INTRODUCTION

WHAT IS COMPUTER?

A computer is an electronic device that processes data, converting it into information that is useful to people. I.O.W. Computer is an electronic device operating under the instructions stored in its own memory unit, that can accept data (as an input) ,process data arithmetically and logically, produce information (output), from the processing, and store the result for future use.

FEATURES OF COMPUTER
1.

2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Speed: Storage Accuracy Efficiency Network Capability Versatility Free from Fatigue.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER:Now a days computers are used everywhere. Computers are important because information is so essential to us. And as computer convert data into information computers are essential. Computers may offer freedom to communicate, learn, or work without leaving home. Computers are used in every areas like : Education Small business Industry Entertainment Government

COMPUTER GENERATIONS

First Generation (1946 to 1955):

The vacuum tubes were used in the circuits of these computers. The input and output operations were done using punched card technology. For external storage, magnetic tapes were used. The machine was capable to do one job at a time, The language used by these computers was machine language and assembly language. Example of Computers: UNIVAC, IBM 650 etc.

Early Vacuum tubes

Tubes in the 21st Century

Vacuum tube is a glass tube

An electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a vacuum. It is used as a switch, amplifier or display screen. Used as on/off switches, they allowed the first computers to perform digital computations.

DISADVANTAGES OF VACUUM TUBES-

They were much larger, taking up entire rooms. required more energy(electricity) degenerate more heat, and were more prone to failures. They were very expensive to operate

SECOND GENERATION (1956 TO 1963)

The invention of the transistor which was faster, smaller and required considerably less power to operate were used in the circuits. The input operations were performed using punched cards and magnetic tapes and for output operations, punched cards and papers were used. The machine was capable to process multiple tasks concurrently. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.

WHAT IS PUNCHED CARDS:

Punched card is a card on which data can be coded in the form of punched holes. In computing, there were usually 80 columns and 12 rows, each column containing a pattern of holes representing one character Sometimes shortened to card.

MAGNETIC TAPE

Magnetic tape is the form of recording which is being used for the purpose of recording and the recording which is being done in the form of magnetic. The tape had been designed in the form of a tape which is made up of plastic. The plastic tape which is being used is made up of magnetizable layers of coating which is being done in longer forms. This had been effectively been used in the olden times where the data needs to be stored for a longer time period and the data storage was being done in an unparallel way. After the data had been stored in the magnetic tape then it is found out that the user can easily gather the information and hence it can also be accessed too

THIRD GENERATION (1964 TO 1970):

Integrated circuits replaced transistors. Inspite of their smaller size they were capable to perform better than transistors. For data input and output operations monitors and keyboards replaced the punched cards. For external storage magnetic disks were used. Sophisticated operating systems, which were capable of handling several jobs concurrently were used. More advanced high level languages like PASCAL were used. Example of computers: IBM System

OPTICAL DISKS

A storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. Optical disks can store much more data -up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes) -- than most portable magnetic media, such as floppies. There are three basic types of optical disks: CD-ROM : Like audio CDs, CD-ROMs come with data already encoded onto them. The data is permanent and can be read any number of times, but CD-ROMs cannot be modified. WORM : Stands for write-once, read -many. With a WORM disk drive, you can write data onto a WORM disk, but only once. After that, the WORM disk behaves just like a CD-ROM. erasable: Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data, just like magnetic disks. These are often referred to as EO (erasable optical) disks.

FOURTH GENERATION (1971 TO 1991):

4th generation in which the personal computer first appeared. This was made possible by the development of the microprocessor by Intel Corp. The circuits used VLSI and microprocessors of virtually microscopic size, which led to drastic cut on the size of computer. The input output devices were the same monitors, keyboard, printer etc. Micro computers have evolved. Magnetic disks were the primary devices used for external storage. The use of special software for maintaining large data bases became popular. The application software for micro computer essentially became popular in this generation. Example of computers: IBM Systems

FIFTH GENERATION (1992 TO PRESENT):

The computers of this generation use optic fiber technology to handle Artificial Intelligence. thousands of computations can be taking place at the same time. These computers have capacity to think and reason which can be used to solve problems where human intelligence is required. Artificial Intelligence (AI).

WHAT IS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY?

We use the term information technology or IT to refer to an entire industry. In actuality, information technology is the use of computers and software to manage information Information technology, known as IT, refers to the study, design, development, implementation, support and management of computer-based knowledge. The information technology department of a large company would be responsible for storing information, protecting information, processing the information, transmitting the information as necessary, and later retrieving information as necessary.

WHAT DOES A COMPUTER DO?

Input Process Output Storage

Processor
Control Unit/Arithmetic Logic Unit

Input Devices

Memory

Output Devices

Storage Devices

Information Processing Cycle

Input Unit: Data & instructions must be enter in the computer system before any computations can be performed. Output Unit: It supplies information & result of the computation to the outside world. Storage Unit: It is used to store data & instruction making space of intermitted result & for final result. Arithmetic & logical Unit In this unit actual execution takes place.

Control Unit: It act as a overall nerves system of computer.

THE PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

The complete computer system consists of four parts

Hardware Software Data User

HARDWARE:Hardware are the mechanical devices that makes the computer. I.O.W. Hardware is any part of computer that we can touch or see. Eg. Monitors, keyboard, mouse etc Software is A set of instructions that makes the computer. Software are Programs and applications Parts of computer that cannot be seen. Needed for computer to do functions. Designed to solve common or custom problem. Data: Data is nothing but the raw materials. Users:People who use this Information are referred to as End users, Computer users or Users.

COMPUTER HARDWARE

Hardware are the mechanical devices that makes the computer. I.O.W. Hardware is any part of computer that we can touch or see.

Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer including the digital circuits inside the computer as opposed to the software that carry out the computing instructions. The hardware of a computer is unlikely to change frequently unless due to the crash or for upgrading them. The devices that is capable of storing, executing system instructions and controlling other logical outputs. Hardware comprises all of the physical part of the computer such as Monitor, CPU, motherboard, ram, CDRom, printer, scanner, hard disk, flash drive (AKA pen drive), processor, pci buses, floppy disk, power supply, VGA card, sound card, network interface card, peripherals, joystick, mouse, keyboard, foot pedal, computer fan, camera, headset and others

HARDWARE OF A MODERN PERSONAL COMPUTER

Hardware comprises all of the physical part of the computer such as 1. Monitor 2. Motherboard 3. CPU 4. RAM 5. cards 6. Power supply (cable) 7. Optical disc drive 8. Hard disk drive 9. Keyboard 10. Mouse

CLASSIFICATION OF HARDWARE:Hardware are classified into 4 categories: Processing Unit Input Devices Output Devices Storage Devices

COMPUTER HARDWARE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

A personal computer is built with the CPU, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard.

Central Processing Unit - also called The Chip, a CPU, a processor, or a microprocessor Memory (RAM) Storage Devices Input Devices Output Devices

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Central Processing Unit - also called The Chip, a CPU, a processor or a microprocessor Memory (RAM) Storage Devices Input Devices Output Devices

COMPUTER HARDWARE
Central Processing Unit - also called The Chip, a CPU, a processor or a microprocessor Memory (RAM) Storage Devices Input Devices Output Devices

MOTHERBOARD

OR

SYSTEM BOARD:

It is a rectangular board containing the circuitry that connects the processor to the other hardware. A personal computer is built with the CPU, main memory, and other essential components on the motherboard.

Motherboard is located at the bottom of the system unit. It is a circuit board covered with sockets, slots and bus line.
Socket: Provides connection point for small specialized electronic parts called as chip. Chip consist of tiny circuit board. E.g. microprocessors chip, memory chip Slots: Provides connection point for specialized cards or circuit board. E.g. Modem cards plugs into slot to provide connection to the Internet. Bus lines: Connecting lines provides pathway for communicating the various electronic components .

MOTHERBOARD

PCI slot Use for modem card , sound card etc

MOTHERBOARD:

CMOS Battery:
All personal computers require a small battery on the system board that provides power to the Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) chip, even while the computer is turned off. This chip contains information about the system configuration (e.g., hard disk type, floppy drive types, date and time, and the order in which the computer will look for bootable disks).

BUS
Bus connects the parts of the CPU to each other. The bus is actually a set of circuits that run throughout the board and connect all the expansion slots, memory, and CPU, etc. together. There are two main types of buses1. Internal or system bus. (resides on the motherboard connects CPU to the devices that resides on the motherboard) 2. External or expansion bus. ( connects CPU to external devices like keyboard, mouse) Internal or System BUS: 1. Data bus connects the CPU, memory, and other hardware devices on the motherboard. 1. Address bus: Connects CPU and RAM and carries only memory address.

EXPANSION BUS
Connects CPU to external devices like keyboard,mouse on the system board including expansion slots. . External buses connect to standard ISA or PCI expansion slots via a controller/adapter card. Different types of expansion buses are-(Bus Technologies) 1. Industry standard architecture (ISA): It was developed for the first IBM personal Computer. It is 16-bit data bus. This bus is used in many computers to attach slower devices. 2. Local Bus: Local bus was developed to attach faster devices to CPU.A local bus is a internal system bus that runs between components on the motherboard. 3. Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI): PCI bus is designed by Intel. This bus is one of the type of local bus. It is a 32-bit or 64-bit bus which is faster than ISA bus. This bus is use to integrate new data types, such as audio, video and graphics.

Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP): AGP is over twice as fast as the PCI bus. The AGP bus is dedicatedfor the acceleration of graphics performance. Thisbus is widely used for graphics and 3-D animations.

5. Universal serial port (USB): This bus combines with a PCI bus on the system bus to support several external devices without using expansion card or expansion slot. User can connect then disconnect a USB device without affecting the machine.
6. IEEE 1394 (FireWire): FireWire is used to connect video devices such as cameras and video cameras.

PROCESSORS:

Processors:
The procedure that transforms raw data into useful information is called processors. The processors consist of one or more chips called microprocessors. (the brain of computers.)

CPU OR PROCESSORS:
A PCs processor consists of many chips and the circuitry board in such case Processors are referred to as Central processing unit (CPU).
Interprets instructions to the computer. Performs logical and arithmetic operations. Causes input and output operations to occur. It determines how fast your computer will run & is measured by MHz speed.

CPU COMPONENTS :
Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication & division) logic operations. Logical operations involve comparison like > < = etc. Logic operations test various conditions encountered during processing and allow for different actions to be taken based on the results. The data required to perform the arithmetic and logical functions are inputs from the designated CPU registers and operands.

Control Unit The CPU consists of The control unit which controls all operations of the computer system. The control unit maintains order within the computer system and directs the flow of traffic (operations) and data.

CPU TYPES

There are 2 major CPU manufacturers for personal computers. Intel http:// www.intel.com / Advanced micro devices(AMD) http://www.amd.com There are 3 Intel CPU families for desktop computers: 1. Core Processor 2. Pentium Processor 3. Celeron There are 3 AMD CPU Families for Desktop Computers: 1. Athlon 64 FX 2. Athlon 64 x 2 Dual Core 3. Athlon 64

X86 families of processors 8080,8086,8088,80286,80386,80486.

CPU SPEED
When you choose a CPU, you should consider its speed. The higher the value , the faster the CPU will be. Currently, CPU speeds range from 600 megahertz (MHz or million cycles per second) to 4 gigahertz (GHz or billion cycles per second). Always check new softwares requirements for CPU type and speed before purchasing Chip capacity is always expressed in a word size. A word is a number of bits (4, 8, 16, 32 or 64 ) that can access at one time by the CPU. The more bits in a word, more powerful and faster the computer . Dual Core Chip: These chip allow a single computer to run two programs at the same time.

