1.

MONOPOLE ANTENNA
CONCEPT MONOPOLE ANTENNA
A monopole antenna is a class of radio antenna consisting of a straight rod-shaped conductor,
often mounted perpendicularly over some type of conductive surface, called a ground plane.
The driving signal from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennas the output signal
to the receiver is taken, between the lower end of the monopole and the ground plane. One
side of the antenna feedline is attached to the lower end of the monopole, and the other side is
attached to the ground plane, which is often the Earth. This contrasts with a dipole
antenna which consists of two identical rod conductors, with the signal from the transmitter
applied between the two halves of the antenna.

The monopole is a resonant antenna; the rod functions as an open resonator for radio waves,
oscillating with standing waves of voltage and current along its length. Therefore the length
of the antenna is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves it is used with. The most
common or fundamental form is the quarter-wave monopole, in which the antenna is
approximately 1/4 of a wavelength of the radio waves.

APPLICATIONS OF MONOPOLE ANTENNA

i. Car radio and mobile communications
Monopole antennas used for for car radio and mobile communications commonly rely
on the body of the vehicle to provide the ground plane. Variations in the shape of the
vehicle and placement of the antenna affect the radiation pattern and performance of
these antenna. For an antenna mounted on the automobile, it would no longer radiate
isotropically in the horizontal plane but may be radiate with a slightly higher gain in
directions where the automobile body extends farther, thus simulating a larger width
ground plane in such directions.
For communications antennas in general, it is often desirable to have the shortest
possible antenna. Although a quarter-wave monopole is easier to match, a shorter
antenna has an associated capacitive reactance. This can, however, be cancelled out by
adding a loading coil (inductance) to the base of the antenna.

ii. Medical imaging

Confocal imaging for breast cancer detection is an exciting application of antenna
arrays in medical imaging. This method typically uses a single antenna scanned in flat
array pattern above the breast or a cylindrical array of a very small broadband
 antennas. For planar imaging the patient lies face up, and the antenna physically
scanned in a planned above the breast. For cylindrical imaging, the patient lies face
down, with the breast extending into the cylindrical array through a hole. Matching
fluid surrounding the breast issued, similar to that used for microwave tomography, is
suggested in this case. Both methods provide similar results. One antenna in the array
transmit and ultrawideband(UWB) pulse, which propagates into the breast issue,
where it is reflected off significant electrical discontinuities, and is received in parallel
by the others antennas in the array. Knowing the physical spacing between the array
elements, the different delays between the transmit antenna, scattering point, and
receiving antenna can be calculated geometrically. The received pulses representing a
specific point in the space can then be time delayed appropriately for each antennas,
added up, and integrated to indicated the magnitude of the scattered energy from that
the point in space. This is effectively correlating the signals received from that point at
all antennas.

RADIATION PATTERN OF MONOPOLE ANTENNA

LIST THE POLARIZATION OF MONOPOLE ANTENNA

i. Linear polarization

A linearly polarized wave with 45 orientation

 A travelling wave is to be linearly polarized if the two orthogonal components of the wave
vector have no phase difference.

ii. Circular polarization

Right-hand circular polarization

iii. Elliptical polarization

Elliptical polarization can be right hand (clockwise) or left hand (anti-clockwise)The figure
above is right hand elliptical polarization.

2. DIPOLE ANTENNA
CONCEPT OF DIPOLE ANTENNA
A dipole antenna is a straight electrical conductor measuring 1/2 wavelength from end to
end and connected at the center to a radio-frequency (RF) feed line. This antenna, also
called a doublet, is one of the simplest types of antenna, and constitutes the main RF
radiating and receiving element in various sophisticated types of antennas. The dipole is
inherently a balanced antenna, because it is bilaterally symmetrical.

Ideally, a dipole antenna is fed with a balanced, parallel-wire RF transmission line.

However, this type of line is not common. An unbalanced feed line, such as coaxial
cable, can be used, but to ensure optimum RF current distribution on the antenna element
and in the feed line, an RF transformer called a balun (contraction of the words
"balanced" and "unbalanced") should be inserted in the system at the point where the
feed line joins the antenna. For best performance, a dipole antenna should be more than
1/2 wavelength above the ground, the surface of a body of water, or other horizontal,
 conducting medium such as sheet metal roofing. The element should also be at least
several wavelengths away from electrically conducting obstructions such as supporting
towers, utility wires, guy wires, and other antennas.

