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TREASURY OF THE INDIC SCIENCES series
Editor-in-Chief: Robert A.F. Thurman
Jey Tsong Khapa Professor of Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Studies,
Columbia University SCHOLASTIC SANSKRIT
President, American Institute of Buddhist Studies
Series Editor: Gary A. Tubb A HANDBOOK FOR STUDENTS
Dharam Hinduja Senior Lecturer in Sanskrit Teaching
and Indic Research in the Department of Religion,
Columbia University
Executive Editor: Thomas F. Yarnall
Department of Religion,
Columbia University
by
Editorial Board: Ryuichi Abe, Jay Garfield, David Gray, Laura Harrington,
Gary A. Tubb
Thubten Jinpa, Joseph Loizzo, Vesna Wallace, Christian Wedemeyer, Chun-
fang Yu and
Emery R. Boose
The American Institute of Buddhist Studies (ArBS), in affiliation with the
Columbia University Center for Buddhist Studies and Tibet House US, has
established the Treasury ofthe Indic Sciences series as a complement to its
Treasury ofthe Buddhist Sciences series. For over fifteen hundred years the
scholars representing various Buddhist traditions were actively engaged in
dialogue and debate with representatives of various Vedist, Hindu, Jainist,
and other religious and secular traditions. In this cosmopolitan milieu the
shared arts and sciences of all these Indic traditions were constantly refined Treasury of the Indic Sciences series
and developed. In full acknowledgement of this broader context, the AIBS
is widening its Buddhistic mandate with the Treasury of the Indic Sciences Published by
series in which it is publishing translations of influential classics from the The American Institute of Buddhist Studies
diversity of Indic traditions. Publications from both Treasuries will bring at Columbia University in the City of New York
important Indic contributions into contemporary discourse, enriching and
contributing to our global cultural, philosophical, spiritual, and scientific Co-published with
heritage. Columbia University's Center for Buddhist Studies
and Tibet House US

New York

2007 Y1J:I)}-. 3~~

l.lni\!erliliit Hamt>lKQ • Asi.. n·Afrik,,·ln~tit"f
Treasury ofthe Indic Sciences
A refereed series published by:

American Institute of Buddhist Studies

Columbia University
80 Claremont Avenue, Room 303
New York, NY 10027
http://www.aibs.columbia.edu

Co-published with Columbia University's Center for Buddhist Studies

and Tibet House US Dedicated to the memory of our teacher,
Daniel Henry Holmes Ingalls (1916-1999),
Distributed by Columbia University Press Wales Professor of Sanskrit, Harvard University
© 2007 by Gary A. Tubb and Emery R. Boose
All rights reserved.
No portion of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any, electronic or
mechanical, inclnding photography, recording, or by any information storage and
retrieval system or technologies now known or later developed, without written
permission from the publisher.

Printed in Canada on acid-free paper.

ISBN 978-0-9753734-7-7 (cloth)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Tubb, Gary A. (Gary Alan), 1950-

Scholastic Sanskrit: a handbook for students I by Gary A. Tubb and Emery
R. Boose.
p. em. - (Treasury of the Indic sciences series)
nCo-published with Columbia University's Center for Buddhist Studies and
Tibet House US. "
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-9753734-7-7 (hardcover: aIk. paper)
1. Sanskrit prose literature-History and criticism-Handbooks, manuals,
etc. 2. Sanskrit prose literature-Study and teaching-Handbooks, manuals,
etc. 1. Boose, Emery R. (Emery Robert), 1952- II. Title.
PK2903.T832007
891' .2808-dc22
2007000683
 Contents

Series Editor's Preface xxi

Authors' Preface xxv

Abbreviations xxix

Introduction: The Sanskrit Commentary I

0.1 Importance of commentaries . . . I
0.2 The five services of a commentary 3
0.2.1 Padaccheda. 4
0.2.2 Padiirthokti. 4
0.2.3 Vigraha... 4
0.2.4 Viikyayojanii 5
0.2.5 A~epasamiidhiina 5

Part I Methods of Glossing

by Gary A. Tubb 7

1 The First Four Services 9

1.1 Introduction... 9
1.2 Types of glossing 10

2 Division of Words 13
1.3 Introduction............ 13
1.4 Repetition of the words of the text 14
1.5 Specification of word-division . . 14
J
viii Contents Contents ix

1.6 Citation of individual words 14 1.17.5 Pronouns . 32

1.6.1 iti . 15
1.6.2 -sabda, -kiira . 15 4 Analysis of Grammatical Complexes 33
1.6.3 Inflected indeclinable . 15 1.18 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6.4 Anubandhas 16 1.19 Modes of complex formation . . . 35
1.7 Variant readings . . . . . . 16 1.20 General principles of analysis. . . 35
1.21 Insertion of analyses in a commentary . . . . . 39
3 Giving the Meaning of Words 19 1.21.1 Glossing the words used in the analysis 40
1.8 Introduction.... 19 1.21.2 Indicating the inflection of the original . 41
1.9 Simple synonyms 20
1.10 Location of glosses 20 5 Derivative Verbs 43
1.10.1 Enclitics 20 1.22 Introduction 43
1.10.2 Vigrahas 21 1.23 Desideratives 44
1.11 Glossing by equivalent forms . 21 1.24 Intensives . . 45
1.11.1 Periphrasis . . 21 1.25 Causatives . . 45
1.11.2 Participle . . . 21 1.26 Denominatives 46
1.12 Expansions of glosses. 22 1.26.1 Desire to have. 46
1.12.1 -adi . 22 1.26.2 Behavior toward 47
1.12.2 Implications 22 1.26.3 Behaviorlike .. 47
1.12.3 Implied contrasts 22 1.26.4 Becoming something 47
1.13 More removed paraphrases 23 1.26.5 Making something so. . , 47
1.13.1 ity artha~ 23 1.26.6 Feeling something . . . 48
1.13.2 iti bhiiva~ . . . 24 1.26.7 Doing or making something . 48
1.13.3 iti yavat . . . . 25 1.26.8 Making use of something. 48
1.13.4 Other phrases . 25
1.13.5 anena, etena 25 6 Primary Nominal Derivation 49
1.13.6 References to speech 26 1.27 Introduction . . . . . . 49
1.14 Meanings by extension 27 1.28 Basic bhiive meanings. 50
1.15 Glossing of puns . 27 1.29 Basic kiiraka meanings 52
1.16 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . 28 1.29.1 kartari .. 53
1.16.1 Definitions offered by the commentator 28 1.29.2 karrnm:zi . . . 54
1.16.2 Definitions quoted from dictionaries 29 1.29.3 kara!,e .. , 54
1.17 Treatment of special items 30 1.29.4 sampradiine. 54
1.1 7.1 Proper names . . . . . 30 1.29.5 apadane . .. 55
1.17.2 Names of species ... 31 1.29.6 adhikara!,e 55
1.17.3 Meanings of particles . 31 1.30 Temporal restrictions 55
1.17.4 Other indeclinables .. 31 1.30.1 bhate . . . . 56
x Contents Contents xi

1.30.2 vanamiine ...... 56 8 Nominal Compounds 85

1.30.3 bhavi~yati . ...... 57
57
A. General Principles . . ........ 85
1.31 Other restrictions of meaning .
1.32 Accompanying words (upapada) 58 1.43 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.32.1 kartari krt with accusative 60 1.44 Basic categories of compounds . 86
1.32.2 kartari krt with non-accusative . 61 1.44.1 Avyayibhiiva 86
1.32.3 krt in the sense of another kiiraka 62 1.44.2 Tatpuru~a . . . 87
1.32.4 Temporal restrictions . . . . 62 1.44.3 Karmadhiiraya 87
1.32.5 Other conditions of meaning . 63 1.44.4 Dvandva ... 87
1.33 Verbal participles . . . . . 64 1.44.5 Bahuvrfhi . . . . 88
1.34 Irregular forms (nipiitana) 65 1.44.6 Kevala-samiisa .. 88
1.45 Additional elements of meaning 89
7 Secondary Nominal Derivation 67 1.45.1 Comparison . . . . . . . 89
1.35 Introduction . . . . . . . . 67 1.45.2 Aggregation. . . . . . . 90
1.36 Dependent formulas of analysis. 68 1.45.3 Clarification of connection 90
1.36.1 Accusative 70 1.46 Optional and obligatory compounds 90
1.36.2 Instrumental 71 1.46.1 Asvapadavigraha compounds 90
1.36.3 Dative .. 71 1.46.2 Conventional meanings. 91
1.36.4 Ablative . . . 71 1.46.3 Bound forms 92
1.36.5 Locative . . . 72 1.47 Irregularities. . . . . . 92
1.37 Genitive formulas of analysis . 74
75 B. Avyayibhiiva Compounds 92
1.37.1 tasyapatyam
1.37.2 tasya bhiivaJ:z .... 75 1.48 Introduction . . . . . . 92
1.37.3 Others . . . . . . . . 76 1.49 Optional avyayrbhiivas 93
1.37.4 General connection . 77 1.50 Obligatory avyayrbhiivas 93
1.38 Nominative formulas of analysis 77 1.51 Irregular avyayrbhiivas 95
1.39 Compound formulas of analysis 78
C. Tatpuru~a Compounds . . 96
1.40 Possessive suffixes (matvarthlya) . 79
1.40.1 Straigbtforward possession . 80 1.52 Introduction . . . . . . 96
1.40.2 Additions of meaning. 80 1.53 Dependenttatpuru~as . . 96
1.41 Vibhaktisarrzjiiaka suffixes . . . . . 81 1.53.1 Straightforward analysis 97
1.42 Sviirthika suffixes . . . . . . . . . . 82 1.53.2 Additional specification of connection· . 100
1.42.1 With no addition of meaning . 82 1.53.3 Partitive genitive as second member 101
1.42.2 Diminutives . . . . . . . . . 82 1.54 Karmadhiirayas of simple apposition. 102
1.42.3 Other additions of meaning. 83 1.54.1 Adjective plus substantive 102
1.42.4 cvi, etc . . . . . . 83 1.54.2 Adjective plus adjective . . 103
1.42.5 Samasanta suffixes . . . . . 84 1.54.3 Substantive plus substantive 104
xii Contents Contents xiii