POPULAR MICROPROCESSORS:

Processor

Manufacturer

Description

Pentium 4 Core 2 64-bit, Xeon 64-bit,

Intel Intel Intel

32-bit dual-core dual-core

Athlon 64
Opteron PowerPC

AMD
AMD IBM

64-bit, dual-core
64-bit, dual-core 64-bit, dual-core

MEMORY
A computer requires a memory to store and retrieve instructions and data. Memory is a holding area for data, instructions and information. Like microprocessors, memory is contained on chips connected to the system board. Types of Memory:

Primary Memory Secondary Memory/Auxiliary memory

PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory or the main memory is part of the main computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it. This memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion.. Primary memory is much faster and also it is more cost effective. It stores the data permanently unless it is erased. The primary memory is implemented by two types of memory technologies.

1. Random access memory (RAM) 2. Read only memory (ROM)

MEMORY (RAM)
RAM or Random Access Memory RAM is the system's main memory, i.e. it is a space that allows you to temporarily store data when a program is running. Waiting room for computers CPU. Holds instructions for processing data, processed data, and raw data. Ram is measured by:

Capacity (in Megabytes or Gigabytes) Speed (in Nanoseconds)

RAM upgrades are cost-effective and easy to install.

TYPES OF RAM

There are many type of random access memory. They exist in the form of memory modules that can be plugged into the mother board. Early memories existed in the form of chips called DIP (Dual Inline Package). Nowadays, memories generally exist in the form of modules, which are cards that can be plugged into connectors for this purpose.

Types: SIMM, or single in-line memory module DIMM, or dual in-line memory module Synchronous DRAM Double-Data-Rate (DDR) Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory.

SIMM MODULE:

SIMM modules with 72 connectors (dimensions are 108x25mm) are memories able to store 32 bits of data simultaneously. These memories are found on PCs from the 386DX to the first Pentiums. On the latter, the processor works with a 64-bit data bus; this is why these computers must be equipped with two SIMM modules. One notch at the center is used for plug in.

DIMM MODULES:

modules in DIMM format (Dual Inline Memory Module) are 64bit memories, DIMM modules have memory chips on both sides of the printed circuit board and also have 84 connectors on each side, giving them a total of 168 pins. these modules have a second notch to avoid confusion.

SRAM AND DRAM

1. SRAM is static while DRAM is dynamic. 2. DRAM requires the data to be refreshed periodically in order to retain the data. SRAM does not need to be refreshed. 3. SRAM is faster compared to DRAM. 4. SRAM consumes less power than DRAM 5. SRAM is more expensive than DRAM 6. Cheaper DRAM is used in main memory while SRAM is commonly used in cache memory

SDRAM:

SDRAM, or Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory is memory can run at faster speeds than conventional DRAM and is therefore the use of SDRAM is becoming more widespread. SDRAM is able to operate more efficiently. It is synchronized to the clock of the processor and is capable of keeping two sets of memory addresses open simultaneously.

DDR SDRAM

Double-Data-Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory, also called DDR or DDR1, is one of the more common types of memory found in desktop and notebook computers entered the market in 2000.

DDR RAM is essentially twice as fast as SDRAM. DDR1 RAM is capable of a maximum transfer speed of 3,200 MB per second. This is significantly faster than the older standard, SDRAM, but is slower than DDR2 and DDR3 RAM. The fastest RAM available in 2009, PC3-12800 DDR3SDRAM, can transfer data at a maximum rate of 12,800 MB per second. DDR1 RAM is not interchangeable with SDRAM, DDR2SDRAM, or DDR3-SDRAM.

READ

ONLY

MEMORY (ROM)

ROM permanently stores the data, even when the computer is shut off. ROM is called non-volatile memory because it never loses its contents. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed and can only be read. Read only means, the CPU can read or retrieve data written on the ROM ,computer cannot change the data in ROM. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified. Most personal computers contain a small amount of ROM that stores critical programs such as the program that boots the computer. In addition, ROMs are used extensively in calculators and peripheral devices such as laser printers, whose fonts are often stored in ROMs. E.g. EPROM, EEPROM

FLASH MEMORY
Flash Memory

Special type of memory chip. Combines the features of both RAM & ROM. Lets user or program access data randomly. Like RAM overwrite any or all contents at any time. Nonvolatile.

USES: Widely used in notebook computers. It is use in digital cameras. Used in multimedia players. Flash memory drives can connect to a computers USB or firmware port and can store 256MB or more data. Eg . Pen drives, digi cam etc..

PEN DRIVES:

A USB flash drive consists of a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) 1.1 or 2.0 interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, and physically much smaller than a floppy disk. USB flash drives are often used for the same purposes as floppy disks were. They aresmaller faster Have thousands of times more capacity. More durable and reliable because of their lack of moving parts. Until approximately 2005, most desktop and laptop computers were supplied with floppy disk drives, but most recent equipment has abandoned floppy disk drives in favor of USB ports. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can store more data and transfer faster than a much larger optical disc drive and can be read by most other systems

MEMORY (RAM)
All software applications will have RAM specifications listed on their packaging. Many applications list both a minimum and a recommended amount of RAM necessary to run the software. Be cautious about buying software for a system based on minimum requirement

SECONDARY MEMORY

Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of memory. It cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary storage (also known as RAM ). Secondary Memory is designed to overcome some of the limitations of primary memory. It is non-volatile, meaning that it retains its contents even when power to the computer system is switched off. This allows it to retain its data on a long-term basis Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard drives and floppy disks ; optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which were the first forms of secondary memory.

STORAGE TECHNOLOGY
Magnetic storage devices store data by magnetizing particles on a disk or tape. They have a limited life-span of 1 to 5 years, depending on the device. Optical storage devices store data as light and dark spots on the disk surface. They have an unlimited life-span.

