CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

• provision of a stable channel involves reducing the

gradient to maintain velocities below erosive level
• non-scouring and non-silting velocities
• designed to dissipate the energy of flowing and falling
water; some structures also act to retain earth
• their purpose is to transfer runoff from higher to lower
elevation over a short distance without allowing excessive
soil erosion to occur
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Temporary Structures:
- only where cheap labor and materials can be used
- may be constructed of planks, rocks, logs, brush,
woven wire, sod, earth
- based on studies, it was concluded that vegetal
protection can be established just as easily even
without temporary structures
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

• Permanent Structures:
- constructed of more permanent materials, e.g. concrete
- possible uses include: transfer water from vegetated
waterway to drainage ditch, control overfall at the head
of a large gully, to take up the fall at various points
along a channel or to provide discharge through
earthen banks on water shortages
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

• Permanent Structures:
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Two primary causes of failure of Permanent Structures:

• insufficient hydraulic capacity
• insufficient provision for energy dissipation
Design features
• the basic components of a hydraulic structure are the
inlet, conduit and outlet
• structures are classified and named in accordance with
the form of these 3 components
• aside from hydraulic features, structures must include
suitable wing walls, side walls, head wall extensions, and
toe walls to prevent seepage under or around the
structure and to prevent damage from local erosion
• it is important that a firm foundation be secured
• wet foundations should be avoided or provided with
adequate drainage
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

SPECIFIC ENERGY
• defined as the total energy of water at any section of a
channel measured with respect to the channel bottom
𝑉2
• if the datum is the channel bed 𝐸 = 𝑦 +
2𝑔
• there are two positive roots for the equation of E indicating
that any particular discharge can be passed at two depths,
called ‘alternate depths,’ and still maintain the same E
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CRITICAL DEPTH
2
𝑉 𝑄2
• at constant Q 𝐸 =𝑦+ = 𝑦 + 2𝑔𝐴2
2𝑔

• for E < Emin no solution exists; impossible physically

• for E > Emin two solutions are possible:
1) large depth with V < Vc, - subcritical (slow and deep)
2) small depth with V > Vc, - supercritical (fast and shallow)
• for a given Q, if E is increased the difference between the
two depths increases; if E is increased the difference will
decrease until the two depths merge at minimum E
• Critical Flow Condition
• Critical Depth, yc
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

• differentiating with respect to y (keeping constant Q) and at

critical depth, the specific energy is minimum, dE/dy = 0
𝑑𝐸 = 1 − 𝑄2 𝑑𝐴 = 1 − 𝑉 2 𝑑𝐴 = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝐴3 𝑑𝑦 𝑔𝐴 𝑑𝑦
• but dA/dy = T = top width (width of channel at water surface)
𝑄2 𝐴 𝑐 3
=
𝑔 𝑇𝑐
• this means that critical flow condition is governed solely by
channel geometry and discharge; others such as bed slope
and roughness do not
influence critical flow
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

• most control structures include a section at which flow at

critical depth occurs; thus, design equations for certain
structure components are functions of critical depth
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Hydraulic Jump
• rapid change in depth of flow from a low to a high stage
causing usually an abrupt rise of water surface
• the depth before the jump is called the initial depth y1 and
that after the jump is called the sequent depth y2
• structures are designed so that hydraulic jumps forms
within the downstream portion and velocity is reduced to
non-erosive levels
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Hydraulic Drop
• rapid change in the depth of flow from high to low stage
causing a steep depression in the water surface.
• caused by an abrupt change in channel slope or x-section
• free overfall – special case of hydraulic drop, where the
bottom of a flat channel is discontinued
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

DROP SPILLWAYS
• installed to establish permanent control elevations below
which an eroding stream cannot lower the channel floor
• control the stream grade not only at the spillway crest
itself but also through the ponded reach upstream
• change a channel profile from a continuous steep gradient
into a series of gently sloping reaches to stabilize it
• limited to drops of 3-m
original channel slope

Drop
Structures
new channel slope
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

DROP STRUCTURE
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

STRAIGHT DROP SPILLWAY

 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

DROP SPILLWAYS
• Capacity 𝑞 = 0.55𝐶𝐿ℎ3/2
where: q = discharge (m3/s)
C = weir coefficient (~3.2 accurate ±20%)
L = weir length (m)
h = depth of flow over crest
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

DROP SPILLWAYS
Apron Protection
• KE of water as it falls from crest must be dissipated and
or converted to PE before being discharged
• using a straight apron or Morris and Johnson (1942)
stilling basin
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

WOOD DROP STRUCTURE

 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

GABION DROP STRUCTURE

 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHUTES
• designed to carry flow down steep slopes through a
concrete-lined channel rather than by dropping the water
in a free overfall
• may be used for elevation changes up to 6-m
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHUTE STRUCTURE
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHUTES
• capacity is the same as in drop spillway since they have
the same inlet section
Outlet Protection
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHUTE SPILLWAY
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHUTE SPILLWAY
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

PIPE SPILLWAYS
• provide for passage of water under an embankment
• may take the form of a simple conduit under a fill, or have
a riser on the inlet end with some type of structure for
outlet protection
• serves to lower water through a considerable drop in
elevation and dissipate the energy of the falling water
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Culverts
• capacity may be controlled either by the inlet section or by
the conduit; depends on the type of flow
• when the slope is less than neutral slope and entrance
capacity is not limiting
𝐻𝑓 𝑣2
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = = 𝐾𝑐
𝐿 2𝑔
𝑎 2𝑔𝐻
𝑞=
1 + 𝐾𝑒 + 𝐾𝑏 + 𝐾𝑐𝐿