1.54.4 Additional specification of connection 105 1.67 Special bahuvrfhis . 135

1.55 Karmadharayas of comparison . . . . . . . 106 1.67.1 Sa1]1khya-bahuvrfhi compounds-, 135
1.55.1 Upamanapurvapada karmadhilraya 106 1.67.2 Dig-bahuvrfhi compounds >
136
1.55.2 Upamita-samasa 107 1.67.3 Reciprocal combat 136
1.55.3 Rupaka-samasa .. 108 1.68 Irregular bahuvrfhis . 136
1.56 Dvigu compounds . . . . . 109
1.56.1 Taddhitanha-dvigu 110 F. Longer Compounds 137
1.56.2 Uttarapada-dvigu. 110 1.69 Introduction . . . . 137
1.56.3 Samahilra-dvigu 111 1.70 General principles . 138
1.57 Tatpuru~as with inseparable first member 112 1.71 Special techniques 141
1.57.1 ku, su, etc . 113 1.71.1 Simpler formulas of analysis 141
1.57.2 Pradi-tatpuru~as with fixed meaning 113 1.71.2 Separate analysis 141
1.57.3 Dhiltu-lopa pradi-tatpuru~a 114 1.72 Choice of options 142
1.57.4 Gati-tatpuru~as . 116
1.58 Negative tatpuru~as . 118 9 Eka§e~a Formations 147
1.59 Upapada compounds . . 119 1.73 Introduction .. 147
1.60 Irregular tatpuru~as . . . 121 1.74 Dvandv{jika§e~a .. 147
1.60.1 Pr~odaradi compounds . 121 1.75 Napu1]1sak{jika§e~a 148
1.60.2 Mayuravya1]1sakadi compounds 123
1.60.3 Suffix-formations resembling compounds 125 10 Indicating the Construction 149
D. Dvandva Compounds 125 A. Arranging the Words of the Text 149
1.61 Introduction . . . . 125 1.76 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 1149
1.62 ltaretara dvandvas 126 1.77 The katha1]1bhutinf approach 149
1.63 Samli.hilra dvandvas . 126 1.78 The anvayamukhf approach . . 150
1.79 Insertion of explanatory material 151
E. Bahuvnlli Compounds . 127
1.80 Variations on the two approaches . 156
1.64 Introduction . . . . . 127
B. Other Techniques . 161
1.65 Appositional bahuvrfhis . 128
1.65.1 Simple appositional bahuvrfhis 128 1.81 Introduction . 161
1.65.2 Negative bahuvnnis . . . . 130 1.82 Direct statement of connections. 161
1.65.3 Pradi-bahuvrfhi compounds .. 131 1.82.1 anvaya .. 161
1.65.4 Saha-bahuvrfhi compounds .. 131 1.82.2 sa1]1bandha . 162
1.65.5 Anekapada-bahuvrfhi compounds 132 1.82.3 vi§e~a~a. . . . . . . . . 163
1.66 Non-appositional bahuvrfhis . . . . 133 1.82.4 Connections between verses 163
1.66. I Locative as second member 133 1.82.5 Connections between statements 164
1.66.2 Genitive as first member . . 133 1.83 Supplying words needed to complete the sense 165
xiv Contents Contents xv

1.83.1 iti se~alz . 165 2.9.3 Dative of purpose . 183

1.83.2 Words carried over . 165 2.9.4 Genitive to modify another noun·, . 184
1.84 Devices for marking features of syntax . 166 2.9.5 Locative in a locative absolute co~struction 184
1.84.1 yat ... tat marking subject and predicate 166 2.10 Predicative instrumental . . . . 184
1.84.2 sat marking attributive adjectives . . . 167 2.11 Accusative with verb of motion. 185
1.84.3 -bhuta marking attributive substantives 167
1.84.4 sati marking the locative absolute 168 13 Compounds 187
169 2.12 Introduction . 187
1.84.5 yathii tathii marking adverbs
169 2.13 Analyzing long compounds. 187
1.84.6 he marking vocatives . . . . . . .
2.13.1 Identification 187
2.13.2 Dissection . 188
Part n The Bhii~ya Style 2.13.3 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . 188
by Emery R. Boose 171 2.14 Relation to words outside the compound 189
2.15 ka to mark a bahuvrfhi . 190
11 The Fifth Service 173 2.16 tat to mark a dvandva . . . . . . 191
2.1 Introduction 173 2.17 -bhuta to mark a karmadhiiraya 191
2.2 Content 174 2.18 Pronouns in compound 192
2.3 Style . . . . 174 2.19 Idiomatic tenns 193
2.19.1 -antara 193
12 Abstract Nouns 177 2.19.2 -artha . 193
2.4 Introduction. 177 2.19.3 -ka/pa. ·193
2.5 Fonnation.. 177 2.19.4 ogata 194
2.5.1 tii and tva 177 2.19.5 -garbha 1
194
2.5.2 -bhiivalz and vrddhi derivatives. 178 2.19.6 -jana 194
2.6 Significance........ 178 2.19.7 -jata .. 195
2.6.1 Used by necessity. 178 2.19.8 -purva. 195
2.6.2 Used by choice .. 179 2.19.9 -matrii. 195
2.7 Common constructions . . 179 2.19.10 -vise~a 196
2.7.1 With subjective genitive 179
2.7.2 In compound . 180 14 Word Order 197
2.7.3 Causal phrase within a sentence 180 2.20 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.7.4 iii clause without abstract suffix 181 2.21 Subject and predicative nouns 197
2.7.5 Two genitives . 182 2.21.1 Predicative nouns . . . . 197
2.8 Causal ablative and instrumental . . . . 182 2.21.2 Pronoun subjects . . . . . 198
2.9 Other cases . 183 2.22 Attributive and predicative nouns . . . 199
2.9.1 Nontinative as subject of sentence 183 2.22.1 Word order with subjects . . . 199
2.9.2 Accusative as object of the sentence 183 2.22.2 Word order with other nouns . 199
xvi Contents Contents xvii

2.22.3 Markers of attributive qualifiers 200 17 References 225

2.23 Scope ofiti . 200 2.38 Introduction . . . . . . 225
2.24 Analyzing long sentences . 201 2.39 Text and author of text 225
2.39.1 Verbs of taking . 225
15 Causal Sentences 205 2.39.2 prakrta, aprakrta . 226
2.25 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 2.39.3 Author of text commented on 226
2.26 Ablative and instrumental phrases 206 2.39.4 Author as understood speaker 227
2.26.1 Ablative causal phrases . 206 2.39.5 Participles of verbs of saying. 228
2.26.2 Series of causes . . . . . . 206 2.39.6 Instrumental of present participle 228
2.26.3 ca in causal series. . . . . 207 2.39.7 Auto-commentary . . . . 229
2.26.4 Verbal nouns expressing cause 208 2.40 References to the commentary 229
2.27 iti clauses . . . . . . . . . . . 209 2.40.1 First person plural 229
2.28 Relative pronouns and adverbs 210 2.40.2 Participles. . . . . . . 230
2.29 Locative absolute . . . . . . . 211 2.40.3 Relative clause . . . . 230
2.29.1 Expressing a cause .. 212 2.40.4 Reference to earlier topic . 231
2.29.2 Expressing a condition 212 2.40.5 agre . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
213 2.41 Recognized authorities . . . . . . 231
2.29.3 Concessive locative absolute
213 2.42 Genitive in reference to particular views 232
2.29.4 Abbreviated locative absolute
2.30 Causal particle hi . . . . . . . . . . . 213
18 Examples and Comparisons 233
215 2.43 Introduction . . . . . . . >233
16 Uses of iti
2.44 Bahuvrrhis in tidi . . . . 233
2.31 Introduction . . . . . . 215
2.44.1 Compounds in ·tidi 1233
2.32 Common constructions 215
2.44.2 Series of compounds 234
2.33 Quotation . . . . . . . 216
2.44.3 ityiidi . . . . . . 235
2.33.1 iti with source. 216
2.45 Suffix vat . 236
2.33.2 iti with ablative 217
2.45.1 Adverbs in -vat . 236
2.33.3 iti with partial quotations . 217
2.45.2 With standard of comparison. 236
2.34 Explanation . . . . . . . . 218
2.45.3 itivat, itytidivat 237
2.35 Comment . . . . . . . . . 218
2.46 iva and yathii 238
2.35.1 Comment with iii . 218
2.35.2 Commonly used comments. 219 19 Terms of Discussion 239
2.36 Constructions with the infinitive . 220 2.47 Introduction . . 239
2.36.1 Infinitive with sak and yuj . 220 2.48 Dialectic style . 239
2.36.2 Infinitive with arh . . . . . 221 2.48.1 Oral debate 239
2.36.3 Infinitive expressing purpose . 222 2.48.2 Piirvapak~a and siddhtinta 240
2.37 End of a passage . 222 2.48.3 Direct address. . . . . . . 241
xviii Contents Contents xix

