antenna’s directivity can be enhanced with superior gain.
Horn antenna design can be done with a flared waveguide which is formed The working of the horn antenna is as follows, once the waveguide’s one
as a horn. These are used to transmit and receive RF microwave signals. end is excited then the field can be generated. In general, the fields within
Usually, these are used in combination with waveguide feeds & direct radio the waveguide & free space will transmit in a similar way. But, in the case
waves within a narrow beam. Here, the flared portion can be in any shape of propagation with the waveguide, the pnm,ropagating field can be
like square, conical or rectangular. For proper working, this antenna should controlled through the waveguide walls so the field will not pass spherically
be in minimum size. If the wavelength is very large or the horn size is very as this is not the case through free-space propagation. Once the traversing
small then the antenna will not work properly. field arrives at the waveguide end then it transmits in the same way as the
free space. So, at the waveguide end, spherical wavefronts can be attained.

17
 Types of Horn Antenna So in this antenna, flaring can be performed simply through one of the
waveguide walls. Further, these are classified into two types E-plane and H-
Horn antennas are classified into different types pyramidal, conical and plane.
exponential.
 E-plane
 Pyramidal Horn Antenna Once one of the waveguide walls in an antenna is flared with the
As the name suggests, this antenna is in a pyramid shape through a electric field vector direction is called an E-plane antenna.
rectangular cross-section. This antenna can be formed by flaring both the
waveguide walls. In this antenna, a rectangular waveguide is utilized & the  H-plan
flaring can be done within both the direction of magnetic and electric field Once the waveguide walls in an antenna are flared with the
vectors. These antennas are simply used to radiate linearly polarized radio magnetic field vector direction then it is called an H-plane antenna.
waves & used with rectangular waveguides
RADIATION PATTERN OF HORN ANTENNA

 The horn antenna radiation pattern is a Spherical Wavefront which is

shown in the following figure. In this antenna, the waves move as spherical
wavefronts to downward of a horn through their source at the top of the
horn known as the phase center.

 Sectoral Horn Antenna

It is a type of antenna where only one pair of faces are flared whereas the
other pair is in parallel. It generates a fan-shaped thin beam in the flared
side’s plane, however broad in the narrow side’s plane. These types of
antennas are frequently used as feed horns, especially for wide search
radar antennas. (Radiation Pattern)

 The electric & magnetic fields pattern at the aperture plane at the entrance
of the horn will determine the radiation pattern. As the wavefronts are
spherical, then phase will be increased smoothly from the aperture plane
edges to the center, due to the dissimilarity within the center point length
& the edge points from the apex point which is known as the phase error.

18
 This error will be increased through the flare angle, so increases the ADVANTAGES OF HORN ANTENNA
beamwidth & decreases the gain by providing wider beamwidths horns
than parabolic dishes. Once the horn size is increased, then phase error will  These antennas can operate over a wide bandwidth, wide range of
be increased and provide a wider radiation pattern to the horn. frequencies since they don’t have resonant elements.
 The beamwidth of the horn antenna is 10:1 ratio (1 GHz – 10 GHz) which is
 Maintaining the beamwidth narrow needs a longer horn to maintain the common and 20:1 is possible.
phase error stable. The rising phase error restricts the size of aperture for  Designing is simple.
 These antennas have a low SWR (standing wave ratio that means they
 practical horns to 15 wavelengths because larger apertures need long reduce standing waves.
horns impractically. So this restricts the practical horns gain to 30 dBi & the  Good impedance matching.
equivalent smallest beam width to 5 to 10°.  Better directivity.
 Avoided standing waves.
GAIN OF HORN ANTENNA  The nonexistence of a resonance
 element within the construction allows it to work over a wide bandwidth.
 It is extremely directional within nature thus providing higher directivity.
The gain of horn antenna can be calculated very easily through design
 It provides fewer reflections.
parameters of horn antenna like axial length, path difference, flare angle,
and aperture dimension. Generally, Pyramidal horns are designed to give
DISADVANTAGES OF HORN ANTENNA
optimal gain. So the gain of this antenna over an isotropic source that
equally emits in all directions can be simply derived from the following
 These antennas will radiate energy in spherical wavefront shape, thus this
formula:
antenna does not provide a directive or sharp beam.
Gain = 4πAeA/λ^2  They have limited gain like 20 dB, so in order to enhance the antenna gain,
The gain formula for a conical horn antenna can be expressed as
the opening of the horn should be made larger so that the length of the
Gain = (π dλ^)2 eA horn will become excessive.
Where,  Flare angle design will decide the directivity
‘A’ is the physical region of the aperture  The length of the flare & Flare angle should not be extremely small.
‘d’ is the diameter of an antenna aperture  The antenna’s directivity depends on the flare angle.
‘λ’ is the wavelength  The flare dimensions must be adequately large otherwise it will make the
‘eA’ is the aperture efficiency antenna bulky sometimes.

The operating of this antenna can be done very efficiently. So the flare of
this antenna gives a flat match among the free space & waveguide. Its
APPLICATIONS OF HORN ANTENNA
angle will affect many properties like gain & directivity.
 These are used mainly for astronomical studies, microwave-based
applications, feed elements, laboratories to measure different antenna
parameters..

19
 At microwave frequencies, these are used wherever moderate gains are
adequate.
 The horn dimensions must be high for high gain to use in moderate gain
operations.
 These types of antennas are applicable in speed enforcement cameras to
keep away from reflections that interrupt the desired response.

7) PARABOLIC REFLECTOR ANTENNAS

 Frequency Range
The frequency range used for the application of Parabolic reflector
antennas is above 1MHz. These antennas are widely used for radio and
wireless applications.

Principle of Operation The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection are equal. This law when used along with a parabola, helps the
beam focus. The shape of the parabola when used for the purpose of
The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point, which moves in reflection of waves, exhibits some properties of the parabola, which are
such a way that its distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its helpful for building an antenna, using the waves reflected.
distance from a straight line (called directrix) is constant.
Properties of Parabola
The following figure shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The point F is
the focus (feed is given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F and V is the
 All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis.
axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected rays where L represents the line
Hence, all the waves reaching the aperture are in phase.
directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say that they are being
 As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic axis
collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L
will be strong and concentrated.
lie constant with respect to the waves being focussed.
Following these points, the parabolic reflectors help in producing high
The reflected wave forms a colllimated wave front, out of the parabolic
directivity with narrower beam width.
shape. The ratio of focal length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over
D ratio” is an important parameter of parabolic reflector. Its value varies
from 0.25 to 0.50.

