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UNIT-1

Block Diagram of Computer :

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve
highly complicated problems quickly and accurately.
1) it accepts data or instructions by way of input.
2) it stores data.
3) it can process data as required by the user.
4) it gives results in the form of output, and
5) it controls all operations inside a computer.

1. Input: It supplies data to the cpu.key board, mouse, scanner etc.. comes under
input devices.
2. CPU : CPU means central processing unit.It processes data coming from input
devices and sends to output or memory to store.
It has following functional units.
a. ALU : It is arthematic and logic unit.It performs arthematical operations like
addition,subtraction, increment and decrement and logical operational like
AND,OR,NOT,XOR operations ,compare and shift operations.
b. Control Unit :

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It generates necessary control and timing signals to perform any single
operation.It is called brain of the CPU.Without this section, a single operation is
performed.
c. Registers :
These store data or processed data temporarily.before sending into
destination.Depending on data processing,capacity of registers will be
changed.8085 is 8 bit microprocessor, it consists 8 bit registers.8086 is 16 bit
microprocessor ,it consists 16 bit registers.ARM processors consist 32 bit
registers.
3.Output :
It gives processed data to user or outside world. Monitor, speakers or any result
oriented devices etc.. are output devices.
4.Memory : It stores processed data or program codes or information for future
purpose.Primary memory like RAM,ROM and secondary memory like hard disks,optical
disks, flash drives etc.. comes under memory.

2.Characteristics of a Computer:
1. Speed :
 computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete.
 computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of instructions and even more per
second.
2. Accuracy :
 The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy.

3. Diligence :
 A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc.
 It can work for hours without creating any error.
 If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation
with the same accuracy.

4. Versatility :
 It means the capacity to perform completely different type of works with same speed
and accuracy.

5. Power of Remembering :
 Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data.
 Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any
numbers of years.

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6. No IQ :
 Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from
the user.
 It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy..
computer cannot take its own decision as you can.

7. No Feeling :
 It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience.
 Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work.
 It does not distinguish between users.

8. Storage :
 The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data.
 You can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which
can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.

3.Generations of computer :
The various generations of computers an listed below :

(i) First Generation (1946-1954) : In 1946 there was no ‘best’ way of


storing instructions and data in a computer memory. There were four competing
technologies for providing computer memory: electrostatic storage tubes, acoustic
delay lines (mercury or nickel), magnetic drums (and disks?), and magnetic core
storage.
The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are known as first
generation computers. the first ‘computer’ to use electronic valves (ie. vacuum tubes).
The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. They
stored information in the form of propagating sound waves.
The vacuum tube consumes a lot of power. The Vacuum tube was developed by Lee
DeForest in 1908. These computers were large in size and writing programs on them
was difficult.

Limitations of First Generation Computer


Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.

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1. They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3. They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4. They used machine level language for programming.
Example: ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc

(ii)Second Generation (1955-1964) : The second-generation


computer used transistors for CPU components & ferrite cores for main
memory & magnetic disks for secondary memory. They used high-level languages
such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1960) & COBOL (1960 – 1961). I/O processor
was included to control I/O operations.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU),
memory, programming language and input and output units were developed. The
programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this
period.
Example: IBM 1400 and 7000 Series, Control Data 3600 etc.

(iii)Third Generation (1964-1977) : By the development of a small chip consisting of


the capacity of the 300 transistors. These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has
many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is quite
obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced.

Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.

(iv) Fourth Generation :


An IC containing about 1000 components is called LSI (Large Scale Integration) and
the one, which has more than 1000 such components, is called as VLSI (Very Large
Scale Integration). It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon
chip called microprocessors.

Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central


processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers.
Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.

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Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be
placed on a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth
Generation Computer Main memory used fast semiconductors chips up to 4 M bits size.

Hard disks were used as secondary memory. Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were
developed. OS-such as MS-DOS, UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh were available. Object
oriented language, C++ etc were developed.

Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.

Fifth Generation (1991- continued) :


5th generation computers use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale Integration) chips.

Millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips.

64 bit microprocessors have been developed during this period.

Data flow & EPIC architecture of these processors have been developed.

RISC & CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors.

Memory chips and flash memory up to 1 256GB, hard disks up to 100TB have been
developed.

fifth generation digital computer will be Artificial intelligence.

4.Classicication of computers?
Ans:
Computers are classified

1.According to Size

2.According to purpose

3.According to type

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1.According to size , Computers are divided into four types.

a.Micro or personal computers

b. Mini computers

c. Main frame computers

d.Super computers.