2.48.4 Example of dialectic style 241 2.55.2 Adverbs as attribntives .. 261

2.49 Objection . . . . . . . 242 2.56 Correlative pronouns and adverbs 261
2.49.1 nanu and atha . 243 2.56.1 Repeated correlative 261
2.49.2 Interrogatives 243 2.56.2 Multiple pairs . . . 262
2.49.3 iti cet . . . . . 244 2.56.3 yatOO with tatoo . 262
2.49.4 ity iisankya .. 244 2.56.4 yat meaning "that" 263
2.49.5 priipta and ii~ipta 245 2.56.5 Repeated anya .. 263
2.49.6 Verbs of speaking. 245 2.57 Demonstrative pronouns . 264
2.49.7 Clauses beginning with na ca ... 246 2.57.1 Scale of proxintity 264
2.50 Reply . 246 2.57.2 Reference to earlier and later passages. 265
2.50.1 Verbs of speaking . . . . 246 2.57.3 tad etat and tad idam . . . . . . . . . . 265
2.50.2 tan na and other denials 247
2.50.3 prasanga and iipatti 248 Appendix: Useful Reference Works 267
2.50.4 do~a. . . . . . . . . . . 248
2.50.5 syiit and bhavet . . . . . 249 Indices 271
2.50.6 yady api and other concessives . 250 Commentarial Passages Quoted . 271
2.50.7 tarhi . 250 Grammatical Citations 278
Sanskrit Index . 281
2.51 Alternative interpretation . . . 251
English Index . . . . . 290
2.51.1 Second interpretations 251
2.51.2 Citing others . . . . . 251

20 Particles and Pronouns 253

2.52 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 253
2.53 Particles connecting sentences . 253
2.53.1 atka. 253
2.53.2 tatra . 254
2.53.3 tavat . 255
2.53.4 atro and iha . 255
2.53.5 kiT!' ca, etc. . 256
2.53.6 tu, etc. . . . . 257
2.53.7 tatoo hi and tad yatOO 257
2.53.8 Words for "therefore" . 258
2.54 Particles of emphasis 258
2.54.1 eva . 258
2.54.2 api . 259
2.55 Pronontial adverbs nsed as prononns 260
2.55.1 Adverbs corresponding to pronouns 260
Series Editor's Preface

It was only after this book was accepted for publication in the Treasury
of the Indic Sciences series that I was caIled upon to become editor of the
same series, and thus eventually found myself in the rather odd position of
welcoming my own work into the series. I am grateful for this opporturtity
for two reasons. First, it affords me a place, separate from the preface and
introduction that Emery Boose and I wrote together, to describe subsequent
developments in the handbook that have involved only my portion of the
work and not his. Second, it allows me to make a few comments, at a point
near the beginrting of this new series, on my hopes for the series and their
connection with the subject matter of the present volume.
This is the first printed edition of a handbook for students on the read-
ing of Sanskrit commentaries that has been circulated privately in five pre-
vious versions over a period reaching back twenty-five years. The original
version was a typewritten draft contairting two sections corresponding to
the two parts of the present edition. The first section was mine, and dealt
with commentarial techniques for explaining the meanings of words in a
text, and thus provided a survey of methods of glossing. The second sec-
tion, written by Emery Boose, covered the distinctive features of the type
of expository prose used in discussing the contents of the text, and was thus
concerned with what Renou and others have referred to as the bhii~ya style
of Sanskrit.
Subsequent versions of the handbook have largely been the result of
my own attempts to find the most useful way to deal with a complex topic
treated only sporadically in the original version-the use in commentaries
of the technical devices of traditional PaI)irtian grammar, a topic .that is
difficult to introduce concisely and simply, and impossible to treat com-
prehensively in any portion of a single volume. Throughout the history

xxi
xxii Series Editor's Preface xxiii

of these attempts, Emery Boose's portion of the handbook has remained me and others to be attentive to the interplay between Brahmanical and
essentially the same, with the exception of progressive changes in visual Buddhist intellectual activities, and it was in the setting of joint meetings
formatting and the correction of minor typographical errors. Neither I nor of classes of advanced Sanskrit and advanced Tibetan, in which we read the
any of the many readers of the handbook I have heard from has discovered same texts in both languages, that the interconnections became most clear
any way in which his contribution could be improved. I have also avoided to me. In reading with our students a commentary by CandrakIrti, I real-
making any changes to the preface and introduction that we wrote together, ized that some of CandrakIrti's points were often lost on Tibetan-oriented
other than those required by the alterations in my own material that I shall readers who were not versed in the technicalities of Sanskrit grammatical
now briefly describe. explication. and at the same time that CandrakIrti had expounded detailed
In the second version of the handbook, the material on PliJ;linian gram- priniciples of exegesis that had remained largely unknown to readers who
mar was extracted to form the core of a separate part of the work, and at specialized in non-Buddhist texts.
the same time the other parts of work were typed into computer files and I was therefore pleased to learn of the initiation of the Treasury of the
reformatted. My treatment of this PiiJ:tinian material became progressively Indic Sciences series, which is designed to publish works of non-Buddhist
more unwieldy, and once it had been circulated among colleagues in the origin that are relevant to the history of Buddhism in India and beyond,
third version of the handbook, I realized that this material was too difficult and I was more particularly delighted by Professor Thurman's invitation to
and extensive to be handled with the same comprehensiveness as in the include this handbook on Sanskrit commentaries in the series. I am also
part of the handbook dealing with glosses in non-technical language, and grateful for the concurrent inclusion in the same series of the catalogue of
that the same range of technical information was beginning to be covered Sanskrit manuscripts at Columbia University compiled by David Pingree.
in recent work by George Cardona and others. In the fourth version, the Both works are perhaps atypical of the sort of text that will constitute the
other portions of the handbook were reformatted separately from the ma- bnlk of the series, but both are tools for pursuing its aim of exposing the
terial on Panini which was then withdrawn. In the fifth version, the first intellectual interplay between Buddhist and non-Buddhist activity within a
part was rev.:ritt~n in view of the new structure, both parts were completely shared intellectual world.
reformatted using the I5I'EX macro system with automated cross references The opening volume in the series presented a Brahrnanical work on
and indexing, and a shortened overview of PiiJ:tinian technical terminology logic. translated by Stephen H. Phillips and N.S. Ramanuja Tatach,Jrya.
was added to the first part to compensate for the withdrawal of a separate The vitality of this sort of text as a participant in cross-cultural conver-
section on this topic. The present edition is an improved reformatting of sations was made clear once again last year in a conference on Mind and
this fifth version, reshaped to fit the series in which it appears. Reality held here at Columbia, in which Professor Phillips engaged in stim-
Along the way this handbook has been read by many students and col- ulating dialogue with experts on Buddhist logic. I am confident that sub-
leagues, and in recent years here at Columbia University I have used it sequent volumes in this series will make available texts of similar interest
occasionally in courses with a focus on the study of commentarial tech- and usefulness.
niques, in which we have read from samples of commentaries on poetic In addition to my gratitude to Professor Thurman for all of his many
and philosophical works that I have annotated with cross-references to the acts of inspiration and support, I feel a deep indebtedness to the technical
sections of the handbook. I am grateful to all those students who have editor of the series, Thomas Yarnall. His knowledge -of the interacting
offered comments on the handbook, and I would especially like to thank systems of thought I have mentioned is matched by his expertise in all the
Rupa Viswanath for her detailed comments and suggestions. departments of publishing technology, and enriched by his generosity and
It was only after coming to Columbia that I was exposed to the ex- patience.
tensive role played by Sanskrit commentarial techniques in Buddhist texts. My longest-standing debt of gratitude is to myoid friend Emery Boose.
For this I have Professor Robert A. F. Thurman to thank. He encouraged His contribution to this handbook speaks for itself in its insight and rigor,
xxiv Series Editor's Preface

and without him none of this would ever have been written, I hope that the
publication, at long last, of this handbook might serve in some small way
to begin to repay his many kindnesses.
In this edition, chapters are numbered sequentially throughout the book,
but the numbering of sections is separate for each part. Cross-ref~rences
are by section or subsection, and the numbers referring to these begl~ with
the number of the part in which they appear, so that it will be Immediately
Authors' Preface
apparent whether the topic in question is being treated in terms of glossmg
or of argument. .
I have typeset this book using open-source ~TEX computer typesettmg
This handbook is intended to give students in the early years of their study
software running on open-source Debian GNUlLinux operating systems.
of Sanskrit some help in using Sanskrit commentaries and in reading the
New York bhti~ya style of Sanskrit prose, which is employed not only in commen-
Gary A. Tubb
Series Editor, Treasury ofthe Indic Sciences November 2006 taries but in many other works as well. We try to bring together simple
explanations of the things that often make it difficult for students to begin
to deal with scholastic works in Sanskrit, and of the things that are most
readily useful once they are understood. We hope that the handbook will
serve both as a reference work-by using the index or table of contents it
should be possible to find explanations of many puzzling problems as they
arise-and as a general introduction to the techniques used in commen-
taries and in the bhti~a style in general.
In identifying the difficulties that scholastic styles of Sanskrit present
we have tried to follow our own observations of the obstacles most of-
ten encountered by students-observations that include our own memo-
ries of the problems we grappled with as students. We were fortunate in
having teachers whose explanations made accessible to us much that had
seemed impenetrable. What has prompted us to attempt the writing of this
handbook is the fact that so many things that turned out to be so simple
and useful did have to be explained to us, unless we had managed to fig-
ure them out on our own in the process of struggling with the texts: in
printed sources much of the information we needed was buried, scattered,
or nonexistent.
Most of what we present here is not our own discovery: In particular we
have made frequent and grateful use of information gleaned from remarks
made in class by Professor Daniel H. H. Ingalls and from the works of
Speijer and Coulson mentioned in the Appendix.
We are grateful to Professor Ingalls for reading the first drafts of Part