20
Working Principle of Parabolic Reflector antenna  It is to be noted here that, if there is any deviation of the surface of
the reflector from an actual paraboloid then it must not be more
than some fraction of wavelength.
 Consider having a parabolic reflector in receiving mode and where
the feed element is present at the focus. The crucial function of the Thus, all the collimated waves from the reflecting surface have equal path
parabolic reflector is to change the spherical wave into a plane wave. length i.e., twice the focal length with a similar phase. This will lead to
 So, at the focus when a feed antenna is placed which is nothing but provide very high radiation in the direction of the parabolic axis. In this
an isotropic source then the waves are emitted from the source. way, the spherical wave from the feed is converted into a plane wave.
 The radiating element used at the focus is generally dipole or horn
antenna, which are used to illuminate the reflecting surface.
 Thus, the waves emitted from the source, incident on the surface of
the reflector and are further reflected back as a plane wave of
Construction & Working of a Parabolic Reflector
circular cross-section. This is represented below: antenna

If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal

from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave
on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come out of the focal point
and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected
as collimated wave front, as discussed previously, to get transmitted.

The same antenna is used as a receiver. When the electromagnetic wave

hits the shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point.
The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna at its
feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to
the receiver circuitry.

The following image shows a Parabolic Reflector Antenna.

 As we can see clearly in the above figure that the waves from the
feed incidents at different points on the parabolic surface. However,
all the waves after reflection are collimated and the plane waves
travel in the direction parallel to the axis.

21
The gain of the paraboloid is a function of aperture ratio (D/λ). The Effective Working of a Cassegrain Antenna
Radiated Power (ERP) of an antenna is the multiplication of the input power
fed to the antenna and its power gain.
When the antenna acts as a transmitting antenna, the energy from the
Usually a wave guide horn antenna is used as a feed radiator for the feed radiates through a horn antenna onto the hyperboloid concave
paraboloid reflector antenna. Along with this technique, we have another reflector, which again reflects back on to the parabolic reflector. The signal
type of feed given to the paraboloid reflector antenna, called as Cassegrain gets reflected into the space from there. Hence, wastage of power is
feed. controlled and the directivity gets improved.

When the same antenna is used for reception, the electromagnetic waves
 Cassegrain Feed (cassegrain feed antenna) strike the reflector, gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and from
Casse grain is another type of feed given to the reflector antenna. In this there, it reaches to the feed. A wave guide horn antenna presents there to
type, the feed is located at the vertex of the paraboloid, unlike in the receive this signal and sends to the receiver circuitry for amplification.
parabolic reflector.
A convex shaped reflector, which acts as a hyperboloid is placed opposite
Take a look at the following image. It shows a paraboloid reflector with
to the feed of the antenna. It is also known as secondary hyperboloid
cassegrain feed.
reflector or sub-reflector. It is placed such that its one of the foci coincides
with the focus of the paraboloid. Thus, the wave gets reflected twice.

22
  Gregorian Feed antenna
 Cut- paraboloid
 Parabolic cylinde
This is another type of feed used. A pair of certain configurations are there,  Pill-box paraboloid
where the feed beamwidth is progressively increased while antenna
dimensions are held fixed. Such a type of feed is known as Gregorian feed.
However, all of them are seldom used because of the limitations and
Here, the convex shaped hyperboloid of casssegrain is replaced with a
disavantages they have in their working conditions.Hence, of all the types
concave shaped paraboloid reflector, which is of course, smaller in size.
of reflector antennas, the simple parabolic reflectors and the cassegrain
feed parabolic reflectors are the most commonly used ones.
These Gregorian feed type reflectors can be used in four ways −

 Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F1.

Radiation Pattern of Parabolic Reflector
 Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F2.
 Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (convex). The figure shown below represents the radiation pattern of a paraboloid:
 Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (concave but the feed
being very near to it.)

These are all just to mention because they are not popular and are not
widely used. They have got their limitations.

It is clear from the figure that the beam results in sharp major lobe with
several side lobes. Also, the 3D orientation of the major lobe in the axial
direction looks like a fat cigar.
The figure clearly depicts the working pattern of all the types of reflectors.
There are other types of paraboloid Reflectors such as −

23
GAIN OF PARABOLIC REFLECTOR Advantages of parabolic reflector antennas
The parabolic antenna gain can easily be calculated from a knowledge of the  Reduction of minor lobes
diameter of the reflecting surface, the wavelength of the signal, and a  Wastage of power is reduced
knowledge or estimate of the efficiency of the antenna.  Equivalent focal length is achieved
 Feed can be placed in any location, according to our convenience
The parabolic reflector antenna gain is calculated as the gain over an  Adjustment of beam (narrowing or widening) is done by adjusting the
isotropic source, i.e. relative to a source that radiates equally in all directions. reflecting surfaces
This is a theoretical source that is used as the benchmark against which most
antennas are compared. The gain is quoted in this manner is denoted as dBi. Disadvantage parabolic reflector antennas
The standard formula for the parabolic reflector antenna gain is:
 Some of the power that gets reflected from the parabolic reflector is
obstructed. This becomes a problem with small dimension paraboloid.

Applications parabolic reflector antennas

 The cassegrain feed parabolic reflector is mainly used in satellite

communications.
 Also used in wireless telecommunication systems.

24
 8) MICROSTRIP ANTENNA  There are different microstrip antenna shapes like square, dipole,
rectangular, circular, elliptical, and dipole. We know that patches can be
formed in various shapes but, because of the easy in fabrication, circular,
Micro strip antennas are low-profile antennas. A metal patch mounted at a
square & rectangular shaped patches are normally used.
ground level with a di-electric material in-between constitutes a Micro
strip or Patch Antenna. These are very low size antennas having low
radiation.  Microstrip antennas can also be formed with a group of various patches
above a dielectric substrate. Either single or numerous feed lines are
utilized to give excitation to the microstrip antenna. So the presence of
Frequency Range of microstrip antenna
microstrip element arrays provides better directivity, high gain, and
increased range of transmission with low interference.
The patch antennas are popular for low profile applications at frequencies
above 100MHz.
Working of Microstrip Antenna
 A microstrip antenna works as; whenever current throughout a feed line
Microstrip Antenna Construction arrives at the microstrip antenna’s strip, then electromagnetic waves are
produced.
 Microstrip antenna design can be done with the help of an extremely thin  So these waves from the patch will start radiating from the width side.
metallic strip by arranging it on a ground plane in between a dielectric However, when the strip thickness is very small, the waves produced in the
material. substrate will get reflected through the strip edge.
 Here, the dielectric material is a substrate used for separating the strip  The constant strip structure along the length does not allow radiation
from the ground plane. Once this antenna is excited, then the generated emission.
waves in the di-electric undergo reflections & the energy emitted from the  The microstrip antenna’s low radiating capability allows for covering only
metal patch edges is very low. wave transmissions with small distances like stores, indoor locations, or
 These antenna shapes are identified by the metallic patch shape arranged local offices.
on the dielectric material.  So this inefficient wave transmission is not acceptable in a centralized
locality in a very large area. Usually, hemispherical coverage is given by a
patch antenna at a 30⁰ – 180⁰ angle at a distance from the mount.