Dipole antennas can be oriented horizontally, vertically, or at a slant. The polarization of

the electromagnetic field (EM) radiated by a dipole transmitting antenna corresponds to
the orientation of the element. When the antenna is used to receive RF signals, it is most
sensitive to EM fields whose polarization is parallel to the orientation of the element. The
RF current in a dipole is maximum at the center (the point where the feed line joins the
element), and is minimum at the ends of the element. The RF voltage is maximum at the
ends and is minimum at the center.

APPLICATIONS OF DIPOLE ANTENNA

i. Healthcare applications
In many healthcare applications, dipole antennas are physically too large for typically
body-worn sensors. Furthermore, the differential feeds required by a dipole antenna
will overcomplicate the design of a healthcare sensor. In these cases, a monopole
antenna is often used. A monopole is constructed by replacing one branch of a dipole
antenna with an infinitely large ground plane. Using the physical effect of mirror, the
radiation pattern above the ground plane remains unaffected in the monopole antenna
application. When constructed in the manner, the ground plane is at right angles to the
remaining conductor. Assuming that the ground plane is effectively large, the
monopole antenna than has characteristics similar to the dipole.

RADIATION PATTERN OF DIPOLE ANTENNA

Half wave

LIST THE POLARIZATION OF DIPOLE ANTENNA

i. Vertical polarization
 E and H planes for vertically polarized

ii. Horizontal polarization

The horizontal polarized, and has a bidirectional directivity perpendicular to antenna.
The antenna needs two points of suspension for ropes from the dipole and insulators.

3. YAGI-UDA ANTENNA
CONCEPT OF YAGI UDA ANTENNA

A Yagi-Uda antenna commonly known simply as a Yagi antenna or Yagi is a directional

antenna system consisting af an array of a dipole and additional closely coupled parasitic
elements (usually a reflector and one more directors). The dipole in the array is driven, and
another element, typically 5% longer, effective operates as a reflector. Other parasitic
elements shorter than the dipole may be added in front of the dipole and are reffered to as
directors. This arrangement gives the antenna increased directionality compared to a single
dipole. Directionsl sntennas, such as the Yagi uda, are commonly referred to as beam
antennas or high-gain antennas (particularly for transmitting). Many common television
antennas are Yagi antennas with added corner reflectors.

Yagi-uda antennas are directional along the axis perpendicular to the dipole in the plane of
the elements, from the reflector through the driven elements, from the reflector the driven
elements and out via the director(s). Typically, all elements are arranged at approximately a
one-quarter-wavelength mutual spacing. All elements usually lie in the same plane, supported
on a single boom or crossbar; however, they do not have to assume this coplanar
arrangement. For example, some commercially available Yagi uda antennas for antennas for
television reception have several reflectors arrange to form a corner reflector behind the
dipole.

The bandwidth of a yagi uda antenna, which is usually defined as the frequency range for
which the antenna provides a goas match to the transmission line to which it is attached, is
determine by the length, diameter and spacing of the elements. For most designs, bandwidth
is low, typically only a few percent of the design frequency.

APPLICATIONS OF YAGI UDA ANTENNA

The Yagi uda is wide variety of applications where an RF antenna design with gain and
directivity is required. Its become particularly popular for television reception, but it is also
used in very many other domestic and commercial applications where an RF antenna is
needed that has gain and directivity.

Not only is the gain of the yagi uda antenna important as it enables better levels of signal to
noise ratio to be achieved, but also the directivity can be used to reduce interference levels by
focusging the transmitted power on areas where it is needed, or rereceiving signals best from
where the emanate.

For home TV application, the feature of directional radiation (end-fire-beams) of the Yagi-
Uda antennas is desirable because the position of the TV stations and TV sets are all fixed.
However, for wireless communication, the situations and TV sets are all fixed.

However, for wireless communications, the situation is different the base station is fixed but
the terminals carried by users are mobile regularly. Sometimes the Yagi uda antenna, similar
to other antennas with fixed directional radiations, may not illuminate the terminals efficient,
causing a limitation for its application in many new generation mobile communication
systems.