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES:

Magnetic Disks: On magnetic disks, data is encoded as microscopic magnetized needles on the disk's surface. You can record and erase data on a magnetic disk any number of times, just as you can with a cassette tape. Magnetic disks come in a number of different forms: Eg: floppy disk Hard disk removable cartridge

STORAGE DEVICES

Hard Disk Drives

Capacity is measured in gigabytes (GB or billions of bytes). Typically permanently installed. Used to store operating system, application s/w, utilities and data. Also called as Fixed disk, because the drive and disk are single unit. 10 to 100 times faster than floppy disks. Advantages: Fast access Store large amount of data.

Disadvantages: Fixed amount of storage. Cannot be easily removed.

HARD DISK:
Internal hard disk is located inside the system unit. Hard disk includes one or more thicker, rigid platters mounted on a central spindle. Each platter is covered with a magnetic coating. Hard disk store and organize files using tracks, sectors and cylinders.

spindle

Access arm

Read /write head

Platters with magnetic coating

Disk Platter

FLOPPY DISK DRIVES

A typical 5.25-inch floppy disk can hold 1.2MB (megabytes). 3.5-inch floppies normally store 1.2MB or 1.44MB of data. Storage device with the smallest capacity Floppy disk are the portable or removable storage media. Typically used to store and transport small amount of data. Store data on both side of its disk.

HARD DISK CARTRIDGES: / REMOVABLE HARD DISK

Portable. Easy to remove. Primarily used to complement an internal hard disk. Protect or secure sensitive data. Backing up the content of internal hard disk. High speed and capacity.( upto 20 to 100GB) Most widely used Hard disk cartridges is Removable Hard disk.

STORAGE DEVICES
OPTICAL DISKS: A storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. Optical disks can store much more data -- up to 6 gigabytes (6 billion bytes) -- than most portable magnetic media, such as floppies. There are three basic types of optical disks: CD-ROM Drives

Typically installed on all new computer systems. Capacity is 600 to 750 megabytes (MB or millions of bytes). Most mass-produced commercial software is packaged on a CD.

Used more often now for backup storage as CD-RW (read/write) technology has become less expensive. Data is read from CD by a laser. Optical storage device

OPTICAL STORAGE DEVICES

WORM : Stands for write-once, read -many. With a WORM disk drive, you can write data onto a WORM disk, but only once. After that, the WORM disk behaves just like a CD-ROM. erasable: Optical disks that can be erased and loaded with new data, just like magnetic disks. These are often referred to as EO (erasable optical) disks.

COMPUTER HARDWARE INPUT DEVICES

Any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands, and user responses into a computer Input Device Keyboard Mouse

COMPUTER HARDWARE INPUT DEVICES: Input is all information put into a computer. Input can be supplied from a variety of sources:

A person A storage device on computer Another computer A peripheral device Another piece of equipment, such as a musical instrument or thermometer

INPUT DEVICES:

Input devices gather and translate data into a form the computer understands. Primary input device: Keyboards:

Traditional keyboard Flexible Keyboard Ergonomic keyboard Wireless keyboard PDA keyboard.

Mouse:

Mechanical Mouse Optical Mouse Wireless mouse

Light Pens Pens/ Stylus: Touch Screens: Game Controllers: Bar Code Readers: Scanners: Digital Cameras

INPUT DEVICES:

Keyboards:

Most common ways to input data is by keyboard. Keyboards convert numbers, letters and characters into electrical signals. These signals are sent to and processed by, the system. A standard keyboard includes about 100 keys, each sends different signal to the CPU. Keyboard is divided into five groups. 1. Alphanumeric Keys 2. The Modifier Keys.( Alt, Ctrl etc) 3. The Numeric Keypad. 4. The Function keys. 5. Cursor Movement Keys. With these five groups Some special Purpose keys are there: START, Shortcut, Home, Insert, Page up, Page down, End, Delete.

Escape key

Numeric keypad
Function keys

Window key

Navigation keys

TYPES OF KEYBOARDS:

Traditional keyboard Flexible Keyboard Ergonomic keyboard Wireless keyboard PDA keyboard.

Traditional Keyboard: Full sized, rigid, rectangular keyboard that include function, navigational & numeric keys.

COMPUTER HARDWARE OUTPUT DEVICES:

Output devices include any hardware that translate information processed by the computer into a form that humans can understand . A monitor is a piece of electrical equipment which displays texts and images. Printer Scanner Monitor Speakers Video output devices

Eg.

FLEXIBLE KEYBOARDS:
Fold or roll up for easy packing or storage.

ERGONOMIC KEYBOARD:
Similar to traditional keyboards. The arrangement of keyboard is not rectangular and a palm rest is provided.

Advantages
An ergonomic keyboard may reduce muscle strain and reduce risk of Carpal Tunnel syndrome, but there is no clear evidence of benefit. After a user takes the time to adjust to this style of keyboard, these keyboards can make typing easier, faster and less awkward.

Disadvantages

Some ergonomic keyboards are highly priced, though not necessarily so. They may take a little practice to get used to, and many people don't want to go to the trouble of adjusting. These keyboards may take more space on your computer table and force the mouse to be farther away.

WIRELESS KEYBOARD:
Transmit input to the system unit through the air. Provides greater flexibility and convenience.

PDA Keyboards:
Is used to send e-mail, create documents, and more.

MOUSE:

Pointing Device. Controls a pointer displayed on the screen. The mouse pointer usually appear in the shape of an arrow. It frequently change the position. Mouse can have one, two, or three buttons, used for selecting command operation.

Types of Mouse:

Mechanical Mouse Optical Mouse Wireless mouse

MECHANICAL MOUSE:

This is a most common type of pointing device and is widely used. It has a rubber ball that produces through a hole in the bottom of the mouse case. The ball rolls when we move the mouse on the flat surface and controls the pointer on the screen.

OPTICAL MOUSE

Optical mouse has no moving parts. It emits the senses light to detect mouse movement. It can move on any surface More precise. Does not require periodic cleaning.