Characteristics of microstrip antenna

 The microstrip antenna patch should be an extremely thin conductive

region.
Microstrip Antenna Construction  As compared to a patch, the ground plane should have fairly extremely
large dimensions.
 Generally, the strip/patch & the feed lines are photo-etched on the surface
of the substrate.

25
 Photo-etching on the substrate is done to construct the radiating element The microstrip antenna radiation pattern is broad and it has less radiation
& feed lines. power & narrow frequency BW. The microstrip antenna’s radiation pattern
 A thick dielectric substrate by the dielectric constant in the 2.2 to 12 range is shown below which lesser directivity has. By using these antennas, an
offers excellent performance of an antenna. array can be formed to have a superior directivity.
 Microstrip element arrays in the microstrip antenna design offer superior
directivity. The radiation pattern of a microstrip or patch antenna is shown above. It
 Microstrip antennas offer high beam width. has lesser directivity. To have a greater directivity, an array can be formed
 This antenna provides extremely high-quality factors because a high Q by using these patch antennas.
factor results in a low efficiency & slight bandwidth. But, this can be
compensated by simply increasing the width of the substrate. However, the Advantages of microstrip antenna
increase in width beyond a particular limit will cause an unnecessary power
loss.  Lighteweight
 Low cost
Radiation Pattern of microstrip antenna  Ease of installation

The graphical representation of the antenna’s radiation properties is Disadvantages of microstrip antenna
known as radiation pattern which explains how the antenna emits energy
into space. The variation in the power as an arrival angle’s function is
 Inefficient radiation
monitored in the far field of the antenna.
 Narrow frequency bandwidth

Applications of microstrip antenna

 Used in Space craft applications

 Used in Air craft applications
 Used in Low profile antenna applications

Microstrip Antenna Types:

a) Microstrip Dipole Antenna
The microstrip dipole antenna is a thin microstrip conductor and is placed
on the actual part of the substrate & it is covered totally with metal on one
face known as the ground plane. These antennas are used in digital
communication devices like computers & the nodes for WLAN. The width of

26
this type of antenna is small so it can be utilized at the entrée point of the
WLAN system.

d)Microstrip Patch Antenna

These types of antennas are low-profile antennas where a metal patch is
arranged at ground level through a dielectric material in-between
comprising a strip (or) Patch Antenna. These antennas are extremely low
b) Printed Slot Antenna size antennas with low radiation. This antenna includes a radiating patch on
Printed slot antenna plays a key role in enhancing the antenna’s bandwidth one face of a dielectric substrate and on the other side, it has a ground
with radiation patterns in both directions. This antenna’s sensitivity is low as plane.
compared to the normal antennas. These antennas are required throughout
a feed line which is arranged reverse to the substrate & vertically to the slot Generally, the patch is made with conducting material like gold or copper.
axis provided above the patch. These types of antennas can be formed with a microstrip method by simply
fabricating on a PCB. These antennas are used in microwave frequency
applications which have greater frequency than 100 MHz.

C) Microstrip Travelling Wave Antenna

Microstrip traveling wave antennas are mainly designed with a long
Microstrip line by sufficient width for supporting the TE connectivity. These
types of microchip antennas are designed in such a way that the major beam
lies within any route from broadside to end fire.

27
 9) Microstrip Patch Antenna  When current through a feed line reaches the strip present on the antenna
,it leads to the generation of electromagnetic waves.
Construction And Geometry of Microstrip Patch Antenna  The waves from patch generate a radiation pattern as waves begin to
 A microstrip patch antenna consists of a thin metallic patch of any radiate from the sides of the patch.
shape on a dielectric slab whose other side is grounded. The  The waves produced depends upon the thickness of the substrate, due to
thickness of the dielectric slab is from 0.03λ- 0.05λ. the small thickness of substrate , the waves get reflected from the edges.
 The dimensions of the patch are in the range λ/3 to λ/2 with the  It is important to note that the continuous structure of strip doesn’t let the
dielectric of the slab varying from 2.2 to 12. The choice of substrate emission of the radiation. After certain discontinuity , transmission of
is limited by the RF or Microwave circuit coupled with the antenna radiation again begins from the second side of patch.
that has to be built on the same board.  Patch antenna only radiates certain portion of energy which makes it
 Microwave circuit and antenna are usually etched together using inefficient. It acts more of a like cavity than a transmitter .The inefficient
photo-etching technology. radiation doesn’t allow it to be used widely.

Characteristics of Microstrip Patch Antenna

The major characteristic of microstrip is the radiating patch present on the

grounded substrate. It is characterised by properties like light weight, low
profile configuration, easy fabrication.

 The thickness of the substrate lies between 0.03λ- 0.05λ and we generally
prefer thick substrate with low dielectric coefficient for better radiation
efficiency.
 It shows both linear and circular polarization unlike microstrip dipole
antenna which only shows linear polarization.
 It has flexibility in shape and can be of any shape like circular, elliptical,
triangular, ring sector etc.
 It has a narrow bandwidth typically around 5% particularly due to its
constraint in size.
 Sometimes the coupling between the patch and the antenna can result in
fringing where the waves begin to emit from edges of patch into space
making the patch appear larger than its usual dimensions.
Working of Microstrip Patch Antenna

 The microstrip patch contains a conducting patch on a dielectric slab whose

other side is grounded.

28
  Generally we represent a normalized radiation pattern, a normalized
radiation pattern is scaled relative to some value.
 The radiation pattern is quite broad a hemispherical coverage is provided
by a patch antenna at an angle of 30⁰ to 180⁰.
 The radiation power as seen is low with narrow frequency band.
 It has lesser directivity around 5-7db. To have a greater directivity, an array
can be formed by using these patch antennas.