Other than that, Yagi uda antenna is mostly used in astronomical antennas and defense
antennas. However, a helical antenna which is one of type of directional antennas is used for
increasing the gain of the antenna.
 RADIATION PATTERN OF YAGI UDA ANTENNA

LIST OF POLARIZATION YAGI UDA ANTENNA

i. Horizontally polarized

4. RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

CONCEPT
A microstrip patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of dielectric substrate and
a ground plane on the other side. Microstrip patch antenna radiate primarily as wide open-
open half-wave microstrip resonators. The length L of the rectangularpatch for the
fuindamental excitation mode is slightly less than lamda/2. For a good antenna performance,
a thick dielectric substrate having a low dielectric constant is usually desired since it provides
 a larger bandwidth and a well-defined beam. A rectangular microstrip patch antenna normally
radiates a linearly polarized wave with about 6-7dBi gain at broadside. Higher gains (up to
10dB) can be achieved by using different means inscluding large patch height and parasitic
patches.

APPLICATIONS OF RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

i. Global positioning system applications
Microstrip antennas with substrate having high permittivity sintered material are used
for global positioning system. These antennas are circularly polarized, very compact
and quite expensive due to its positioning.. Its is expected that millions of GPS
receivers will be used by the general population for land vehicles, aircraft and maritime
vessels to find there position accurately.
ii. Radio frequency identification(RFID)
RFID uses in different areas like mobile communications, logistics, manufacturing,
transportation and health care. RFID system generally uses frequencies between 30Hz
and 5.8Ghz depending on its applications. Basically RFID system is a tag or
transponder and a transceiver or reader.
iii. Radar application
Radar can be used for detecting moving targets such as people and vehicles. It demands
a low profile , light weight antenna subsystem, the mictrostrip antennas are ideal
choices. The fabrication technology based on photolithography enables the bulk
production of microstrip antenna with repeatable performance at a lower costs in lesser
time frame as compared to the conventional antennas.

RADIATION PATTERN OF RECTANGULAR MICROSTRIO ANTENNA

 LIST OF POLARIZATION
i. Cross polarization
ii. Circular
iii. elliptical

5. SPIRAL ANTENNA
CONCEPT
Spiral antennas belong to the class of "frequency independent" antennas; these antennas are
characterized as having a very large bandwidth. The fractional Bandwidth can be as high as
30:1. This means that if the lower frequency is 1 GHz, the antenna would still be efficient at
30 GHz, and every frequency in between. Spiral antennas are usually circularly polarized.
The spiral antenna's radiation pattern typically has a peak radiation direction perpendicular to
the plane of the spiral (broadside radiation). The Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is
approximately 70-90 degrees. Spiral antennas are widely used in the defence industry for
sensing applications, where very wideband antennas that do not take up much space are
needed. Spiral antenna arrays are used in military aircraft in the 1-18 GHz range. Other
applications of spiral antennas include GPS, where it is advantageous to have RHCP (right
hand circularly polarized) antennas.

APPLICATION
A spiral antenna transmits EM waves having a circular polarization. It will receive linearly
polarized EM waves in any orientation, but will attenuate signals received with the opposite
circular polarization. A spiral antenna will reject circularly polarized waves of one type, while
receiving perfectly well waves having the other polarization.

One application of spiral antennas is wideband communications. Another application of spiral

antennas is monitoring of the frequency spectrum. One antenna can receive over a wide
bandwidth, for example a ratio 5:1 between the maximum and minimum frequency. Usually a
pair of spiral antennas are used in this application, having identical parameters except the
polarization, which is opposite (one is right-hand, the other left-hand oriented). Spiral
antennas are useful for microwave direction-finding.
 POLARIZATION
Polarization mechanism in a spiral:
1. Natural polarization : winding sense of the arms
2. If more than two arms (feeds), sequential rotation can force the polarization but not the
radiation

ILLUSTRATE THE RADIATION

6. HELICAL ANTENNA
CONCEPT
Helical antenna is an example of wire antenna and itself forms the shape of a helix. This is a
broadband VHF and UHF antenna. The frequency range of operation of helical antenna is
around 30MHz to 3GHz. This antenna works in VHF and UHF ranges. Helical antenna or
helix antenna is the antenna in which the conducting wire is wound in helical shape and
connected to the ground plate with a feeder line. It is the simplest antenna, which provides
circularly polarized waves. It is used in extra-terrestrial communications in which satellite
relays etc., are involved.
The above image shows a helical antenna system, which is used for satellite
communications. These antennas require wider outdoor space. It consists of a helix of thick
copper wire or tubing wound in the shape of a screw thread used as an antenna in
conjunction with a flat metal plate called a ground plate. One end of the helix is connected to
the centre conductor of the cable and the outer conductor is connected to the ground plate.
The radiation of helical antenna depends on the diameter of helix, the turn spacing and the
pitch angle. Pitch angle is the angle between a line tangent to the helix wire and plane
normal to the helix axis.