CORDLESS OR WIRELESS MOUSE:

This is a battery powered device. Typically uses radio waves or infrared light waves to communicate with the system unit. This type of mouse eliminate the mouse cord.

LIGHT PENS:

Light pen is light sensitive pen like device. Light pen is placed against the monitor. This closes a photoelectric circuit and identifies the spot for entering or modifying data. E.g. Light pen is used to edit digital images and drawings.

PENS/ STYLUS:

Pens are used for inputting a data. We can hold a pen in our hand and write on a special pad or directly on the monitor. Pen can also be used as a pointing device, like a mouse, or select commands.

TOUCH SCREENS:
Is a particular kind of monitor with a clear plastic outer layer. Behind this layer are crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light. User can select commands or actions by touching the screen with a finger. Touch screens are easy to use. E.G. commonly used in restaurants, Automated teller machines (ATM).

GAME CONTROLLERS:

A game controller is a device used with games or entertainment system used to control a playable character or object, or otherwise provide input in a computer game. A controller is typically connected to a game console or computer by means of a wire, cord or nowadays, by means of wireless connection. Controllers which have been classified as games controllers are keyboards, mice, game pads, joysticks, etc. Special purpose devices, such as steering wheels for driving games and light guns for shooting games, are also game controllers.

OPTICAL INPUT DEVICES:

Bar Code Readers:

These devices are either handheld wand readers or platform scanners. They contain photoelectric cells that scan or read bar codes or vertical zebrastriped marks printed on the product. It is used to read the product code at the time of checkout at almost all supermarket.

SCANNERS:
A scanner is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image.

1. desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. 2.Hand-held scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3. 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and measurement, gaming and other applications. 4. Mechanically driven scanners that move the document are typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.

DIGITAL CAMERAS:

A digital camera (also digicam ) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still photographs.

OCR: (OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION

Use special printed characters that can be read by a light source and change into machine readable code.

Handheld wand reader

OUTPUT DEVICES
Monitors are the most commonly used output device. Most monitors use a bitmap display.

Allows user to resize the display. Divides the screen into a matrix of tiny square dots called pixels. The more dots a screen can display, the higher the resolution of the monitor.

Monitors are connected to a computer system via a port integrated on the video adapter or graphics card. Graphics cards convert digital data output from software to analog data for display on monitors.

Monitors:

The most frequently used output device is the Monitor. It is also known as display screens. It presents visual images of text and graphics. Monitors vary in shape, size , cost. Characteristic of Monitors: Clarity i. e quality and sharpness of the displayed images.

CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT )

Until recently, the most common type of monitor was the CRT. These monitors can directly placed on the system unit or on the desktop. CRTs are similar in size and technology to television.

Advantages:

Low cost Excellent resolution

Disadvantage:

They are bulky. Occupy large space.

SOFTWARE

SOFTWARE
Software, is another name of programs. Programs or the software are the instructions that tells the computer how to process data into the form we want. Software are the parts of computer that cannot be seen. . software is a logical part of a computer and is used to carry out the instructions, storing, executing and developing other software programs Software consist of a sequence of related instruction called programs which are executed by the processor to accomplish a specific task.

SOFTWARE CLASSIFICATION It

can be classified into 4 categories:

System software Programming languages Translator software: assembler, compiler, interpreter Application software

SOFTWARE
System Software
System Software enables the application software to interact with the computer hardware. System software is background software that helps computer to manage its own internal resources. System s/w works with end users, application S/W , and hardware to handle the majority of technical detail. System software is not a single program, rather it is a collection of programs that handles hundreds of technical detail.

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

An Operating System (OS) is the master controller within a computer.

EX: Windows, MacOS, DOS, UNIX, Linux

An operating system interacts with:

All hardware installed in or connected to a computer system. All software installed or running from a storage device on a computer system.

SYSTEM S/W

CONSISTS OF FOUR TYPES OF PROGRAMS

1.

2. 3.

4.

Operating System provide an interface between users and the computer and run application. Utilities performs special tasks. Device Drivers allows particular input or output devices to communicate with rest of the computer system Language translators converts the programming instruction into the language that computer can understand.

FUNCTIONS OF OS

Managing Resources Providing User Interface Running application Provides the instruction to display the on-screen elements with which we interact. Loads the programs into memory so that we can use them. Manages the way information is stored on and retrieved from disks.

UTILITIES
All kinds of things can happen with the microcomputers like internal hard disk may crash, computers can freeze up, operations can slow down. To avoid such kinds of things we use some utility programs.

Definition:
Utilities are the specialized programs designed to make computing easier. Some of the Utilities programs are1. Back up 2. Antivirus 3. Screen Saver

Back Up Utility Program:

A Program that enables the user to copy large groups of files from hard disk to another Storage medium for safekeeping or use in case the original files become damaged.

Antivirus Program:
A program that scans a computers disk s and memory for viruses, detect them, and removes them. Some antivirus programs can help the user recover data and program files that have been damaged by virus and can actively scan files as they are being copied from a disk or downloaded from internet.

Screen Saver:
A utility program that displays moving images on the screen if no input is received for several minutes; originally developed to prevent an image from being burned into the screen.

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

It is a set of character and symbol joined together by certain set of rules which makes possible the interaction with the computer. Initially the language used that consist of only 0s and 1s and was referred to as machine language. For ex. Assembly language evolved it use nemonics code like MULT for multiplication." SUB for subtraction operation etc

LANGUAGE TRANSLATOR SOFTWARE

It

is a program that convert the program written in one of the computer languages to the machine language/code. Original program is called source program ,its translation in machine language is known as object program.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Accomplishes specific tasks for users. Enables a computer to become a multi-purpose machine.

Produce worksheets and reports. Automate record keeping like attendance and grades.