 Types of Microstrip Patch Antenna

There are various types of microstrip patch antenna: Square, Rectangular,

(Fringing Effect) Dipole, Circular, Ellipse, Triangular, Disc Sector, Circular Ring

Radiation Pattern of Microstrip Patch Antenna

 Square:
The microstrip patch antenna which has a square-shaped radiating patch is
called square type microstrip antenna. This type of antenna is widely used
in many devices and can find large applications primarily due to its ease of
design.
 Rectangular:
The microstrip patch antenna which has a rectangular-shaped radiating
patch is called rectangular type microstrip antenna. This type of antenna is
majorly used in communication systems because it offers flexibility in tuning.
29
 Dipole: Construction & Working of Loop Antennas
The microstrip patch antenna which has a radiating patch similar to the
structure of dipole therefor it is called dipole type microstrip antenna. It is A loop antenna is a coil carrying radio frequency current. It may be in any
primarily know to offer broadband performance and is used in applications shape such as circular, rectangular, triangular, square or hexagonal
that demand broader frequency coverage. according to the designer’s convenience.
 Circular:
The microstrip patch antenna which has a circular-shaped radiating patch is Loop antennas are of two types.
called circular type microstrip antenna. This type is suitable to perform
circular polarization. It is also used in satellite and mobile communication.  Large loop antennas
 Ellipse:  Small loop antennas
The microstrip patch antenna which has a elliptical-shaped radiating patch a) Large loop antennas
is called elliptical type microstrip antenna. It offers a different radiation
pattern than other types thereby can be used specifically when such Large loop antennas are also called as resonant antennas. They have high
radiation pattern in required. radiation efficiency. These antennas have length nearly equal to the
 Triangular: intended wavelength.
The microstrip patch antenna which has a triangular-shaped radiating patch
is called triangular type microstrip antenna. It is a very uncommon type and
can be advantageous due to its shape. L=λ
 Disc Sector:
The microstrip patch antenna which has a disc-sector-shaped radiating patch Where,
is called disc sector type microstrip antenna. Its major advantage is that it
 L is the length of the antenna
provides directional radiation and is used where specific angles are required.
 λ is the wavelength
 Circular Ring:
The microstrip patch antenna which has a circular ring-shaped radiating
The main parameter of this antenna is its perimeter length, which is about
patch is called circular ring type microstrip antenna. It has the property of
a wavelength and should be an enclosed loop. It is not a good idea to
variation in radiation characteristics.
meander the loop so as to reduce the size, as that increases capacitive
effects and results in low efficiency.
10) LOOP ANTENNA & ITS TYPES

An RF current carrying coil is given a single turn into a loop, can be used as
b) Small loop antennas
an antenna called as loop antenna. The currents through this loop antenna
will be in phase. The magnetic field will be perpendicular to the whole loop Small loop antennas are also called as magnetic loop antennas. These are
carrying the current. The frequency range of operation of loop antenna is less resonant. These are mostly used as receivers.
around 300MHz to 3GHz. This antenna works in UHF range.
These antennas are of the size of one-tenth of the wavelength

30
L=λ/10 Radiation Pattern of loop antenna

Where, The radiation pattern of these antennas will be same as that of short
horizontal dipole antenna.
 L is the length of the antenna
 λ is the wavelength

The features of small loop antennas are −

 A small loop antenna has low radiation resistance. If multi-turn

ferrite core constructions are used, then high radiation resistance
can be achieved.
 It has low radiation efficiency due to high losses.
 Its construction is simple with small size and weight.

Due to its high reactance, its impedance is difficult to match with the
transmitter. If loop antenna have to act as transmitting antenna, then this
impedance mis-match would definitely be a problem. Hence, these loop
antennas are better operated as receiver antennas.

Polarization of Loop

The polarization of the loop antenna will be vertically or horizontally

polarized depending upon the feed position. The vertical polarization is
given at the center of the vertical side while the horizontal polarization is The radiation pattern for small, high-efficiency loop antennas is shown in
given at the center of the horizontal side, depending upon the shape of the the figure given above. The radiation patterns for different angles of
loop antenna. looping are also illustrated clearly in the figure. The tangent line at 0°
indicates vertical polarization, whereas the line with 90° indicates
The small loop antenna is generally a linearly polarized one. When such a horizontal polarization.
small loop antenna is mounted on top of a portable receiver, whose output
is connected to a meter, it becomes a great direction Advantages of loop antenna
 Compact in size
 High directivity

31
 Disadvantages of loop antenna The following figure shows the connection made by the sidearm to the bi-
 Impedance matching may not be always good directional waveguide to form the serial port.
 Has very high resonance quality factor

Applications of loop antenna

 Used in RFID devices
 Used in MF, HF and Short wave receivers
 Used in Aircraft receivers for direction finding
 Used in UHF transmitters

11) H-PLANE TEE (SHUNT TEE) & SCATTERING MATRIX

Properties of H-Plane Tee
An H-Plane Tee junction is formed by attaching a simple waveguide to a
rectangular waveguide which already has two ports. The arms of rectangular The properties of H-Plane Tee can be defined by its [S]3×3 matrix.
waveguides make two ports called collinear ports i.e., Port1 and Port2,
while the new one, Port3 is called as Side arm or H-arm. This H-plane Tee is It is a 3×3 matrix as there are 3 possible inputs and 3 possible outputs.
also called as Shunt Tee.

As the axis of the side arm is parallel to the magnetic field, this junction is
called H-Plane Tee junction. This is also called as Current junction, as the
magnetic field divides itself into arms. The cross-sectional details of H-plane
tee can be understood by the following figure. EQ…1

Scattering coefficients S13𝑆13 and S23𝑆23 are equal here as the junction is
symmetrical in plane. From the symmetric property,

The port is perfectly matched

S33=0
32
Now, the [S] matrix can be written as,

EQ…8

EQ…2

From the Unitary property

Multiplying we get,

EQ…3
Substituting for S13, S1, S12 and S22 from equation 7 and 10, 11 and 12 in
equation 2, We get,
EQ…4

EQ…5

EQ…6
We know that [b] = [s][a]

EQ…7
33
 The figure clearly distinguishes the virtual height (height of wave,
supposed to be reflected) and actual height (the refracted height). If the
virtual height is known, the angle of incidence can be found.