xxv
xxvi Authors' Preface
xxvii

One and for making many detailed and helpful suggestions. preceding or following the quoted words in the same original sentence are
Part One of the handbook, written by Gary A. Tubb, deals with the de- often omitted without notice when the quoted words yield the same mean-
vices used in Sanskrit commentaries to explain the words of the text being ing that they have in the full sentence. ,-
commented on and their meanings; it covers fully the more important tech- In the translations of the examples, parentheses indicate words that are
niques of glossing in non-technical language used by the commentators, necessary to give a clear translation in normal English and that are im-
and gives a brief introduction to the rudiments of analysis in the techni- plied in the Sanskrit text but do not correspond directly to words actually
cal terminology of PiiJ).inian grammar as employed in commentaries. Part present in the Sanskrit text. Square brackets indicate words corresponding
Two, written by Emery R. Boose, deals with the devices used in commen- to terms that in the Sanskrit text are not expressly present but that must
taries to discuss the ideas contained in the text being commented on, and be understood from the context; the English words in square brackets are
provides an introduction to the bhiieYa style and to the teChniques of San- often translations of Sanskrit words supplied in square brackets in the text.
skrit expository prose in general, whether employed in a commentary or in In Part Two a very literal translation is sometimes followed by a colon and
an independent work. In each part there are occasional references to sec- a more natural translation, and alternative translations are separated by a
tions in the other parts, and both parts are covered simultaneously by the semicolon.
indices at the end of the handbook, but neither of the parts presupposes a Reference is often made to the works of Coulson, Speijer, and Whit-
knowledge of the material covered in the other. ney where these authors have additional discussion or examples for the
The examples used in the handbook are drawn as far as possible from grammatical point in question. References to Coulson are by page num-
works that are easily accessible and that students of Sanskrit are likely to ber; references to Speijer and Whitney are by paragraph number. See the
read. In Part One they come chiefly from well-known commentaries on the Appendix for bibliographic information on these and other works that may
great mahiikiivya poems, especially from the commentaries of Mallinatha, be useful in learning to read scholastic styles of Sanskrit.
and occasionally an example is borrowed from the works of the grammar-
ians. In Part Two the examples come from texts of the Sfuikara school
of Vedanta, especially from Sailkara's own Brahmasatrabhii~ya, and in a
few instances constructed examples are given for the sake of simplicity.
Although Part One thus relies primarily on literary works for its examples,
and Part Two on philosophical works for its examples, the points illustrated
in each part are applicable to most commentarial or expository works On
any subject.
The members of Sanskrit compounds are separated by hyphens as far
as possible, and a circumflex accent is used to mark a long vowel or diph-
thong produced by sandhi between words or members of a compound.
Square brackets indicate words not present in the Sanskrit text that must
be supplied from context. In Part One, words quoted from the text being
commented on in an example are in bold type. Also in Part One, indica-
tory phonemes (anubandhas) in technical elements of PiiI)inian grammar
are printed as uppercase letters.
Ellipsis in a passage cited in Sanskrit is marked by three dots, and is
indicated only when it occurs within the words actually quoted. Words
Abbreviations

Coulson Michael Coulson, Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical

Language (Teach Yourself Books)

GBh Bhagavadgftiibhii~yaof SaJikara (SlivilI)ivilasa)

KiiSikii Kiisikii Vrtti on PilI)ini's A~!iidhyiiyr

Kir. Kiriitiirjunrya of Bharavi (NirJ.1aya-Sagara Press)

Kir.M. Mallinatha's commentary on the Kiriitiirjunrya (Nin;mya-Sagara

Press)

Kum. Kumiirasambhava of Kalidasa (NirJ.1aya-Sagara Press)

Kum.C. Caritravardhana's commentary on the Kumiirasambhava

(Gujarati Printing Press)

Kum.M. Mallinatha's commentary on the Kumiirasambhava

(NirJ.1aya-Sagara Press)

Kum.V. Vallabhadeva's commentary on the Kumiirasambhava (ed. M. S.

Narayana Murti)

Megh. Meghaduta of Kiilidasa (ed. M. R. Kale).

Megh.M. Mallinatha's commentary on the Meghaduta (ed. M. R. Kale).

Megh.V. Vallabhadeva's commentary on the Meghaduta (ed. E.

Hultzsch).

Pii. PilI)ini's A~!iidhyiiyr

xxix
xxx Abbreviations

PP Paiicaplidikii of Padmapiida (Madras Government Oriental Series

155)

Ragh. RaghuvarJ1sa of Kalidasa (NirJ:taya-Sagara Press)

Ragh.H. Hemiidri's commentary on the RaghuvarJ1sa (ed. Rewa Prasada

DwivedI) Introduction
Ragh.M. Mallinatha's commentary on the RaghuvarJ1Sa (NirJ:taya-Sagara
Press)

SBh Brahmasiitrabhiisya of Satikara (Sviimi Satyananda SarasvatI) The Sanskrit Commentary

SDS SarvadarsanasOligraha of SayaJ.lamiidhava (Bhandarkar Oriental
0.1 Importance of commentaries
Research Institute)

Sisu. Sisupiilavadha of Magha (Kashi Sanskrit Series 69) The Sanskrit tradition offers to each student of its texts a rich source both
of potential assistance and of potential difficulties in the form of an ex-
SiSu.M. Mallinatha's commentary on the Sisupiilavadha (Kashi Sanskrit traordinary abundance of works of commentary. The importance that these
Series 69) commentaries have for students is due in general to two characteristics-
the simple fact of their abundance, and the specific ways in which they
SiSu.V. Vallabhadeva's commentary on the Sisupiilavadha of Magha offer assistance in the reading of a Sanskrit text.
(Kashi Sanskrit Series 69) Works of commentary pervade the history of Sanskrit thought to a de-
Speijer J. S. Speijer, Sanskrit Syntax (Rpt. Motilal Banarsidass) gree that is unparalleled in the writings of most other traditions: it is no
exaggeration to say that of all the expository works available in San;krit
Whitney William Dwight Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar (Harvard most are, at least in external form, commentaries. There are several rea-
University Press) sons for this prevalence of commentaries in Sanskrit, and some of them are
tied to features that are peculiar to the Sanskrit tradition.
One striking feature is the frequency with which we find works in San-
skrit that seem to require, or even to presuppose, the eventual services of
a commentator. In works of the stistra type, this situation is an ancient
one. The old siitras standing at the head of several of the philosophical
schools are essentially signposts in a line of oral argument (which may in
itself be a form of commentary on an older text, as in the exegesis of the
Upani~ads underlying the composition of the Vediintasiitrds), and in the ab-
sence of that oral corpus the siitras often have meaning for us only as they
are expounded in a full scholastic commentary. Throughout the history of
Sanskrit thought a similar situation is produced by authors who give a bare
outline of their material in short siitras or kiirikiis that are then fleshed out

I
2 Introduction 0.2. The five services ofa commentary 3

by the author's own commentary; the Tarkasarigraha of Annambhaga, for honored tradition.
example, is little more than a string of lists without the explanations sup- In many other works in which the commentarial format is freely cho-
plied in Annambhaga's own Tarkadfpikii or in the similar works by other sen the underlying concern is, once again, pedagogical. We often find a
scholars. scholar breaking a single body of material into several parts of increas-
In these laconic works the underlying motive is clearly a desire to fa- ing difficulty, which are then presented as a string of commentaries, one
cilitate memorization of the chief points of a system. Another frequent upon another. An example of this is Hemacandra's work On poetics, the
source of works requiring commentary is the deliberate practice of com- Kiivyiinuiiisana, which appears in the form of a number of brief sa/ras
posing works of great difficulty, a practice that is explicitly and proudly supporting his own commentary, the Alarikiiracu(iiimarri,which in turn is
acknowledged in the poet Bhagi's famous boast, that his mahakiivya could expanded upon in another commentary by the same author, the Viveka.
be understood only with the aid of a commentary (vyiikhyii-gamyam idarrr The material in the Viveka is of an advanced nature and could easily have
kiivyam, etc., Bhat!ikiivya 22.34). Bhagi's verse was taken up by Bhiimaha been presented in the form of an independent treatise, but by shaping it
in his work on poetics and twisted into the petulant observation that such into the form of a commentary on his more elementary work Hemacandra
poems are more siistra than kiivya (Kiivyiilarikiira 2.20), but we should allows the students in his advanced class to continue their studies using a
also remember that Bhiimaha himself, when describing the characteris- framework with which they are already familiar.
tics of an ideal mahakiivya, does not say that the poem should require no In some ways a work like Hemacandra's is equivalent to one of our
commentary, but rather that it should not require too much commentary modern books in which extensive footnotes and appendices are provided,
(nfitivyiikhyeyam, Kiivyiilarikiira 1.20). but there is an important practical difference between the two formats; in
Yet poems far less recondite than Bhagi's have attracted many com- a modern work the additional material is presented in a number of sepa-
mentators (wituess the enormous number of available commentaries on rate notes whose connection with the main text is merely signaled by ty-
KiUidiisa's mahakiivyas), and for this the reasons are obviously pedagogi- pographical symbols or references, but in a Sanskrit work the additional
cal. Indeed, the fact that we have old commentaries on these mahakiivyas, material is usually presented in a more continuous composition that relies
and only much more recent ones on great plays of equivalent age and dif- on a large body of conventional terminology and special syntactical devices
ficulty, may be presumed to indicate that the mahiikiivyas made up the in fulfilling its role as a commentary on the original text. As a result; an
standard cutriculum for Indian students of Sanskrit kiivya. understanding of the special techniques of the Sanskrit commentarial style
Another striking feature of the Sanskrit tradition is the frequency with is necessary in the reading of such works.
which works that may as well have been independent treatises are cast into
the external form of a commentary on an earlier text In this way many
treatises of great originality have been made to depend, at least nominally, 0.2 The five services of a commentary
on earlier works that they leave far behind---one thinks of Prasastapiida's
Padiirthasarigraha, which is ostensibly a commentary on the Vaise~ika­ In identifying the useful services offered by Sanskrit commentaries, we
sutra, and which in turn provides the occasion for Udayana's equally origi- have been guided by the list of the five characteristics of commentaries
nal Kiraniivalf. And the Kiraniivalfstands at the head of a very long string given in a verse from the PariiSarapuriirra that is quoted in the NYiiyakosa:
of co~entaries upon comm~ntaries, with varying degrees of dependence
pada-cchedal,z padflrthOktir vigraho viikya-yojanii
on the work being commented upon in each instance. In many such works
ii~epe~u samiidhiinarrr vytikhyiinarrr pafica-Iaksanam
the motives for writing in the form of a commentary go beyond the aim of
providing exegesis, and include the desire to associate oneself with an es- These five services correspond, in this same order, to the problem~ most
tablished authority-to present one's views as a worthy unfolding of time- often faced by students attempting to decipher a Sanskrit text:
4 Introduction 0.2. The five services ofa commentary 5

0.2.1 Padaccheda also because it is a good way to acquire a grasp of the different types of
Word-division, separation of the words of the text the rules of sandhi and
complex formations used in Sanskrit. c,:
the peculiarities of the Devanligar'i script make this the first problem that
confronts a student attempting to tnmslate a text. Before one can begin to 0.2.4 Viikyayojanii
look up the words one must know where one word ends and the next be-
Construing the sentences, indicating the construction of the text: once
gins. Any commentary that is not too long-winded can immediately solve
again, a student can avoid the tedious procedure of trying to figure out the
this problem for even a beginning student, yet many students do not know
text in several stages, if only the basic principles by which commentators
enough about the basic nature of a commentary to take advantage of this
repeat the words of the text being commented on are understood. These
simple service.
principles are really fairly simple, but until they have been explained to a
student most commentaries appear to be masses of unconnected explana-
0.2.2 Padiirthokti tions.