Create flow charts and graphic organizers. Communicate worldwide.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Productivity Software

Spreadsheets Databases

Presentation Software Document Preparation

Word Processing Desktop Publishing

Project Management Software

Commercial Software: Commercial Software are the software that a manufacturer Makes available for purchase. The consumer usually pays for a license to use the software , rather than the actual software itself.

In most cases when we purchase commercial software, we are not actually buying a software itself, Instead we are paying for a license to use the software. Commercial S/W comes in several different forms 1. Stand Alone Program 2. Software Suites 3. Shareware Program

Stand-Alone Programs:

A stand alone program is an application that performs only one type of task, such word processing program, a graphics program or an e-mail program.

SOFTWARE SUITE

A software suite is a collection of separate application programs bundled together and sold as a group. While the application and functions are the same whether it is purchased in a suite or separately. It is significantly less expensive to buy suite of application.

There are four types of S/W suites: 1. Productivity suite- Business suite like Ms-Office . 2. Personal suite- Home suite for home use. 3. Specialized suite- Like Graphics suite etc 4. Utility suite- For making computing easier.

SHAREWARE AND FREEWARE

Shareware: Shareware is a S/W we can use for free on a trial basis, usually for a limited time. If we decide to keep and use the software, we are required to register our copy of program and sometimes pay a small license fee to the developer. Freeware: Freeware is a software that is available free of charge and can be copied and distributed by anyone.

Pirated Software: Software Piracy is affecting the computer industry a lot.

Pirated software is software which has been duplicated and distributed without authorization. Pirated Software are the illegal copying of program. Software Pirates give up the right to receive upgrades and technical support, but they gain the use of the program without paying for it.

BASIC OF NETWORKING

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer network connects two or more autonomous Computers together for the purpose of sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

The computers can be geographically located anywhere.

WHAT IS COMPUTER NETWORK?

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and other devices that communicate to share data, hardware, and software.

A stand-alone computer is called a workstation on a network. A workstation provides access to:

Your computers local resources Network resources

ADVANTAGES OR BENEFITS OF NETWORKING

Exchanges information Sharing of peripheral devices such as printers and scanners. Simultaneous access to critical programs and data. Easier back up process. Networks allows many users to access shared data and programs instantly. Personal communication

NEED OF NETWORK

File sharing: Have you ever needed to access a file stored on another computer? A network makes it easy for everyone to access the same file and prevents people from accidentally creating different versions. Printer sharing: If you use a computer, chances are you also use a printer. With a network, several computers can share the same printer. Although you might need a more expensive printer to handle the added workload, it's still cheaper to use a network printer than to connect a separate printer to every computer in your office. Communication and collaboration: It's hard for people to work together if no one knows what anyone else is doing. A network allows employees to share files, view other people's work, and exchange ideas more efficiently. In a larger office, you can use e-mail and instant messaging tools to communicate quickly and to store messages for future reference.

NEED OF NETWORK

Organization: A variety of scheduling software is available that makes it possible to arrange meetings without constantly checking everyone's schedules. This software usually includes other helpful features, such as shared address books and to-do lists. Remote access: Having your own network allows greater mobility while maintaining the same level of productivity. With remote access in place, users are able to access the same files, data, and messages even when they're not in the office. This access can even be given to mobile handheld devices. Data protection: You should know by now that it's vital to back up your computer data regularly. A network makes it easier to back up all of your company's data on an offsite server, a set of tapes, CDs, or other backup systems.
Facilitate communications Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.

NETWORK

NETWORKS

Server:
A server is a computer connected to a network that distributes and stores resources for other network users. With proper licensing, many network users can use the same applications and data files simultaneously and share other resources, such as storage space or a printer.

NETWORK COMPONENTS
Physical Media Interconnecting Devices

Computers
Networking Software Applications

NETWORKING MEDIA

Networking media can be defined simply as the means by which signals (data) are sent from one computer to another (either by cable or wireless means).

NETWORKING DEVICES /INTERCONNECTING

DEVICES

HUB Switches Routers Wireless Access Points Modems The network card

NETWORKING DEVICES
HUB: Hub is a center or central node for other nodes. This device can be server or simply a connection point for cables from other nodes. Routers: A router translates information from one network to another; it is similar to a super intelligent bridge. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address and origin

NETWORKING DEVICES
Switches: Often used interchangeably with router but implies that the routes are fixed.

The network card: This is a card connected to the computer's motherboard, which interfaces with the physical medium, meaning the physical lines over which the information travels.

MODEMS: (MODULATOR/DEMODULATOR)
Modems are the devices that convert digital and analog signals. Modulation is the name of the process of converting from digital to analog. Demodulation is the process of converting from analog to digital. Modem enable digital microcomputers to communicate across analog telephone lines. Modems transmission speed is measured transfer rates (in bits per second (bps)). Today's fastest modem speed is measured in 56000 bits per second, or 56Kbps and are called as 56K modems.

TYPES OF MODEM

External modems It is box that houses the modems circuitry outside the computer. It connects to the computer using a serial, USB or fire Wire port and then connects to the telephone system with a standard telephone jack.

INTERNAL MODEM
It

is a plug-in circuit board that plugs into one of the computers expansion slot.

PC Cards modem It is a credit card size expansion board that is inserted into portable computers. Wireless modem It may be internal, external, or PC card. Unlike other modems it does not use cable. Instead it sends or receive through air.

THE NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are internal, and they are included in the purchase of most computers. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available The most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards. Ethernet cards are usually purchased separately from a computer, although many computers include an option for a pre-installed Ethernet card. Ethernet cards contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both).

COMPUTERS: CLIENTS AND SERVERS

Servers
computers which provided shared resources to users, by means of a network server. The server contains the file, print, application, security, and other services in a central computer that is continuously available to respond to client requests.

Clients
computers which access the shared resources provided by a network server.