12) Critical Frequency

Critical frequency for a layer determines the highest frequency that will be
This is the scattering matrix for H-Plane Tee, which explains its scattering returned down to the earth by that layer, after having been beamed by the
properties. transmitter, straight up into the sky.

11) Virtual Height The rate of ionization density, when changed conveninetly through the
layers, the wave will be bent downwards. The maximum frequency that
When a wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, but not sharply. gets bent and reaches the receiver station with minimum attenuation, can
However, the path of incident wave and reflected wave are same if it is be termed as critical frequency. This is denoted by fc.
reflected from a surface located at a greater height of this layer. Such a
greater height is termed as virtual height. 13) Multi-path

For the frequencies above 30 MHz, the sky wave propagation exists. Signal
multipath is the common problem for the propagation of electromagnetic
waves going through Sky wave. The wave, which is reflected from the
ionosphere, can be called as a hop or skip. There can be a number of hops
for the signal as it may move back and forth from the ionosphere and earth
surface many times. Such a movement of signal can be termed
as multipath.

34
The above figure shows an example of multi-path propagation. Multipath 17)Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
propagation is a term, which describes the multiple paths a signal travels to
reach the destination. These paths include a number of hops. The paths may The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular transmission and
be the results of reflection, refraction or even diffraction. Finally, when the which has been predicted to be used over a particular period of time, over
signal from such different paths gets to the receiver, it carries propagation a path, is termed as Optimum Working Frequency (OWF).
delay, additional noise, phase differences etc., which decrease the quality of
the received output. 18)Inter Symbol Interference

14)Fading Inter symbol interference (ISI) occurs more commonly in communication

system. This is the main reason for signal multipath also. When signals arrive
 The decrease in the quality of the signal can be termed as fading. at the receiving stations via different propagation paths, they cancel out
This happens because of atmospheric effects or reflections due to each other, which is known as the phenomenon of signal fading. Here, it
multipath. should be remembered that the signals cancel out themselves in vector way.
 Fading refers to the variation of the signal strength with respect to
time/distance. It is widely prevalent in wireless transmissions. 19)Skin Depth
 The most common causes of fading in the wireless environment are
multipath propagation and mobility (of objects as well as the Electromagnetic waves are not suitable for underwater propagations.
communicating devices). However, they can propagate under water provided we make the frequency
of propagation extremely low. The attenuation of electromagnetic waves
15)Skip Distance under water is expressed in terms of skin depth. Skin depth is defined as the
distance at which the signal is attenuated by 1/e. It is a measure of depth to
The measurable distance on the surface of the Earth from transmitter to which an EM wave can penetrate. Skin depth is represented as δ (delta).
receiver, where the signal reflected from the ionosphere can reach the
receiver with minimum hops or skips, is known as skip distance. 20)Duct Propagation

At a height of around 50 mts from the troposphere, a phenomenon exists;

16)Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) the temperature increases with the height. In this region of troposphere, the
higher frequencies or microwave frequencies tend to refract back into the
The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency delivered
Earth’s atmosphere, instead of shooting into ionosphere, to reflect. These
by the transmitter regardless of the power of the transmitter. The highest
waves propagate around the curvature of the earth even up to a distance of
frequency, which is reflected from the ionosphere to the receiver is called
1000km.
as critical frequency, fc.
This refraction goes on continuing in this region of troposphere. This can be
termed as Super refraction or Duct propagation.

35
  Single-Hop Transmission

 Single-hop transmission is popular in telecommunications, as it

directly transmits critical data to the base station without loss of
data.
 The quality of the data transmission is improved by following the
single-hop transmission technique.
The above image shows the process of Duct Propagation. The main
 Consider two Earth stations communicating through satellites. Let
requirement for the duct formation is the temperature inversion. The
increase of temperature with height, rather than the decrease in the the Earth stations be ES1 and ES2. For communicating in one
temperature is known as the phenomenon of temperature inversion.
direction, the satellite is utilized once; such a transmission refers to
We have discussed the important parameters, which we come across in single-hop transmission.
wave propagation. The waves of higher frequencies are transmitted and
received using this wave propagation technique.

21) HOP & ITS TYPES

 Hop refers to a portion of data traveling from a source to a
destination. The hop may be from a transmitter to a receiver.
 Consider radio wave communication: the signal takes an excursion
from the Earth and back through the ionosphere. In radio wave
communication, the hop count is indicated as the number of
reflections from the ionosphere.
 Similarly, travel is made by the signals in satellite communication.
Signals travel from the Earth station to the satellite and from there
to another station.
 In a communication system where the return trip is not via satellite,
it is taken as a half hop. Computer networks also transfer data from
one network to another, which can also be described as hop.
Single-Hop Transmission

36
  In IP-based networks, especially internet networks, data packets
 Multi-Hop Transmission
reach the destination IP device from the source IP device
through networking devices such as gateways, routers, bridges, etc.
 When only one such networking device is present as the data packet
travels from source to destination it forms single-hop transmission.

Single-Hop Transmission and Delivery Probability

Imagine a single-hop transmission system carrying ‘L’ bytes of data. The bit
error rate (BER) of the communication channel is ‘p’ and the data
transmission rate is ‘r’. The probability of delivering the data packet
successfully at the destination through single hop transmission (q) is:

Probability of delivery

As the number of hops ‘n’ increases, the chances of delivering the data
packet to the destination decreases. The probability of the data packet Multi-Hop Transmission
transmission reaching the destination successfully also gets reduced.  The figure above shows two Earth stations, ES1 and ES2,
However, the single-hop transmission delivery probability for wired respectively.
networks is relatively higher than in wireless networks.  A hub station present in the transmission network is an
intermediate point. The data transmitted from ES1 to ES2 through
the hub station will see the satellite more than once.