Stating the meaning of the words, paraphrasing: once it has been deter- 0;2.5 Ak~epasamiidhiina
mined what the words of the text are, the next problem is to find the ap-
propriate meaning in the dictionary. Because most Sanskrit words have so The answering of objections: this part of a commentary is concerned with
many possible meanings, the most frustrating part of the study of Sanskrit the ideas contained in the original text rather than with its words. Accord-
for many students in their early years is the necessity of laboriously writing ingly, it differs from the four preceding services in two ways. First, at this
down or holding in mind several definitions for each word until it can be level a commentary goes beyond straightforward exegesis and becomes an
determined which possible meaning is most appropriate for each word in argumentative treatise in its own right. Second, this portion of a commen-
the present context. While it is true that the glosses offered by commen- tary is based on the style of oral debate rather than On the style of oral
tators may often be as unfamiliar to a student as the word being glossed, instruction, so that it uses a different arsenal of vocabulary, syntax, and' or-
even a beginning student who is confronted, for example, with the word ganization. An understanding of this style can be applied to the reading of
bhiiskaral;! in a Sanskrit text may find a simple gloss such as bhiiskaral;! any text written in expository Sanskrit, whether that text is a commentary
saryal;! accessible enough to save some of the time spent flipping through or not.
the dictionaries. On a higher level, of course, these glosses often provide The first four of these services form the subject of Part One of this
information that is difficult or impossible to find in the standard reference handbook in their achievement through methods of glossing using non-
works, or that at least is more precise in its appropriateness to the text being technical language. Their achievement through the use of the technical
commented on. elements of PliJ.1inian granunar is touched on here in Sections 1.18-1.20,
but a full treatment of the topic lies outside the scope of this handbook in
its present form. The fifth service forms the subject of Part 1\\'0.
0.2.3 Vigraha
Analysis of granunatical complexes (i.e., of nominal compounds and of
derived stems): here the dictionaries are often of no use, especially where
nominal compounds are involved. Time spent in learning to understand the
basic formulas of analysis used by commentators is useful not only because
it makes it possible to take advantage of this service of commentaries, but
Chapter 1

The First Four Services

1.1 Introduction
Of the five services that a full commentary is expected to provide, the first
four are services of glossing and deal directly with the words of a text,
while the fifth is a service of discussion and is concerned more with the
ideas expressed in that text. Generally the first four services-the four
principal elements in the glossing of the words of a text----{;onsitute the bulk
of a commentary on a literary text, but may appear only intennittently in a
commentary on a philosophical or scientific text. In commentaries of lmy
type, however, the basic techniques of glossing are the same. In Sans)crit
commentaries these four services are achieved partly through the use of
the technical elements of P~inian grammar, and partly through methods
of glossing using non-technical language. Part One of this handbook deals
with the use of non-technical language to fulfil the first four services:
I. padaccheda-division of words, i.e., the resolution ofexternal sandhi
(Sections 1.3-1.7).
2. padiinhokti-statement of the meaning of the words, Le., the giving
of synonyms, paraphrases, definitions, and examples (Sections 1.8-
1.17).
3. vigraha-analysis of complex formations, i.e., breaking them down
into their constituent elements (Sections 1.18-1.75).
4. viikyayojanii----{;onstruingthe sentences, i.e., indicating how the words
fit together syntactically (Sections 1.76-1.84).

9
10 Chapter 1. The First Four Services 1.2. Types of glossing 11

A full treatment of the achievement of these same services through the use (Section 1.21). This last step is necessary so that the word will fit properly
of the technical elements of P3J)inian grammar lies outside the scope of in the syntactical arrangement of the entire verse (Section 1.78).
this handbook. In the examples given in this handbook, the ';;ords repeated from a
The fifth of the services provided by commentaries, that involving dis- text being commented on are emphasized in bold type. In this example,
cussion of the ideas contained in the text, will fonn the subject of Pan the word being explained never actually appears in the commentary in the
Two. same fonn that it has in the original text, and we have therefore supplied it
in square brackets at the point at which the words of the commentary serve
to reconstitute it.
1.2 Types of glossing
In the next example, Mallinatha explains the word prajanam, "of the
In the following sections, methods of glossing will be taken up one by people":
one, but in an actual commentary they often work together in explaining a
particular word. As preliminary examples of the types of glossing used by Ragh.M. 1.24 prajiiyanta iti praja janaf:r. "upasarge ca sarrzjiiayiim" iti
commentators and of how the explanation of those types is distributed in ¢a-pratyayatr· "prajii sylit santataujane" ity amara~. ttlstim (prajiiniim).
this handbook, here are the full remarks of the commentator Mallinatha on They are generated, thus progeny, people. The suffix J?a (i.e., -a, with loss
three words from the Raghuvatpia of Kalidasa. of the final vowel and final consonant of the root to which it is added), by
In the first example, Mallinatha is glossing the word saifave, "in in- (satra 3.2.99 ofP3J)ini) "And (J;Ja is added to the root jan) when a verbal
fancy": prefix is used, if a name is being formed." ''praja in the senses of offspring
and people"-Amara. Of them (viz., of the people).
Ragh.M. 1.8 fifor bluivaiJ faifav",!, balyam. "pr~bhrj-jati-vayo­
vacanodgatr-iidibhyo 'fl" ity aii-pratyayaJ:z. "sisutva1Jl saisava1Jl bdlyam" Here the complex fonnation being analyzed is an example of primary nom-
ity amaraJ:z. tasmin vayasi [JaiSave}. Infancy is the condition of being inal derivation (Section 1.29.1), and thus involves a krt suffix, but otherwise
an infant, childhood. The suffix aN (i.e., -a, with vrddhi strengthening of the elements of Mallinatha's remarks are the same as in the preceding ex-
the first syllable of the stem to which it is added), by (satra 5.1.129 in ample. '
P~ini's grammar) "aN is added to words for species of animals and for In the final example Mallinatha chooses to end his remarks by repeating
the ages of life, and to udgatf, etc. (in the senses of the condition of being in its original case the word being explained, rather than simply indicating
that or the activity of that)." "Infanthood, infancy, childhood"-Amara. In that case by the use of a pronoun:
that age of life (viz., in infancy).
Ragh.M. 1.54 dhura,!, vahantfti dhurya yugya/.!. "dhuro Ya4-flhakau" iti
Here fifor bhiiva/.! is an analysis in ordinary language of the fonnation yat-pratyaya~. "dhar-vahe dhurya-dhaureya-dhUrl(lii/.!
faifavam, an example of secondary nominal derivation (Section 1.37.2). sa-dhuralJ'ldharab" ity amarab. dhuryiin rathiisvan viSramaya
This is followed by a simple synonym, biilyam (Section 1.9). The next vinfta-sraman kuru. They bear a yoke, thus YOke-bearers, draft animals.
sentence gives the taddhita suffix by which the word is fanned according The suffix yaT (i.e., -ya, with acute pitch accent on the. preceding
to the PiiJ)inian system of grammar, and quotes the spe9ific rule by which syllable), by (satra 4.4.77 in Pii¢ni) "yaT and flhaK are added to the root
its fonnation is justified. The next sentence cites the treatment of the word dhur (in the sense of 'bearing that')." "In the meaning of a yoke-bearer:
in the dictionary of Amara (Section 1.16.2). The final sentence, after these dhurya, dhaureya, dhurin, and dhurQ1!uihara"-Amara. Rest make quiet
explanations in which the word has been treated in the nominative case, and rested the yoke~bearers the chariot horses. .
in effect gives it the locative case ending that it has in the original text
12 Chapter 1. The First Four Services

Of the four services of commentaries listed in the preceding section, the

first service, division of the words of the original text, is accomplished in
each of these examples simply by isolating the word in order to explain it.
The second service, that of explaining the meaning of the individual word,
is accomplished partly by giving synonyms, partly by quoting dictionaries,
and partly by performing the third service, that of analyzing complex for-
mations, since each of the three words being explained in the comments Chapter 2
quoted here happens to be an example of such a formation. The fourth
service, that of indicating the syntactical structure of the original text, is
generally achieved through the use of methods that can be glimpsed in the
ways in which the commentator has returned each word to the required Division of Words
grammatical case at the end of each of the examples.
It is in the analysis of complex formations that the role of PaI,tinian
grammar becomes most visible. The formulas used to give the meanings
of these items-sisar bhiiva~ saisavam, prajiiyanta iti prajii~, etc.-are
based on the treatment of such formations in P~ini's grammar, but the
1.3 Introduction
formulas themselves are in ordinary language and can understood without
a detailed knowledge of the technical elements of PaI,tinian grammar. The
same is true of much of the terminology used by the grammarians to name
important classes of complex formations. The artificial names for elements
In Sanskrit sentences the constant application of rules for the euphonic
such as suffixes, however, together with the meanings of the indicatory
combination of words often makes it difficult to determine where one word
letters added to them, reqnire special explanation; a brief overview of this
ends and the next begins. The resolution of sandhi between words is
topic is given in Sections 1.18-1.20.
the chief purpose of the oldest surviving exegetical works in India! to
each of the collections of Vedic hymns there was added in ancient times
a padapii!ha ("word-text") version, in which each word-isolate is exhib-
ited separately, with terminal sandhi. This straightforward approach to the
separation of words can still be found in the padaccheda feature of many of
the modern editions of Sanskrit texts printed as ponies for Indian students.
In most Sanskrit commentaries, however, the indication of boundaries be-
tween words is not given a distinct section reserved for that purpose, but
rather is achieved naturally through three general practices; the repetition
of the words with intervening explanatory material (Section 1.4), the oc-
casional specification of word-division in doubtfnl instances (Section 1.5),
and the citation of individual words for the purpose of making special re-
marks (Section 1.6). In the course of displaying the words of the text.being
commented on, a commentator may also mention variant readings (Sec-
tion 1.7).