NETWORKING PROTOCOL : TCP/IP

Protocol

The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the network use to communicate. One of the most popular protocols for LANs is called Ethernet. A formal specification of how things should communicate. In networking a protocol defines an interface usually (though not necessarily) between one computer and another. A simple example of a protocol Knock and Enter: 1. Knock on the door. 2. Wait for someone to say Come in. 3. If someone says Come in. then open the door and enter. 4. If you wait for five minutes then give up. We might want to combine this with a protocol for saying Come in when you hear a knock. Two computers need to use the same protocol to talk to one another. The definition of protocols is critical to networking.

PROTOCOLS
Protocols take the form of software or hardware that must be installed on every computer on the n/w. Protocols using their own methods, breaks data down into small packets in preparation for transportation. Linking devices pass these packets to the various pieces of equipments, including other computers and printers that are attached to the network.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL
TCP/IP is a protocol of the Internet and is required on any computer that must communicate across the Internet. TCP/IP is the default networking protocol of windows 2000 professional, Windows XP , Windows server 2003 and many other operating system.

IPX/SPX

IPX/SPX is a protocol of Novell, has been used in most versions of Net ware network operating system for networking offices throughout the world.

NETBIOS/ NETBEUI
NetBios / NetBEUI sends message to every computer that can receive them. NetBIOS/NetBEUI is an excellent protocol for networking small offices or homes, but it does not expand well into larger environments.

TYPES OF NETWOKING/ AREA NETWORK

Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of network according to the geographic area. Local area networks (LANs), for example, typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities, states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.

LAN, MAN & WAN

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network) Network in a City is call MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Network spread geographically (Country or across Globe) is called WAN.

LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)

Network in small geographical Area (Room, Building or a Campus) is called LAN (Local Area Network) A special S/W is also required for the network to operate. A LAN can consist of just two or three PCs or it can includes hundreds of PCs of different kinds connected together to share data, their peripherals such as printers, modems etc. LAN normally use Coaxial cables to connect the computers together. A LAN can transfer data in digital form at a high speed .

Advantages
Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers.
Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations very easily.

Disadvantages
If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

1.
2.

Major Characteristics of LAN

easy physical connection of computers in a network inexpensive medium of data transmission high data transmission rate

3.

1.

Use of LAN
File transfers and Access 2. Remote database access

MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORKS )

The Metropolitan Area network is larger than a LAN and it may cover areas as large as a city. MAN span distances up to 100 miles. These networks are frequently used as links between office buildings that are located throughout a city. A MAN uses distributed dual bus for the transmission of data, data is transmitted in both the direction simultaneously.

WAN(WIDE AREA NETWORK)

A WAN is a two or more LANs connected together, generally across a wide geographical area. A WANs are countrywide and worldwide networks. It may connect across the countries or the entire globe.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WAN

Communication Facility: For a big company covering different parts of the country the employees can save long distance phone calls and it overcomes the waiting time in out of the country communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN where users communicate with each other through their computer system. Remote Data Entry: It means sitting at any location you can enter data, update data and query other information of any computer attached to the WAN but located in other cities. Centralised Information: This means if the organization is spread over many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data are generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites and save at a single site.

CAN
campus-area networks (CANs): CAN follows same principles as LAN , only on a larger diversif ied scale. With a CAN, different campus offices and organization can be linked together. Example: In an University all the departments either connected to each other or all the departments are connected to office.

HOME-AREA NETWORKS

(HANS):

A network contained within a user's home that connects a person's digital devices with multiple computers and their peripheral devices to telephones, VCRs, televisions, video games, home security systems, "smart" appliances, fax machines and other digital devices that are wired into the network.

WIRELESS NETWORKING:

In Wireless transmission media, communication devices communicate with each other and data is communicated through the air or space using broadcast radio signals, microware signals and infrared signals. Advantages of wireless include mobility and elimination of cables. Wireless is rapidly gaining in popularity for both home and business networking. Wireless technology continues to improve, and the cost of wireless products continues to decrease. Popular wireless local area networking (WLAN) products conform to the 802.11 "Wi-Fi" standards. This transmission medium is used when it is impossible to install the cables. The data can be transmitted all over the world through this medium.

VARIOUS OPTIONS FOR NETWORKING

Various option for networking for a business are:

Dial up network Leased line DSL Lines (Digital subscriber line) VSAT (very small aperture terminal)

DATA COMMUNICATION WITH STANDARD TELEPHONE LINES

Data Communication which takes place through cables or wireless media , is called as dedicated media. Plain old Telephone system is the alternative to dedicated system in which the communication is takes place through telephone. By connecting a computer to the telephone we can send the data to potentially anyone else in the world who has computer and phone service, and we do not have to set up a network to do it. Data transmission through an analog phone lines are very slow. Also computer and analog phone lines can not work directly with one another they require a special hardware and software (like Modem) to translate data between the digital computers and analog phone lines.

WHAT IS ISP?

Internet Service Provider, it refers to a company that provides Internet services, including personal and business access to the Internet. For a monthly fee, the service provider usually provides a software package, username, password and access phone number. Equipped with a modem, you can then log on to the Internet and browse the World Wide Web and USENET, and send and receive e-mail.

DIAL UP NETWORK:
Dial-up networking is the most widely used type of computer connection to the Internet. Dial up networking technology provides PCs and other network devices access to a LAN or WAN via standard telephone lines. for that purpose we need A computer A telephone line A modem A (free) account with a Internet Service Provider (ISP)

DIAL-UP NETWORK

Dial-up networking uses a modem as the interface between a single PC and a network such as the Internet; the modems are typically capable of speeds up to 56 kbps. Dialing up with a modem is still the cheapest and most widely available way to connect to the Internet, but because it offers comparatively slow connection speeds, graphics-intensive Web sites can take a long time to load.