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  The transmission method in which the signal reaches the satellite  The Earth's magnetic field can have a minor effect on sky wave
propagation at high frequencies, but at lower frequencies, it can
more than once is called multi-hop transmission.
significantly affect the propagation of radio waves, causing
 Whenever the data packet travels from source to destination distortion and signal loss.
crossing more than a single networking device, the network can be
23) Radiation Principles:
said to follow multi-hop transmission.
 Antenna is radiates by the principle of resonance. Resonance implies
maximum standing current wave is observed along the antenna
22) EFFECT OF EARTH MAGNETIC FIELD ON length.
IONSPHERE SKY WAVE PROPAGATION
 A simple dipole antenna has two antenna rods pointing in opposite
 The Earth's magnetic field can have both positive and negative directions but remains parallel.
effects on sky wave propagation, depending on the frequency of the
 If an AC voltage generator fed in the middle between two
radio wave. antennas, current flowing on both rods can be seen as in phase
 At high frequencies (above approximately 30 MHz), the Earth's when AC generator operates at antenna resonance frequency.
magnetic field has a negligible effect on sky wave propagation. In
 In phase means that current along each antenna rod are traveling in
this frequency range, the ionosphere is the primary factor that the same direction with equal time varying amplitude. This means
determines the propagation of radio waves. the electric field created by two rods aligns in the space and any
 The ionosphere can reflect and refract radio waves, allowing them alternating field due to AC generator can be added together (i.e in
to travel long distances by bouncing them back to the Earth's phase) to create strong electromagnetic wave presence in the free
space.
surface.
 At lower frequencies (below approximately 30 MHz), the Earth's  Current is consisting of flowing electrons, and electron creates
magnetic field can have a significant effect on sky wave inward pointing electric field lines. Moving electron creates
disturbance in the inward radiating electric field lines distributed in
propagation. At these frequencies, radio waves can interact with
free space; hence an alternating electron creates sinusoidal like
the Earth's magnetic field and be affected by the "Faraday rotation" electric field line disturbance/ripples resembling electromagnetic
effect. waves propagating through space. Remember the radiation EM
 This effect can cause the polarization of the radio wave to rotate as wave contains both electric and magnetic field components, the
magnetic field is perpendicular in the oscillating electric field.
it propagates through the ionosphere, which can cause the signal to
become distorted or even lost.  Principle of Resonance: Resonance creates a standing wave on a
open or short ended conductor, which occurs at a minimum of 1/4

38
 electrical wave length or odd multiple of 1/4 such as 3/4, 5/4 wave The figures given above show the working of a half-wave dipole.
length etc.
 Fig 1 shows the dipole when the charges induced are in positive half
 Resonance is the reason that Antenna is always designed with 1/4 cycle. Now the electrons tend to move towards the charge.
wave length or its odd multiple.  Fig 2 shows the dipole with negative charges induced. The electrons
here tend to move away from the dipole.
24) Half wave dipole antenna  Fig 3 shows the dipole with next positive half cycle. Hence, the
electrons again move towards the charge.
The dipole antenna is cut and bent for effective radiation. The length of the
total wire, which is being used as a dipole, equals half of the wavelength The cumulative effect of this produces a varying field effect which gets
(i.e., l = λ/2). Such an antenna is called as half-wave dipole antenna. This is radiated in the same pattern produced on it. Hence, the output would be
the most widely used antenna because of its advantages. It is also known an effective radiation following the cycles of the output voltage pattern.
as Hertz antenna.The range of frequency in which half-wave dipole Thus, a half-wave dipole radiates effectively.
operates is around 3KHz to 300GHz. This is mostly used in radio receivers.

Construction & Working of Half-wave Dipole

It is a normal dipole antenna, where the frequency of its operation is half

of its wavelength. Hence, it is called as half-wave dipole antenna.

The edge of the dipole has maximum voltage. This voltage is alternating
(AC) in nature. At the positive peak of the voltage, the electrons tend to
move in one direction and at the negative peak, the electrons move in the
other direction. This can be explained by the figures given below.

The above figure shows the current distribution in half wave dipole. The
directivity of half wave dipole is 2.15dBi, which is reasonably good. Where,
‘i’ represents the isotropic radiation.

Radiation Pattern OF HALF WAVE DIPOLE ANTENNA

39
The radiation pattern of this half-wave dipole is Omni-directional in the H-  Used in radio receivers.
plane. It is desirable for many applications such as mobile communications,  Used in television receivers.
radio receivers etc.  When employed with others, used for wide variety of applications.

25) ANTENNA ARRAY

An antenna, when individually can radiate an amount of energy, in a

particular direction, resulting in better transmission, how it would be if few
more elements are added it, to produce more efficient output. It is exactly
this idea, which led to the invention of Antenna arrays.

An antenna array can be better understood by observing the following

images. Observe how the antenna arrays are connected.

An antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators

and elements. Each of this radiator, while functioning has its own induction
The above figure indicates the radiation pattern of a half wave dipole in field. The elements are placed so closely that each one lies in the
both H-plane and V-plane. neighbouring one’s induction field. Therefore, the radiation pattern
produced by them, would be the vector sum of the individual ones. The
The radius of the dipole does not affect its input impedance in this half following image shows another example of an antenna array.
wave dipole, because the length of this dipole is half wave and it is the first
resonant length. An antenna works effectively at its resonant frequency, The spacing between the elements and the length of the elements according
which occurs at its resonant length. to the wavelength are also to be kept in mind while designing these
antennas.
Advantages
 Input impedance is not sensitive. The antennas radiate individually and while in array, the radiation of all the
 Matches well with transmission line impedance. elements sum up, to form the radiation beam, which has high gain, high
 Has reasonable length. directivity and better performance, with minimum losses.
 Length of the antenna matches with size and directivity.
Types of Arrays
Disadvantages
 Not much effective due to single element.  Collinear array
 It can work better only with a combination.  Broad side array
Applications  End fire array
The following are the applications of half-wave dipole antenna −  Parasitic array

40
  Yagi-Uda array This antenna is commonly used with the array type antennas to increase the
 Log-peroidic array feed resistance. The most commonly used one is with Yagi-Uda antenna. The
 Turnstile array following figure shows a half-wave folded dipole antenna.
 Super-turnstile array
Advantages
 The signal strength increases
 High directivity is obtained
 Minor lobes are reduced much
 High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved
 High gain is obtained
 Power wastage is reduced
 Better performance is obtained
Disadvantages
 Resistive losses are increased
 Mounting and maintenance is difficult
 Huge external space is required
Applications
This antenna uses an extra conducting element (a wire or a rod) when
 Used in satellite communications
compared with previous dipole antenna. This is continued by placing few
 Used in wireless communications
conducting elements in parallel, with insulation in-between, in array type of
 Used in military radar communications
antennas.
 Used in the astronomical study
The following figure explains the working of a half-wave folded dipole
26) FOLDED DIPOLE antenna, when it is provided with excitation.