13
14 Chapter 2. Division of Words
1.6. Citation ofindividuai words 15

1.4 Repetition of the words of the text (Section 1.9). Often a commentator will also single out a word for further
remarks, and when this is done there are four prin~ipal methods of citing
Ordinarily a continuous commentary repeats each word found in the text.
the word (Le., of referring to it as a word, rather than simply using it in the
For examples of how this is done and for a description of common ex- course of a continuous gloss):
ceptions to this general rule, see Sections 1.76-1.80. Because each word
repeated from the text is usually followed by a gloss or by other inserted
1.6.1 iti
material, separation of the words of the text is automatically provided in the
course of presenting the words for explication. The value of the repeated The word may be folJowed by iti (corresponding to our use of quotation
words in providing this service is enhanced if they are printed in bold type; marks):
if they are not, they may be sought out and underlined (Section 1.79).
Kum. v: 1.58 vikn'yanta iti karma'}i. (The verb) vikriyante is passive.

1.5 Specification of word-division Kum. V. 1.25 um iti praraya-kope. (The particle) um is used in
feigned anger.
For purposes of word-division, the repetition of words from the text in-
volves ambiguity only when two adjacent items in the text are repeated
next to each other in the commentary without the insertion of intervening 1.6.2 -sabda, -"kiira
explanatory material. Because it may not be clear whether or not such
items form a compound word, the commentator will sometimes explicitly The word may be placed in compound with -sabda or (especially if it con-
sists of a single sylJable) with -kiira:
state whether they are two words or one, or will specify where the division
should be made. Ragh.M. 1.2 dvau kva-sabdau mahad antarOf!! sucayata/L The two
words 'where' suggest a great difference.
Ragh.M. 1.17 ii mana!" manum iirabhyety abhividhih. pada-dvaya,!,
cliitat, samii.sasya vibha~itatvat. Since Manu-beginning with Manu; Ragh.M. 1.1 piirvalf·paramiSvarau. parama-sabda!,
this is an inclusive limit. And these are two words, because the compound sarvottamatva-dyotaniirtha!l. Piirvati and the Supreme Lord. The
is optional. word 'supreme' has the purpose of revealing his preeminence above all
others.
Kum.M. 5.55 tadeti cchedah. radii prabhrti. tata iirabhyeti artha!,.
Divide after tadii. From then on, i.e., beginning then. Kum.M. 1.4 ki,!,ceti cakiiriirtha!,. The meaning of (the particle) ca is
"furthermore."
Kum. V. 5.63 tvayii yathii srutalf' tathiliva tat. ... yathii srutam iti dve
pade. It is just as you have heard. yatha srutam-these are two words.
1.6.3 Inflected indeclinable
If the word is indeclinable, it may be given an inflectiorrai ending and be
1.6 Citation of individual words declined like a masculine noun. The presence of the case-ending will then
be enough to indicate that the word is being referred to as a word rather
In the course of giving a running gloss, the words repeated from the text than being used in its own meaning. Ambiguity exists only when the" inde-
are generally presented in the same form in which they appear in the text clinable ends in a long vowel and is presented in the nominative, but here
16 Chapter 2. Division of Words
1.7. Variant readings
17
the context will usually make it clear that the word is being referred to as a
Kum. V. 2.26 ksatdham kala s'a . '"
word. . .- - 1J1sma ltl Jarat-piitho 'tra ramyat h
Here the old reading "!qataha1J1.-kiira-SQTflSinal/' ij' more appeaIin:~a ..
Ragh.M. 1.24 api~ samuccaye. api (is used) in (the sense of)
Kum. V. 2.28 priirthayadhvam ity apapathah.
conjunction. bad reading. . . "prtirthayadhvam" is a

Ragh.M. 1.4 athava palqdntare. athava (is used) in (the sense of) an
alternative.
Kum. V. 3.44 iYildfni1lp chandasi vidhiinild bhiIsdyam triyambakam ..
prayogo durlabha iti maheivaram iti pathaniya . B' ,ttl
b . . m. ecause (sandhi
Kum. V. 2.42 ca~ parvdpelqaya samuccaye. hfti palhe cdrthe hi~. su sUtutes) such as "iy" are prescribed (only) for the" d' I
.. . e IC anguage the
(The particle) ca (is used) in (the sense of) conjunction with repect to what usage tnyambakam" is difficult to arrive at in the classical Ian '
precedes. In the reading "hi," (the particle) hi (is used) in the meaning of that one ought to read "maheivaram." guage, so
(the particle) ca.
Kum. v: 4.36 marmlirpitam iti piithlintaram.
"mamdrpitam." . There is another reading,
As the word earthe in the last example shows, this device can also be used
in compound, where the inflectional ending will, of course, be absent. This
KumM. 3.44 keeit sahasiklilz tn'-loeanam iti pethuh.
should not result in ambiguity as long as it is recognized that a compound Certain reckless
(commentators are said to have) read "tn' - Ioeanam.
. .. .
is being used.

1.6.4 Anubandhas
The word may be displayed along with the indicatory letters (anubandhas)
used in the Pii\linian system of grammar:

Ragh.M. 1.90 Ii tapo-vaniit. an maryadayam. As far as the

penance-grove. (The preposition) a [called an in Plilrini's grammar] (is
used) in the sense of an exclusive limit.

Kum.M.1.35 nano vise~a!latva1'J1 ca-sabda-prayogiid evajneyam.

And that the word na [called naliin PliJ;1ini's grarumar] is a modifier can
be known simply from the use of the word ca.

For an overview of the use of anubandhas and the technical citation of

grammatical elements such as roots, seeSections 1.76-1.80.

1.7 Variant readings

Variant readings are referred to by using the noun palha or any of the forms
of the verb palhati.
Chapter 3

Giving the Meaning of Words

1.8 Introduction

The basic task of giving the meaning of a word in the text being commented
is carried out by placing an explanation of that meaning, at the simplest
level often merely a synonym for it (Section 1.9) alongside the wor4 in
question. Ordinary this simple gloss follows the word being explained,
but the location of the gloss may vary (Section 1.10). Commentators Ijlay
also gloss words with equivalent forms other than simple synonyms (Sec-
tion 1.11), and may expand the gloss in various ways (Section 1.12) or ap-
pend more removed paraphrases (Section 1.13). Techniques are available
for dealing with words that refer by extension to objects other than those
directed denoted (Section 1.14) and with words that have double mean-
ings (Section 1.15). These techniques of glossing may be supplemented by
the use of separate definitions (Section 1.16). Further devices are used in
glossing special items such as proper names, the names of species, parti-
cles, indeclinables, and pronouns (Section 1.17).

When the word being explained happens to be a complex formation

arrived at through derivation, the formation may be analyzed using the for-
mulas available for each of the types of derived stems (Sections 1..\8 ff).
Words may also be explained through the use of the technical elements of
PiiI)inian grammar.

19
20 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning of Words 1.11. Glossing by equivalent forms 21

1.9 Simple synonyms Ragh.M. 1.24 tasii,!" pitaTas tujanma-hetavo janma~miitra-karliirab

kevalam utpiidaka evdbhuvan. But their paren~ were causes of birth
The words repeated from the text being commented on are most commonly creaters merely of birth alone simply producers. [here eva glosses
glossed by the insertion of a synonym after each. Simple glosses of this sort kevalam]
may be provided for virtually every part of speech:

Ragh.M. 1.1 vande'bhiviidaye I honor I salute 1.1 0.2 Vigrahas

Ragh.M. 1.2 matilJ prajflii mind intellect When an analysis of a grammatical complex (such as a nominal compound)
is given, the original word from the text is generally repeated after the
Ragh.M. 1.4 me mama my of mine analysis, rather than before it (see Section 1.21).