(a)PC (Personal Computer):

 A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed


for an individual user.
 In PCs microprocessors are used as CPU.
 Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, etc…
 At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing the Internet.
 Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these
systems are normally linked together to form a network.

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Workstation

 Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),


desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
 Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,
large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk
drive, but a special type of workstation, called diskless workstation, comes
without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like
PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked
together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.

(b)Minicomputer
 It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.
 Mini computers are typically multi-user system that supports multiple
simultaneous users and runs multiple programs at the same time.
 They are known for their reliability, durability, and affordability. Mini-computers
are smaller and less powerful than supercomputers but are more powerful than
personal computers.
 They are designed in such a way that they can be used to handle the large
volume of data.

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(c)Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs.

(d)Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching).

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For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

Accroding to purpose , there are two types of computers.They are


(a) General purpose computers
(b) Special purpose computers.
(a)General purpose computers :
 General computers do various everyday tasks such as document preparation,
printing documents , creating data base, calculations with accuracy and
consistency.
 These provide basic needs at home or in the work place in the environment.
 Examples are Desktops, laptops, smartphones and tablets .
(b)Special Purpose computers :
 These computers are designed for specific task.
 They need special input and output devices, powerful processor, huge amount of
secondary storage and large amount of RAM and special expandable cards.
Examples are
1.ATM
2.Surveillance equipment
3.Defence oriented applications.

According to Type , there are three types of computers

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(a) Analog Computers
(b) Digital Computers.
(c) Hybrid computers.

a) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue
data is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete
values. We can say that analogue computers are used where we don't need
exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.

Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device
without first converting it into numbers and codes. They measure the
continuous changes in physical quantity and generally render output as a
reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are
examples of analogue computer.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations
at high speed. It accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary
numbers (0 and 1) and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce the output. All modern computers like laptops, desktops including
smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It
is fast like an analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like
digital computers. It can process both continuous and discrete data. It
accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both
analogue and digital data is processed. For example, a processor is used in
petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel flow into quantity and
price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.

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5.MEMORY :

It is the place where data or information is stored.It is divided into


memory locations.Each location stores one byte of data.The large storage
capacity is expressed in multiple of bytes. These multiples are taken in
decimal prefix.

DECIMAL NOTATION NO OF BYTES

1. KB 1000

2.MB 1000000

3.GB 1000000000

4.TB 1000000000000

5.PB 1000000000000000

6.EB 1000000000000000000

7.ZB 1000000000000000000000

8.YB 1000000000000000000000000

Because storage capacity is often expressed in powers of 2 and 210=1024 is


so close to 1000, it was decided it would be useful to call 1024 bytes a
kilobyte, instead of 1000 bytes. This became confusing when storage capacity
increased.

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IEC (INTERNATIONAL ELECTRO TECHNICAL COMMISSION) UNITS :

Traditionally the SI multipliers kilo, mega, giga, terra etc. were used. However,
in the computer industry they were used in a different manner than officially
prescribed. Because storage capacity is often expressed in powers of 2
and 210=1024 is so close to 1000, it was decided it would be useful to call
1024 bytes a kilobyte, instead of 1000 bytes. This became confusing when
storage capacity increased. The use of the same unit prefixes with two
different meanings has caused confusion. Starting around 1998,
the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and several other
standards and trade organizations addressed the ambiguity by publishing
standards and recommendations for a set of binary prefixes that refer
exclusively to powers of 1024. Accordingly, the US National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST) requires that SI prefixes only be used in
the decimal sense: kilobyte and megabyte denote one thousand bytes and
one million bytes respectively (consistent with SI), while new terms such
as kibibyte, mebibyte and gibibyte, having the symbols KiB, MiB, and GiB,
denote 1024 bytes, 1.048.576 bytes, and 1.073.741.824 bytes, respectively.

SI IEC

kilo K 103 kibi Ki 210

mega M 106 mebi Mi 220

giga G 109 gibi Gi 230

tera T 1012 - tebi Ti 240 -

peta P 1015 - pebi Pi 250 -

exa E 1018 - exbi Ei 260 -

zetta Z 1021 - zebi Zi 270 -

Y 1024 - yobi Yi 280 -

yotta

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SOFTWARE:
Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers
and execute specific tasks. Software is a generic term used to refer to
applications, scripts and programs that run on a device. It can be thought of
as the variable part of a computer, while hardware is the invariable part.

Types of software:
Among the various categories of software, the most common types include
the following:

 Application software. The most frequently used software is


application software, which is a computer software package that performs
a specific function for a user or, in some cases, for another application. An
application can be self-contained, or it can be a group of programs that run
the application for the user. Examples of modern applications include office
suites, graphics software, databases, database management programs,
web browsers, word processors, software development tools, image
editors and communication platforms.