A folded dipole is an antenna, with two conductors connected on both sides,

and folded to form a cylindrical closed shape, to which feed is given at the
center. The length of the dipole is half of the wavelength. Hence, it is called
as half wave folded dipole antennaThe range of frequency in which half
wave folded dipole operates is around 3KHz to 300GHz. This is mostly used
in television receivers.

Construction & Working of Half-wave Folded Dipole

41
If the diameter of the main conductor and the folded dipole are same, then
there will be four folded (two times of squared one) increase in the feed
impedance of the antenna. This increase in feed impedance is the main
reason for the popular usage of this folded dipole antenna. Due of the twin-
lead, the impedance will be around 300Ω.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of half-wave folded dipoles is the same as that of the
half-wave dipole antennas. The following figure shows the radiation pattern
of half-wave folded dipole antenna, which is Omni-directional pattern.
Advantages
 Reception of balanced signals.
 Receives a particular signal from a band of frequencies without
losing the quality.
 A folded dipole maximizes the signal strength.
Disadvantages
 Displacement and adjustment of antenna is a hassle.
 Outdoor management can be difficult when antenna size increases.
Applications
 Mainly used as a feeder element in Yagi antenna, Parabolic antenna,
turnstile antenna, log periodic antenna, phased and reflector arrays,
etc.
 Generally used in radio receivers.
 Most commonly used in TV receiver antennas.

Half-wave folded dipole antennas are used where optimum power transfer
is needed and where large impedances are needed.

42
27) YAGI UDA ANTENNA Yagi Uda Antenna Working & Construction
To construct a Yagi-Uda antenna, several components come together to
The Yagi antenna is also called the Yagi-Uda antenna. It is a type of antenna create an efficient and directional antenna for transmitting or receiving
which is used to catch TV signals and radio waves. This antenna has a center electromagnetic signals. The central element is called the “boom,” which
part that sends and receives signals, surrounded by other parts placed in a serves as the framework for mounting all other parts. Connected to the
certain way. These extra parts help the antenna work better by spacing transmission line is the primary element, known as the “driven element,”
everything out correctly. Because of this design, the antenna is really good responsible for signal transmission or reception. At the far end of the
at grabbing signals from one direction, but not as good at getting signals antenna is the “reflector,” a longer element that reflects energy towards
from other directions. the antenna’s radiation pattern. In front of the driven element, there are
Components of Yagi-Uda Antenna multiple strategically placed “directors” with specific lengths and spacings.
Driven Element: In the Yagi-Uda antenna, the driven element is These directors assist in directing the antenna’s radiation pattern for
vital for signal transmission and reception. It interacts optimal performance.
with electromagnetic waves, facilitating effective communication.
Reflector: Strategically placed behind the driven element, the
reflector significantly enhances the antenna’s performance. It acts
passively, redirecting and focusing incoming signals toward the
driven element to improve reception.
Directors: Positioned in front of the driven element, directors are
additional elements that collaborate to enhance the antenna’s
directional capabilities. By carefully adjusting the number and
spacing of directors, the antenna efficiently amplifies signals in the
desired direction, resulting in improved reception quality.

Yagi Uda Antenna

The Yagi Uda antenna works by improving the reception or transmission of

signals in a direction. It consists of three parts; a driven element, a reflector
and directors. When a signal is received or transmitted the driven element,
which is connected to the transmission line produces a field. The reflector,
behind the driven element reflects this energy forward while the directors
43
in focus and strengthen the signal in a direction. By spacing and sizing Nevertheless within the pattern there are lobes at the back and sides. One
these components a narrow radiation pattern is created, resulting in notable lobe situated at the rear is referred to as the ” lobe,” which arises
increased signal strength and effective capturing or sending of signals in due, to the functioning of the reflector element.
the intended direction while minimizing interference, from directions.

Characteristics of Yagi-Uda Antenna

 Yagi antennas enhance signals in a single direction which makes
them effective for long-distance or areas with weak signals.
 These antennas concentrate on a limited area which makes
them suitable for specific points or distant communication but
less effective in all directions.
 Yagi antennas perform well within that range when tuned to a
particular frequency range, but may necessitate other antennas
for different frequencies.

Advantages of Yagi-Uda Antenna Radiation Format
 Yagi-Uda antennas point signals in one direction, reducing
interference and making reception better.
 These antennas make signals stronger, helping with faraway To enhance the performance of the Yagi antenna, you have the option to
communication and in places where signals are not very strong. customize the length and spacing of its reflector and other components.
Disadvantages of Yagi-Uda Antenna This adjustment can either minimize radiation in the opposite direction or
 Yagi antennas work best within a small range of frequencies. amplify the antenna’s forward gain. However, there is no universal
This means they might not do as well with signals outside of solution for all scenarios. Depending on your specific requirements and
that range. application, you may need to select between improving the front-to-back
 Long Yagi antennas might be too big when space is tight. In such ratio or achieving higher forward gain.
cases, it could be better to look at other antenna choices. Applications of Yagi-Uda Antenna
 Yagi-Uda antennas improves the TV signal reception in areas
Radiation Format of Yagi Antenna
The Yagi antenna possesses a radiation pattern that exhibits a level of with weak or distant broadcasting stations.
 Amateur radio operators helps Yagi antennas for efficient
focus and directionality. This exceptional characteristic allows it to
efficiently transmit or receive signals in a direction while minimizing any point-to-point communication with their directional
interference, from other directions. The primary component of the capabilities.
 Yagi antennas are applied in point-to-point wireless links,
radiation pattern, known as the ” lobe ” corresponds to the direction in
which the antenna is precisely aimed making it highly effective in that extending the range and reliability of communication
direction. networks.

44
28) ANTENNA ARRAY TYPES EXPLANATION The radiation pattern of collinear array when made using two elements,
three elements and four elements respectively are shown in the figure given
1) COLINEAR ARRAY above.