 = slope angle (deg) Hf = friction loss in L (L)

L = length of conduit (L) Kc = friction loss coefficient (1/L)
v = velocity (L/T) q = flow capacity (L3/T)
a = x-section area (L2) H = head (L)
Ke = entrance loss coeff. Kb = loss for bends
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Culverts
• when the slope is greater than neutral slope and the outlet
is not submerged, orifice flow will prevail
𝑞 = 𝑎𝐶 2𝑔ℎ
h = head to the center of orifice (L)
C = 0.6 for sharp-edged orifice

Inverted Siphons
• often used when water in an irrigation canal must be
conveyed under a natural or an artificial channel
• they must withstand hydraulic pressures much higher
than those in other pipe spillway designs
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Drop Inlet Pipe Spillways

• at low heads, the crest of the riser controls the flow and
discharge is proportional to h3/2 (same as in drop spillway)
• when the flow equals the capacity of the conduit inlet
section, the flow becomes proportional to the square root
of total head loss (orifice flow)

h
D

L
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Hood Inlet Pipe Spillways

• for slopes up to 30% the hood inlet (w/ suitable anti-vortex
device) will cause the pipe to prime and flow full
• design capacity is determined from pipe flow equations

h
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Guide to Control Structure Selection

Pipe Chute
Total Drop (ft)

Spillway Spillway

10
Pipe or
Drop
Drop Spillway
Spillway

0 100
Flow Rate (ft3/s)
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

CHECK DAMS
• commonly employed to arrest channel downcutting and
store sediment
• can also be employed to create flatter surfaces and retard
development of destructive snouts on rapidly moving
debris flows
CONSERVATION STRUCTURES
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Drop structures and debris fences

Debris fences and

drop structures are
intended to impede
flow, and thereby
retard development
of destructive
snouts, which can
easily overflow
natural channels
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Debris Fences
• Ring net barriers were
originally developed for
use as underwater
antisubmarine nets
during the Second
World War, by Allied
and Axis powers
⚫ Debris fences can be designed to absorb the kinetic
impacts of either rockfalls or debris flows.
⚫ This shows a debris fence designed by Geobrugg
Protection Systems of Switzerland. These fences
employ flexible anchors with spiral cable ties, a coiled
ring brake (fuse) on the restraining cable tieback, which
releases after a threshold load impacts the system.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Contour Grading

Contour grading removes most of the colluvium from

bedrock hollows so it cannot mobilize into destructive
debris flows.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Debris Basins

⚫ Debris basins provide

the most fail-safe
method to mitigate
damage to developed
areas from debris
flows.
⚫ They need to be sized
to retain 3X the 100 yr
flow of the channel
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Fail-Safe Debris Basins

⚫ Debris Basins need to be

designed-in-depth with
sufficient redundancy to
survive extreme events,
with large volumes of
clastic sediment, trees,
shrubs, etc.
⚫ Bollards needed on
Bollards on overflow crest to catch boulders overflow spillways
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Duty to Maintain Basins

⚫ Debris basins must be mucked out periodically to

maintain storage capacity, as shown here.
⚫ Los Angeles County mucks between 25 and 50 million
cubic yards of debris per year.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

A-Walls

A-wall diversion
structures are intended
to deflect fluid debris
and route it around high-
value structures
There must be some
accommodation for
storage of the deflected
debris, either in streets,
a basin, or channel
reach below the
structure
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

A-Walls

⚫ This shows a combination A-wall

and retaining wall
constructed above a multi-
story home in east Los Angeles
⚫ Note debris flow scars in zero
order watershed to left of
residence
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Perforated Riser Intakes

Experience has shown that perforated riser

intake towers are a wise precaution to
employ in debris basins, along with overflow
spillways. This allows debris to accumulate
in the basin and less turbid standing water
to decant into the riser and pass on
downstream, during extreme flow events.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

AVOID Flow Constrictions

Natural bedrock narrows at head of Heath Creek near

Wrightwood, CA constricts flows, which periodically
Hwy 138 box culvert Heath Creek
surge downstream, enveloping everything in their path
serves to constrict flow

One of the easiest ways to avoid problems with debris flows is to

prevent surge flows, which occur because of channel
constrictions. These constrictions can be natural or man-made, as
shown here.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Provide unobstructed
flow path

⚫ Whenever possible,
maintain
unobstructed flow
paths across
channels prone to
debris flowage, as
shown here.
⚫ Use clear span
bridges over the 100-
year recurrence
frequency flow
channel
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

⚫ Armored channels can be sized for debris flows using

accepted principles of fluid mechanics in the debris flow
literature, emanating from CA, CO, Or, WA, British
Columbia, Japan and Switzerland. This example is from
Colorado (from P. Santi).
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Provide Benches or basins for debris storage

⚫ Don’t allow debris to

flow into developed
parcels
⚫ Provide storage area
above or below
developed parcels
⚫ Construct debris
benches and low
head basins, shown
at left.
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

⚫ Jersey Barriers and concrete K-rails, like those

shown here, can easily be employed to train debris
along benches or roads. Several design charts exist
for sizing these (from P. Santi)
 CONSERVATION STRUCTURES

Reinforced concrete shelters

have been employed along
highways and railroads
around the world to safely
convey debris flows over
these corridors. Such
structures still require
maintenance. These
examples are from Taiwan
and British Columbia.