=tan1(SD)=tan1(SD)

where,
D is the diameter of helix.
S is the turn spacing (centre to centre).
is the pitch angle.

APPLICATION
1. Highly Directional Antenna
2. Circularly Polarized Antenna
3. Use in Radio Astronomy

LIST POLARIZATION
 Circular polarised wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes and all
planes in between. The difference, if any, between the maximum and the minimum peaks as
the antenna is rotated through all angles, is called the axial ratio or elliptically and is usually
specified in decibels (dB). If the axial ratio is near 0 dB, the antenna is said to be circular
polarised, when using a Helix Antenna. If the axial ratio is greater than 1-2 dB, the
polarisation is often referred to as elliptical, when using a crossed Yagi.

ILLUSTRATE THE RADIATION

7. DISH ANTENNA
CONCEPT
The most well-known reflector antenna is the parabolic reflector antenna, commonly known
as a satellite dish antenna. Parabolic reflectors typically have a very high gain (30-40 dB is
common) and low cross polarization. They also have a reasonable bandwidth, with the
fractional bandwidth being at least 5% on commercially available models, and can be very
wideband in the case of huge dishes (like the Stanford "big dish" above, which can operate
from 150 MHz to 1.5 GHz). The smaller dish antennas typically operate somewhere between
2 and 28 GHz. The large dishes can operate in the VHF region (30-300 MHz), but typically
need to be extremely large at this operating band.

APPLICATION
i. Direct broadcast television: Direct broadcast or satellite television has become a
major form of distribution for television material. The wide and controllable coverage
areas available combined with the much larger bandwidths for more channels
available mean that satellite television is very attractive.
ii. Microwave links: Terrestrial microwave links are used for many applications. Often
they are used for terrestrial telecommunications infrastructure links. One of the major
areas where they are used these days is to provide the backhaul for mobile phone /
cellular backhaul.
iii. Satellite communications: Many satellite uplinks, or those for communication
satellites require high levels of gain to ensure the optimum signal conditions and that
transmitted power from the ground does not affect other satellites in close angular
proximity. Again the ideal antenna for most applications is the parabolic reflector
antenna.
iv. Radio astronomy: Radio astronomy is an area where very high levels of gain and
directivity are required. Accordingly the parabolic reflector antenna is an ideal choice.

LIST POLARIZATION
1. E-Plane
2. H-Plane
 ILLUSTRATE THE RADIATION

8. HORN ANTENNA

CONCEPT

Horn antennas are very popular at UHF (300 MHz-3 GHz) and higher frequencies (I've heard
of horn antennas operating as high as 140 GHz). Horn antennas often have a directional
radiation pattern with a high antenna gain, which can range up to 25 dB in some cases, with
10-20 dB being typical. Horn antennas have a wide impedance bandwidth, implying that the
input impedance is slowly varying over a wide frequency range (which also implies low
values for S11 or VSWR). The bandwidth for practical horn antennas can be on the order of
20:1 (for instance, operating from 1 GHz-20 GHz), with a 10:1 bandwidth not being
uncommon. The gain of horn antennas often increases (and the beamwidth decreases) as the
frequency of operation is increased. This is because the size of the horn aperture is always
measured in wavelengths; at higher frequencies the horn antenna is "electrically larger"; this
is because a higher frequency has a smaller wavelength. Since the horn antenna has a fixed
physical size (say a square aperture of 20 cm across, for instance), the aperture is more
wavelengths across at higher frequencies. And, a recurring theme in antenna theory is that
larger antennas (in terms of wavelengths in size) have higher directivities. Horn antennas
have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly equal to its gain. Horn antennas are
somewhat intuitive and relatively simple to manufacture. In addition, acoustic horn antennas
are also used in transmitting sound waves (for example, with a megaphone). Horn antennas
are also often used to feed a dish antenna, or as a "standard gain" antenna in measurements.

APPLICATION
1. Satellite Communication
2. TV base station
LIST POLARIZATION
1. E-Field
2. H-Field

ILLUSTRATE THE RADIATION