 System software. These software programs are designed to run a


computer's application programs and hardware. System software
coordinates the activities and functions of the hardware and software. In
addition, it controls the operations of the computer hardware and provides
an environment or platform for all the other types of software to work in. An
operating system (OS) is the best example of system software; it manages
all the other computer programs. Other examples of system software
include firmware, computer language translators and system utilities.

 Driver software: Also known as device drivers, this software is often


considered a type of system software. Device drivers control the devices
and peripherals connected to a computer, helping them perform their
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specific tasks. Every device that's connected to a computer needs at least
one device driver to function. Examples include software that comes with
any nonstandard hardware, including special game controllers, as well as
the software that enables standard hardware, such as USB storage
devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.

 Middleware: The term middleware describes software that mediates


between application and system software or between two different kinds of
application software. For example, middleware lets Microsoft Windows talk
to Excel and Word. It's used to send a remote work request from an
application in a computer that has one kind of OS to an application in a
computer with a different OS. It also lets newer applications work with
legacy ones.

 Programming software: Computer programmers use programming


software to write code. Programming software and programming
languages, such as Java or Python, let developers develop, write, test
and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software
include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

Types of Switch mode power supply:


Linear regulators always provide the step-down type of voltage regulation.
However, this is not the case with switch mode power supply, as it can provide
both step up as well as step down type of voltage regulation. This leads to further
classification of SMPS as:

 Buck switch mode power supply: It consists of step-down type of


regulator circuit that performs dc to dc conversion. The word
‘buck’ corresponds to reduction or subtraction. It basically performs the
conversion of high-value dc voltage into the low value of the same polarity.

 Boost switch mode power supply: It has the step-up type of regulator
circuit to convert the low-level dc signal into a high level. The word
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‘boost’means to add up or increase .Thus a boost switching regulator
increases the level of the supply voltage keeping the polarity same as that
of the input signal.
 Buck-Boost switch mode power supply: This SMPS performs combined
operation of buck as well as boost regulator. In this topology, the output
produced is inverted in nature whose voltage can be either more or less
than the supply input depending on the duty cycle.
Along with these three, two more types of considerable smps are flyback and
forward converter.

These are known to be three fundamental switching operations generally


called switch mode circuit topologies.

Block Diagram and Working of SMPS:


The major components that constitute SMPS are as follows:

1. Input rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter)


2. High-frequency switch (Power transistor or MOSFET)
3. Power transformer
4. Output rectifier and Filter (Diode rectifier and capacitor filter)
5. Control circuit (comparator and pulse width modulator)
The figure given below represents the functional block diagram of SMPS:

Input Rectifier and Filter :Initially, the unregulated ac input signal from
the source is provided to the input rectifier and filter circuit. Here the ac input
signal is rectified to generate a dc signal and further smoothened to remove high-

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frequency noise component from it. The dc output (still in unregulated form) is fed
to the power transistor that acts as a high-frequency switch.

High Frequency Switch :Here the dc signal undergoes chopping (switching).


This circuit acts as an ideal switch i.e., when the power transistor (chopper
circuit) is in on state, current passes through it with negligible voltage drop, and
dc signal is obtained at the output terminal of the transistor. However, under the
off state of the power transistor, no current passes through it and leading to
cause maximal voltage drop within it. Thus, at the output side, no voltage will be
present.

Hence, according to the switching action of the power transistor dc voltage will be
obtained at its output side. The chopping frequency plays a crucial role in
maintaining the desired dc voltage level.

Power Transformer : The obtained dc signal at the output of the chopper


circuit is then fed to the primary winding of the high-frequency power transformer.
Here the step-down transformer converts the high voltage signal into a low
voltage level. Due to high frequency, small size transformer is enough.

Output Rectifier and Filter : Output of power transformer is given as input to


output rectifier and filter. This simply filters out the unwanted residuals from the
signal in order to provide a regulated dc signal as the output.

Control Circuit :The control circuitry present here acts as the feedback circuit
for the complete unit. This involves a comparator along with a pulse width
modulator (PWM). The dc output from the rectifier and filter is fed to the control
circuit where the error amplifier which acts as a comparator, compares the
obtained dc voltage with the reference value.

 If the dc output is greater than the reference


value ,Pulsewidth modulator increases width of pulse to
reduce voltage.
 If the dc output is less than the reference voltage ,Pulse
width Modulator decreases pulse width to increase
output voltage.