LEASED LINE NETWORK:

A leased line connects two locations for private voice and/or data telecommunication service. Not a dedicated cable, a leased line is actually a reserved circuit between two points. A leased line is a telephone line that has been leased (rented) for private use. In some contexts, it's called a dedicated(committed) line. Typically, large companies rent leased lines from the telephone message carriers (such as AT&T) to interconnect different geographic locations or to the branch offices in their company. The alternative is to buy and maintain their own private lines

APPLICATIONS OF LEASED LINE

Point-to-point: For Data Only Allows transmissions of data only. Point-to-point: For Voice and Data This kind of application allows transmission of voice and data over the same connection with higher bandwidth.

DSL (DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE) NETWORK:

Digital subscriber line that is generally known as the DSL is the networking device that is used by many users for the sake of the use of the internet technology and the communication. DSL is a high-speed Internet service like cable Internet. DSL is a technology that allows high-speed Internet connections over regular phone lines using broadband modem technology. DSL connects the computer to the Internet at speeds as fast as 52 megabits per second, using the copper lines that already bring phone service. In addition to offering significantly better download and upload times than traditional modems, DSL offers the benefit of always being on--we don't have to dial up our Internet service provider every time we want to get on the Net. And unlike cable modems, DSL connections are dedicated.

DSL
DSL technology theoretically supports data rates of 8.448 Mbps. DSL Internet services are used primarily in homes and small businesses. DSL Internet service only works over a limited physical distance and remains unavailable in many areas where the local telephone infrastructure does not support DSL technology. Also Known As: Digital Subscriber Line, A(Asymmetric )DSL, High bit rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL) uses higher frequency range of copper, twisted pair cables.

PROS AND CONS OF DSL:

PRO: Fast data-transmission rates; constant, dedicated connection; can send voice and data over a single line; Easy downloading and uploading is available and easy installation on the network.

CON: More expensive than standard modem connections; requires additional hardware at both ends; only works over a limited physical distance and remains unavailable in many areas where the local telephone infrastructure does not support DSL technology.

VERY SMALL APERTURE TERMINAL (VSAT )

A VSAT is a small-sized telecommunications earth station that transmits and receives via satellite. The terminal size is 0.75 to 3.8 meters in diameter. VSAT systems generally connect a large number of geographically discrete sites to a central location. VSAT networks may transmit voice, data, fax, or video conferencing. A typical VSAT site consists of a parabolic-shaped antenna mounted on the roof of a building, connected by a cable inside the building.

VARIOUS MEDIUM FOR COMMUNICATION

COMMUNICATION MEDIUM FOR NETWORKING

Communication is the process of transferring signals from one point to another and there must be some medium to transfer those signals. In computer networking and especially in the local area networking, there are certain communication mediums.

VARIOUS MEDIUM FOR COMMUNICATION

Terrestrial Satellite Copper wire Fiber optic cable

TERRESTRIAL TRANSMISSION NETWORK

Terrestrial Transmission network was the first method of transmission of content. Terrestrial Transmission network is the network of High Power, Medium Power, and Low Power TV Transmitter. A Terrestrial Transmitter just transmits the content on (Very High Frequency) VHF and Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Band signal. We usually see such transmitter on very high tower in cities. Terrestrial transmitter has limitations they had limited range or area of coverage in which they could transmit. The Terrestrial Transmitters are costly In most of the countries terrestrial networks were established by government funding, due to high cost and commitment to universal access.

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

A communications satellite is a specialized wireless receiver/transmitter receiving radio waves from one location and transmitting them to another ,that is launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the earth. Today, there are hundreds of commercial satellites in operation around the world. Those satellites are used for such diverse purposes as wide-area network communications, weather forecasting, television broadcasting, radio communications, Internet access etc..

SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Satellites have many important uses, not just communications. Most modern weather reports rely on satellite information. Scientific studies of our planet, the atmosphere and the universe all rely on satellites. A satellites job in the communications network is to serve as a repeater. That is, it receives a signal from one location and rebroadcasts it so another station can receive the signal. Reception and retransmission are accomplished by a transponder. A single transponder is capable of handling approximately 5,000 simultaneous voice or data channels. A typical satellite has 32 transponders.

SATELLITE ORBITS There are three areas for satellite orbits: GEO: Geostationary Earth Orbit MEO: Medium Earth Orbit LEO: Low Earth Orbit

MEO satellite MEO is defined simply as the area between LEO and GEO.

GEO satellites
GEO satellites orbit the earth directly over the equator, approximately 35 400 km up. At that altitude, one complete trip (orbit) around the earth takes 24 hours. Thus, the satellite remains over the same spot on the surface of the earth (geo) at all times, and stays fixed in the sky (stationary) from any point on the surface from which it can be "seen. Most communications satellites are in GEO. A single geostationary satellite can cover as much as 40 percent of the earth's surface; so, in theory, three such satellites can provide global coverage.

LEO satellites
LEO is between 200 and 1400 km above the earth. Satellites in LEO rapidly circle the earth and are typically in range of one location for only 90 minutes. Their main advantage is how close they are, providing shorter delays for faster communications.

COPPER WIRE

Twisted-Pair Cable
It is one of the most commonly used communication media for network cabling. It consists of two separate copper wires.
Normally consist of four pairs of wire. Each pair have two wires that are separately insulated in plastic, then twisted around each other and bound together in a layer of plastic. Usually used to connect hubs/switches to PCs in a star topology. Support transmission speed up to 1 Gbps.

COAXIAL CABLE
High frequency transmission cable Replaces multiple wire of twisted pair cable. Have 80 times transmission capacity of twisted pair. used to transfer television signal as well as computers in N/W. made of up a central copper wire (called a core) surrounded by an insulator, and then a metal shield.

FIBER-OPTIC CABLE
Transmits data as pulses of light through tiny tubes of glass rather than electric current. This type of cable has over 26,000 times the transmission capacity of twisted pair cable. Can transfer billions of data per second. they are lighter and more reliable at transmitting data. Extremely fast and can carry number of messages simultaneously. Though they are fast these cables are not easy to cut and cannot bent to sharp angles.