A Collinear array consists of two or more half-wave dipoles, which are The broad side array also has the same pattern, in which the direction of
placed end to end. These antennas are placed on a common line or axis, maximum radiation is perpendicular to the line of antenna.
being parallel or collinear.
Advantages
The maximum radiation in these arrays is broad side and perpendicular to Use of array reduces the broad ends and increases the directivity
the line of array. These arrays are also called as broad cast or Omni-  Minor lobes are minimised
directional arrays. The frequency range in which the collinear array  Wastage of power is reduced
antennas operate is around 30 MHz to 3GHz which belong to Disadvantages
the VHF and UHF bands.  Displacement of these antennas is a difficult task
 Used only in outdoor areas
hese collinear arrays are uni-directional antennas having high gain. The
main purpose of this array is to increase the power radiated and to provide Applications
high directional beam, by avoiding power loss in other directions.  Used for VHF and UHF bands
 Used in two-way communications
Radiation Pattern  Used also for broadcasting purposes

The radiation pattern of these collinear arrays is similar to that of a single 2) broad side array
dipole, but the array pattern of increasing number of dipoles, makes the The antenna array in its simplest form, having a number of elements of equal
difference. size, equally spaced along a straight line or axis, forming collinear points,
with all dipoles in the same phase, from the same source together form
the broad side array. The frequency range, in which the collinear array
antennas operate is around 30 MHz to 3GHz which belong to
the VHF and UHF bands.

According to the standard definition, “An arrangement in which the

principal direction of radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and also to
the plane containing the array element” is termed as the broad side array.
Hence, the radiation pattern of the antenna is perpendicular to the axis on
which the array exists.

45
The following diagram shows the broad side array, in front view and side The above figure shows the radiation pattern of the broad side array. The
view, respectively. beam is a bit wider and minor lobes are much reduced in this.

The figure of broad side array with λ/4 spacing is shown below. 3) end-fire array
The physical arrangement of end-fire array is same as that of the broad side
array. The magnitude of currents in each element is same, but there is a
phase difference between these currents. This induction of energy differs in
each element, which can be understood by the following diagram.

Typical antenna lengths in the broad side array are from 2 to 10

wavelengths. Typical spacings are λ/2 or λ. The feed points of the dipoles
are joined as shown in the figure.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of this antenna is bi-directional and right angles to

the plane. The beam is very narrow with high gain.
The above figure shows the end-fire array in top and side views respectively.

There is no radiation in the right angles to the plane of the array because of
cancellation. The first and third elements are fed out of phase and therefore
cancel each other’s radiation. Similarly, second and fourth are fed out of
phase, to get cancelled.

46
The usual dipole spacing will be λ/4 or 3λ/4. This arrangement not only helps Construction & Working of Parasitic Array
to avoid the radiation perpendicular to the antenna plane, but also helps the
radiated energy get diverted to the direction of radiation of the whole array. The main parts are −
Hence, the minor lobes are avoided and the directivity is increased. The
beam becomes narrower with the increased elements.  Driven element
 Parasitic elements
Radiation Pattern o Reflector
o Director
The Radiation pattern of end-fire array is uni-directional. A major lobe  Boom
occurs at one end, where maximum radiation is present, while the minor Driven element
lobes represent the losses. The antennas radiate individually and while in array, the radiation of all the
elements sum up to form the radiation beam. All the elements of the array
need not be connected to the feed. The dipole that is connected to the feed
is known as a driven element.

Parasitic Element
The elements, which are added do not possess an electrical connection
The figure explains the radiation pattern of an end-fire array. Figure 1 is the between them to the driven element or the feed. They are positioned so
radiation pattern for a single array, while figures 2, 3, and 4 represent the that they lie in the induction field of the driven element. Hence, they are
radiation pattern for multiple arrays. known as parasitic elements.

3) Parasitic array Reflector: If one of the parasitic element, which is 5% longer than driven
element, is placed close to the driven element is longer, then it acts as a
A parasitic element is an element, which depends on other’s feed. It does concave mirror, which reflects the energy in the direction of the radiation
not have its own feed. Hence, in this type of arrays we employ such pattern rather than its own direction and hence is known as a reflector.
elements, which help in increasing the radiation indirectly.
Directo: A parasitic element, which is 5% shorter than the driven element,
These parasitic elements are not directly connected to the feed. from which it receives energy, tends to increase radiation in its own
direction and therefore, behaves like convergent convex lens. This element
The mesh structure in this array, is nothing but a set of reflectors. These is called as a director. A number of directors are placed to increase the
reflectors are not electrically connected. They increase the signal strength directivity.
by increasing the directivity of the beam.

47
Boom: The element on which all these are placed is callled a boom. It is a The construction and operation of a log-periodic antenna is similar to that
non-metallic structure which provides insulation, so that there will not be of a Yagi-Uda antenna. The main advantage of this antenna is that it
any short circuit between the other elements of the array. exhibits constant characteristics over a desired frequency range of
operation. It has the same radiation resistance and therefore the same
These are all the main elements, which contribute the radiation. This can be SWR. The gain and front-to-back ratio are also the same.
better understood with the help of a diagram
With the change in operation frequency, the active region shifts among the
elements and hence all the elements will not be active only on a single
frequency. This is its special characteristic.

There are several type of log-periodic antennas such as the planar,

trapezoidal, zig-zag, V-type, slot and the dipole. The mostly used one is log-
periodic dipole array, in short, LPDA.

The image shown above is that of a parasitic array, which shows the parts of
parsitic array such as the driven element, the directors and the reflector.
The feed is given through the feeder.

5) LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA The physical structure and electrical characteristics, when observed, are
repetitive in nature. The array consists of dipoles of different lengths and
A Log-periodic antenna is that whose impedance is a logarithamically spacing, which are fed from a two-wire transmission line. This line is
periodic function of frequency. The frequency range, in which the log- transposed between each adjacent pair of dipoles.
periodic antennas operate is around 30 MHz to 3GHz which belong to
the VHF and UHF bands. The dipole lengths and seperations are related by the formula −

Construction & Working of Log-periodic Antenna

48
 The radiational pattern for uni-directional log-periodic antenna is given
above.

For bi-directional Log-periodic antenna, the maximum radiation is in

broad side, which is normal to the surface of the antenna.
Where

 т is the design ratio and т<1

 R is the distance between the feed and the dipole
 l is the length of the dipole.

The directive gains obtained are low to moderate. The radiational patterns
may be Unidirectional or Bi-directional.

Radiation Pattern The figure given above shows the radiational pattern for a bi-directional
log-periodic antenna.
The Radiation pattern of log-periodic antenna can be of uni-directional or
bi-directional, depending upon the log periodic structures. Advantages
 The antenna design is compact.
For uni-directional Log-periodic antenna, the radiation towards shorter  Gain and radiation pattern are varied according to the requirements.
element is of considerable amount, whereas in forward direction, it is
Disadvantages
small or zero.
External mount.
 Installation cost is high.
Applications
 Used for HF communications.
 Used for particular sort of TV receptions.
 Used for all round monitoring in higher frequency bands.

49