Basically, the duty ratio is the ratio of on-time to the overall cycle time (i.e., on +
off) time. Hence, by making necessary adjustments in the width of the pulses, the
chopping frequency gets adjusted hence, regulated dc output can be obtained.

7.UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY(UPS):

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What is Uninterruptible Power Supply?
UPS, also known as the Uninterruptible Power Supply, is an electrical device
used to maintain a continuous power supply to any electrical device in case
of a power failure.

UPS saves us from the power surges by continuously establishing a


connection to the computer and keeping it running even after power failure.
It differs from the other power backup devices like batteries and
supercapacitors. The UPS can supply power only for a short period sufficient
to keep the device safe or facilitate it to shut down properly to avoid
damage.

The Main Components of a UPS System


1. Rectifier: The function of the rectifier is to convert the AC (Alternating
Current) to the DC (Direct Current). Another function of the rectifier is
recharging the batteries. The battery chargers are separately added to
the rectifier module in an uninterrupted power supply greater than 3
KVA. In an uninterrupted power supply of less than 3 KVA, the rectifier
and the battery charges are a single unit.
2. UPS Batteries: The role of the battery is to provide an emergency
power supply in case of failure. Rectifiers or chargers are used to keep
the batteries charged. A string of batteries or batteries connected in
series is used in the UPS system. Hence, failure of a single battery
means failure of the string. Small UPS systems consist of internal
batteries, whereas large UPS systems have separate cabinets for
batteries.
3. Inverter: The inverter converts the DC voltage to the AC output. AC
output is then used to power the critical loads. Inverters help in
smoothening the surges, electrical noise, sags, spikes, etc. As a result,
the output obtained is a pure sine waveform.
4. Static Bypass Switch: The main function of the static bypass switch
is to act as a safeguard in case the UPS system fails. In such a
condition, a static bypass switch will bypass the rectifier, inverters, and
batteries, and hence it will connect the system to the main supply.
However, this arrangement is not ideal as it will have unfiltered power,

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but it is useful to continue the functioning while the UPS system is
being repaired.
5. Other components of UPS system: Other components of a UPS
system vary depending upon its size and type, and it may include
components such as fans and capacitors.

a. External Maintenance Bypass is used to keep the load


uninterrupted while the UPS is being replaced or removed.
b. Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors
c. Simple Network Management Protocol

These can be used for monitoring and communications applications.

How Does a UPS Protect Computer?


Certain specifications are necessary for the computer to function
continuously, and deviation in these specifications causes the power supply
to fail, and the computer stops working. The use of a UPS is to protect the
data and any work on the computer while there is a power problem. These
power problems are:

1. Voltage Surges and Spikes: Greater voltage on the line than the desired
voltage.
2. Total Power Failure: In cases when the fuse blows or the line goes down.
3. Voltage Sags: Line voltage is less than the desired voltage.
4. Differences in the frequencies: When the frequency of oscillation of the
power supply differs from the desired frequency.

Different types of Uninterruptible Power Supply


UPS system accommodates a complete range of applications using its three
types which cater to the demands of enterprises and the customers. The
three types are;

1. Standby UPS

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2. Line Interactive UPS
3. Online UPS

All three devices operate during power failure; however, they may differ in
their operations.

1. OFFLINE(Standby) UPS:

 Standby UPS is a type of UPS that is an offline unit.

 It can detect an electrical failure and automatically switches to the


battery-powered mode.

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 Through a direct AC connection, in normal conditions, hardware
receives utility power.

 Common uses of standby UPS include computers, modems, VoIP


equipment, etc. Standby UPS is the least expensive among the three
UPS types.

2. Line Interactive UPS:

UPS is capable of regulating voltage automatically; it also responds to the


conditions of high and low voltage. It supports the system at the time of
outages. During outages, it converts the battery power into AC for the
continuation of the operations.

IT Applications of Line Interactive UPS System: The line interactive


system safeguards sensitive equipment during burnouts or blackouts. In this
system, units are expensive as compared to the standby system. However,
these are cost-effective when compared to the online UPS system. It protects
in situations such as short-term power failure or low voltage conditions.
Additionally, in cases of a long outage, the battery power of the line
interactive UPS system allows the device to shut down safely.

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3. Online UPS:

Double or Delta conversion technology is used in the Online UPS system. AC


power is carried to the rectifier to become DC power. Hence the network
does not receive electricity from the AC outlet directly. It is then carried to
the inverter. Afterward, its inversion takes place to AC, and this power is
delivered to the equipment. The online UPS system provides continuous
clean power to the equipment. Online UPS system costs more as compared
to the standby and line interactive UPS systems.

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