Ragh.M. 1.29 nun"'!' dhruvam surely certainly

1.11 Glossing by equivalent forms
These inserted glosses are placed in grammatical apposition with the·
word being glossed. Thus a gloss of a verb will agree with it in person and A simple gloss need not be an exact morphological copy of the original;
number; a gloss of a substantive will agree with it in case and number, and often a different construction with equivalent meaning is used instead. Two
a gloss of an adjective will agree with it in case, number, and gender: types of glossing by equivalent forms are especially common:

Ragh.M. 1.27 vande'bhiviidaye I honor I salute 1.11.1 Periphrasis

Ragh.M. 1.2 mohiid ajfiiiniit out of folly out of ignorance A periphrastic construction is used to bring out the precise meaning of a
morphological feature in the original: '
Ragh.M. 1.36 snigdo madhura~ agreeable (masc.)-sweet
Ragh.M. 1.20 anumeyii anumiitu'!' yogyii~ inferable able to be
inferred

Ragh.M. 1.26 yajfiiiya yajfia,!, kartum for sacrifice in order to

1.10 Location of glosses perform sacrifice

Usually the gloss follows immediately after the word quoted from the text Ragh.M. 1.72 mucye mukto bhaviimi I am freed I become freed
being commented on. There are two principal exceptions:

1.11.2 Participle
1.10.1 Enclitics
A past active participle may be used to gloss a finite verb:·,
Enclitics and other words closely dependent upon a preceding word must
usually be separated from the words they are glossing. Ragh.M. 1.17 na ryanyur ndtikriintavatya~ they did not trangress
they did oot go beyond
Ragh.M. 1.28 au~adha,!, yathii a~adham iva as if medicine like
Ragh.M. 1.21 jugopa ralqitaviin he guarded he protected
medicine [here iva glosses yatha]
 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning of Words 1.13. More removed paraphrases 23
22

1.12 Expansions of glosses Ragh.M. 1.7 yaJase kfrtaye .. , vijiiMu!,ii,!, vijetum icchanam, na tv
artha-sa1J1grahliya. prajayai sa'fltanaya grha-met!!'inii'!'
A simple gloss is often expanded beyond the mere giving of a synonym by diira-parigrah{uJiim, na tu kiim8pabhogiiya. Of those who were
including illustrative or explanatory material. desirous of victory wishing to conqner for the sake of fame of glory, but
not for the sake of amassing wealth. Of those who were householders
married men for the sake of offspring of progeny, bot not for the sake of
1.12.1 -iidi the enjoyment of pleasure.
Inserted examples are generally offered in the forms ending in -adi ("such
as," Section 2.44):

Ragh.M. 1.14 siiribhi/;J kavibhir viilmfky-iidibhih by wise men by 1.13 More removed paraphrases
poets such as Viiltnlki
When a commentator feels that glossing a word with a synonym or equiv-
Ragh.M. 1.16 npa-gu'.'ai riija-gunais tejah-pratiiptJdibhih alent form is not sufficient, he may provide a freer paraphrase. Such para-
kula-Sfla-diilqinyadibhis ca with the qualities of a king with royal phrases are usually followed by one of three phrases: (Section 1.13.1) ity
qualities such as valor and prowess, and such as good family, good arthah, (Section 1.13.2) iti bhiivaiz, or (Section 1.13.3) iti yavat. For the
conduct, and politeness. first two of these phrases other expressions are sometimes substituted (Sec-
tion 1.13.4), and additional formulas are used to mark comments serv-
ing to bring out the implications of the words being commented on (Sec-
tion 1.13.5) and the purposes of the author's statements (Section 1.13.6).
1.12.2 Implications
Commentators very frequently fill out a gloss by explicitly stating what is
1.13.1 ity arlhah
merely implied in the original wording:
The phrase ity arthaiz (lit., "such is the meaning," "the meaning is that ... ")
Ragh.M. 1.24 rak~a'.'tJd bhaya-hetubhyas triiniit because of is used to mark a paraphrase that simply restates the literal meaning of the
protecting because of protection from sources of danger text in another way. Such paraphrases are often added after a simple gloss:

Ragh.M. 1.24 bhara1}tJd anna-piinddibhih posaniit because of

Kum.M. 1.46 lalo nirviie~a'!l nirbhedam. tat-sadrsam ity artha!r.
supporting because of nourishing with food, drink, etc.
Not distinguished from it-not different from it. In other words, like it.
Ragh.M. 1.25 pari'.'el1Jr diiriin parigrhnatah of the marrier of the
Kum.M. 1.43 low capa/ii, paribhramana-sT1ety arthah Unsteady
wedder of a wife
restless, Le., tending to roam about

Just as frequently they are used instead of a simple gloss:

1.12.3 Implied contrasts
Similarly, commentators often spell out the implications of an expression Kum.M. 1.11 mandiim ... gati,!, na bhindanti na tyajanty ity arthah
by making implied contrasts explicit: their slow pace they do not break-in other words, they do not abandon it
 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning ofWords 1.13. More removed paraphrases 25
24

Kom.M. 1.18 niiga-vadhUpabhogyalfl niiga-kanyii-pari~etiiram ity 1.13.3 iti yavat

artha!,. who was to he enjoyed hy a Naga wife-i.e., who was to The phrase iti yiivat (lit., 'Just this much [is meantY') is used after a para-
marry a Naga bride. phrase that expresses the meaning of the original text more precisely, either
by substituting a more specific term for a wider one, or by reducing a pic-
turesque expression to plain language. iii yiivat may thus be translated
1.13.2 iti bhiivaJ.! "specifically," "to be precise," "to put it plainly," etc., depending on the
"!
The phrase iti bhiivaJ:z (iiI. "such is the idea," "the idea is that ... is used contexl.
to mark comments that go a step further by stating the underlymg tdea
intended by the author of the text being commented on. Ragh.M. 1.25 manffi!,o vidu~a!,. do~a-jfiasylti yiivat.Of a wise man
of a learned man. Specifically, of one who can recognize faults.
Kum.M.1.15 anvi!j{a-mrgair margita-mrgaiJ;. sriintair iti bhiiva~. for
deer who had been hunting deer. The idea is that they were tired. Kum.M. 3.5 punar.bhavaJ.t punar·utpatti!1.. sa1J1sdra iti yiivat.
Reoccurring arising again. To be precise, transmigration.
KomM.3.67 /dmcit ... parilupta-dhairyaJ:z. na tu priikrta-janavad
atyanta-lupta-dhalrya iti bhiiva!,. With his calmness slightly ruflIed.. Kum.M. 1.39 vedi-viiagna-madhyii vedivat krsa-madhyii.
But not with his calmness exceedingly ruffled, as in common people-this tanu-madhylti yiivat. Altarground-narrow-waisted thin-waisted like
is the idea. an aItarground. To put it simply, slender-waisted.
Because expressions that are difficult enough to require a free paraphrase
are also likely to require further explanation, it is quite common to find a
remark ending with ity arthaJ:z being followed immediately by a comment 1.13.4 Other phrases
ending with iti bhiivaJ:z: Several other phrases are frequently used to mark the end of a free para-
Kom.M. 3.68 siicr-k[lii . .. lasthau. hriyii mukha1[l siicr-krtya sthitlty phrase. The most common of these are ity abhipriiyaJ:z ("such is the im-
arthah. no kevalll1Jl harasyaiva devyii apy udito rati-bhdva iii bhiiva~. port"), iti tiitparyaJ:z ("such is the overall sense"), and ity iisayaJ:z ("such is
She stood turned aside, i.e., she stood with her face averted out of the intention [of the author]"). These phrases are used in exactly the same
embarrassment. The idea is that the emotion of love had arisen not only in way as ity arthaJ:z (Section 1.13.1) and iti bhiivaJ:z (Section 1.13.2), with
Siva, but in the Goddess as well. similar meanings.

Kom.M.5.86 klesah phalena phala-siddhyii punar-navaliilf' vidhatte. Kum.M. 5.73 yatOO §masdna·~apa-satkriyd na kriyate tatoo tvarn api
piirvavad.eVdklistatii~
. apiidayatfty arthafl. sa-phalaJ; kleso na klesa. iti tasmai na gha.tasa iti tatparyiirthatJ.. The overall sense is that just as the
bhiivah. Toil, through its fruit-through the accomplishment of Its consecration of the sacred post used in Vedic ritual is not performed for
fruit~restores freshness. In other words, it makes one unburdened by the executioner's stake in a cemetary, so also you are suited for him.
toil, just as one had been before. The idea is that fruitful toil is not toil.

Kom.M. 4.10 tava padavllfl margam aham pratipatsye. tviim

anugami~yamfty artha~. ato me nasti viciira iti bhiiva~. Your path way 1.13.5 anena, etena
I shall resort to-i.e., I shall follow you. Hence you need not worry In another group offormulas used to mark comments on the author's inten-
about me-this is the idea. tions, the remark of the commentator begins with the word anena or elena
26 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning of Words 1.14. Meanings by extension 27

("by this [expression or statement]"). The formulas anena ... vivak~ita/.! Kum.M. 1.15 kramtid vise~ll1!a-traye1Ja faitya-saurabhya.miindyiiny
and anena ... iti vivakryate (both meaning "by this he means to say ... ") uktiini. The three modifying (phrases) express:coolness, fragrance, and
are used with essentially the same force as the formula ity artha/.! (Sec-' gentleness, in that order. ';.
tion 1.13.1). The other formulas beginning with anena generally involve
an attempt to convey the subtler implications or suggestions of the author's
statement; e.g., anena . .. sueita/.! and anena . .. iti sucyate (both mean-
ing "by this .. , is hinted at"), anena . .. iti gamyate ("by this ... is made 1.14 Meanings by extension
known"), and anena ... iti dhvanyate ("by this ... is suggested"). All such
formulas should be self-explanatory once their general pattern has been The verbs lak~ayati and ii~ipati are used by commentators to refer to the
understood. power of words to include in their meanings objects connected with the
object directly denoted by them.
Ragh.M. 1.8 abhyasta-vidyiiniim. etena brahmacaryasramo vivak~ita~.
"Of those who studied the sacred lore"-by this he means the stage of Kum. v: 1.37 athavii nzvi-sabdena nfvyil yad grathyate tad adho-viiso
sacred studentship. lakryate. Or, by the word "waistknot" there is included by extension the
lower garment that is bound by that waistknot.
Ragh.M. 1.59 atharva-nidher ity anena purohita-krtyabhijnatviit
tat-karma-nirvahakatvarrr muner astfti sficyate. "Of him who was the Kum. v: 3.10 madhus caitras tena ca vasanto lakfyate.
repository of the Atharva Veda"-by this it is hinted that the sage was Madhu---Caitra, and this includes by extension the springtime.
expert in the rites of the domestic priest and was therefore capable of
carrying out those rituals. Knm. V. 1.27 dipa-Sabdenatrajviilii-varti-taila_bhiijanatmaka/.!
samudiiya ii~ipta!J.. Here the word "lamp" implies by extension the '
aggregate composed of flame, wick, oil, and vessel.

1.13.6 References to speech

Similar observations are frequently made by any of the many ways of re-
ferring to the act of speaking on the part of the author of the text being 1.15 Glossing of puns
commented on.
When words of the text being commented on refer simultaneously to two
Kum. V. 1.15 bhiigfrathf-nirjhara-fikarii!'iiIJI objects through double meanings, the commentator may organize his ref-
gariga-prapiita-jala-ka!,iiniif!l v~hii ~epti!ti saitya-pu!,yatvoktiJ:!. The erences to these two sets of meanings either by using expressions meaning
carrier the tosser of the sprays of the cataracts of the Bhagi"rathi of the "in (reference to) one ... in (reference to) the other place" or by referring
drops of water of the waterfalls of the Ganges-this is an expression (ukti) to the two sides with the word pa~a.
of coolness and holiness.
Kum.M. 2.27 labdha.prati!!hii/.! labdha-sthitayaJ:!. labdhiivakiiSii ity
Kum.M.2.29 sahasra-grahaIJam iisthlitisayartham. The mention of anyatra. Having obtained a foundation [in reference to the gods],
the thousand (eyes of Indra simultaneously turned towards his guru) is having obtained their positions. In the other [alternative, i.e., in refe~ence
aimed at the abundance of his regard (for the guru). to rules of grammar], having obtained the opportunity for operation.
28 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning of Words 1.16. Definitions 29

Kum.M. 1.24 labdha udayo yaya sa labdhOdayii. utpannety anha~. Kum.M. 4.9 upaciira-pada'!l parasya rafijaniirrharrz yad
abhyuditety anyatra. By whom arising has been attained. she is asatya-bhi¥a1}Qrrz sa upaciiras tasya padarrz sthii1.!#m. kaitava-sthiinam iti
labdhOdaya, i.e., born [in reference to ParvatI]. In the other [i.e., in yiivat. An occasion of upaciira-an upaciira i;'an untrue statement
reference to the moon], having risen. made for the purpose of pleasing someone else. An occasion-an
instance-of it. To put it bluntly, an instance of deceit.
Ragh.M. 2.73 adarianena praviisa-nimittena ... candra-palqe,
adarianarp kalli-~aya-nimittam. By nonappearance caused by his Alternatively the commentator may simply insert the definition before or
being away from home.... In the case of the moon, the nonappearance is after the portion of the running gloss in which the word in question is pre-
caused by its waning. sented. In such instances he will often employ the particle nama ("by
name," "that which is called ... ") immediately after the word being de-
Ragh.M. 4.33 phala,!, labham. vr~a-pa~e prasava,!, ca. ... utkhiita/,l fined, in order to make it clear that he is pausing to give a definition:
sva-padlic cyavitai!z. anyatra, utpli,titai/.t. The fruit the profit [in
reference to the kings]. And in the case of the trees, their produce.... Ragh.M. 1.44 yupo niima sarrzskrtafl pasu-bandhiiya diiru-vise~ab. yupii
Dislodged unseated from their positions. In the other [Le., in reference to eva cihnani ye~iiJ!' te~u (yiipa-cihne~u). (That which is called) ayupa
the trees], uprooted. ("sacrificial post") is a special piece of wood consecrated for the tying up
of the sacrificial victim. Of which the marks are yupas, in those
(yiipa-marked ones).

Ragh.M. 1.4 valflie kule. janmaniiika-Ia~m:zab santiino varrziaJ:z. In

1.16 Definitions the vfl1!lsa in the family line. A vaTflsa is a series preserving continuity by
birth.
When a word in the text being commented on is used in a technical or
uncommon sense, the commentator may find it necessary to interrupt his
running gloss in order to give a formal definition of the word. In such 1.16.2 Definitions quoted from dictionaries
instances he may either offer his own definition (Section 1.16.1), or quote
an authoritative dictionary (Section 1.16.2). Most of the Sanskrit dictionaries quoted by the commentators follow one
of two standard formats. Some, such as the dictionary of Amarasimha
simply string synonyms together after the fashion of a thesaurus, so th~t ali
1.16.1 Definitions otTered by the commentator the words appear in the nominative case:

Since a definition involves an independent sentence stating the meaning Ragh.M. 1.7 "tyiigo vihiipitarrz diinam" ity amarafl. "Donation, grant,
of a word, it cannot reproduce the case and number of the word as used gift"-Amara [cited to define tyaga].
in the original text. To solve this problem a commentator will sometimes
add a pronoun after the definition in order to "pick up" the defined word Others, such as the dictionary of Kesavasvamin, display the word to be
and restore it to its original case, etc., so as to match the original text and defined in the nominative case and its meanings in the loc~tive case:
continue the running gloss: Ragh.M. 1.4 "vajrarrz tv a-St11 kulisa-sastrayofl, mQl}i-vedhe
ratna-bhede" iti kesavab· "vajra, non-feminine (i.e., found both as
Ragh.M. 1.7 tyagiiya-sat-piitre viniyogas tyiigab-tasmai for masc. and as neut.), in (the meanings of) thunderbolt and weapon, drill for
donation---donation is presentation to a worthy recipient-for it boring gems, type of jewel"-Kesava.
30 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning of Words 1.17. Treatment ofspecial items 31

Frequently the quotations from dictionaties add little to what the commen- 1.17.2 Names of species
tator has already said on his own, and appear to be made simply for the
weight of the lexicographer's authority or to reinforce the memory of stu- When words referring to species or particular typeS' of things are glossed.
dents who were supposed to learn the dictionary by heart: the term vise~a is placed in compound after a word referring to a wider
class of things to make it clear that the word being glossed does not apply
Kum.M.2.64 rati1J smara-priya. "ratitz smara-priya" ity omara!}. to all members of that wider class.
Rati the beloved of Kama. "Rati, the beloved of Kama"-Amara.
Kum.M. 3.26 aSoko vrlqa-vi§e~al} aSoka a species of tree
Quotations from dictionaties interrupt the runrting gloss when introduced
near the place in the commentary at which the word to be defined is pre- Kum.M. 2.59 ayaskiintena ma~i-vise~e(Ul by lodestone by a
sented. Some commentators therefore save such quotations and lump them particular kind of mineral
together at the end of their comments on a verse or other portion of the text.
Kum.M.2.21 piisa!J rajjur iiyudha-vise~af! lariat lasso, a particular
type of weapou
1.17 Treatment of special items
Commentators use special devices to mark proper names (Section 1.17.1)
and names of species (Section 1.17.2), and to explain the meanings of par- 1.17.3 Meanings of particles
ticles (Section 1.17.3), other indeclinables (Section 1.17.4), and pronouns
Many indeclinables in Sanskrit are function words whose mearting is pri-
(Section 1.17.5).
marily grammatical. For these items it may be difficult to provide a syn-
onym or definition, and to explain their meaning a commentator must cite
1,17.1 Proper names the word and make a direct statement of the force with which it is u$ed.
For examples of how such statements are made see Section 1.16. Note par-
Proper names are marked as such, either by being followed by nama (used
ticularly the device of expressing the function of a particle through a word
as a separate, indeclinable word) or by being displayed as the first mem-
presented in the locative case (e.g., apii,l samuccaye, "api in the sense of
ber of a bahuvrfhi compound ending in a word meaning "name" (nama,
conjunction"; ali maryiidiiyam, "a in the sense of an exclusive limit").
sa'l"jfili, akhya, etc.).

Kum.M. 2.47 uccai?Jsravo niima Ucc~ravas by name 1.17.4 Other indeclinables

Kum. v: 2.47 uccai~srava1;l-sa1?1Fio'sva-§re~!haJ:t. The most excellent For other indeclinables, such as temporal adverbs, a commentator may sim-
horse named UccaiJ.1Sravas. ply indicate the precise sigrtificance of the word in the present context:

Kum.M. 2.1 tiirakelJa tiiraka-namna vajrat;akha-putre!Ia kenacid Ragh.M. 1.59 atOO prasnantaram next after the question
asure!la. By Taraka by a certain demon named Taraka, the son of
VajraI)akba. Kum.M. 3.59 katharrtcid atiyamena somehow with great efforl'
32 Chapter 3. Giving the Meaning afWards

1.17.5 Pronouns
Similar information is inserted to explain the significance of pronouns.
When the pronoun's antecedent is not in the text, the commentator may
supply it:
Chapter 4
Ragh.M. 1.18 sa riijii he the king

Kum.M. 1.2 ya,!, himiilaya whom Himalaya

Analysis of Grammatical Complexes
And for other pronouns the special force with which they are used may be
indicated:

Kum.M. 1.48 ta,!, pras.'ddha '!' k. -. m

e a-pasa that famous head of hair
1.18 Introduction
Kum. V. 1.56 kendpi kiimena kaydpy ajiiiitecchayii with a certain
desire with some unknown wish The opportunity to break down grammatical complexes into their con-
stituent parts arises constantly in commentaries on Sanskrit texts, since
Megh.M. 1 kaicid anirdi~!aniimiiyak~o a certain-unspecified by
most words in the language are made up of readily discemible elements.
name-yakfa. Any inflected word, for example, contains both an inflectional stem and an
inflectional affix, and such words can be analyzed by identifying the stem
and naming the affix. The resulting analysis, however, will be a purely
technical one, since the affixes can be named only through the use of the
artificial terminology of Sanskrit grammar. When speaking of San.krit
commentaries, what is more commonly meant by the term vigraha is an
analysis in ordinary language, which is produced by using several separate
words to restate the meaning of a single complex form-Le., by "expand-
ing" the complex form into a phrase with the same meaning.
Because ordinary language provides no entire words that can serve as
direct substitutes for morphemes such as the inflectional endings, tltis sec-
ond type of analysis is possible only for words more complex than inflected
primary words, and it is therefore reserved for formations involving nomi-
nal or verbal stems that are themselves derived from simpler elements. In
analyzing these complex formations, it is usually possible either to sep-
arate the constituent elements and place them in a phrase in which their
relationship is explicitly stated (as in the analysis of many kinds of nomi-
nal compounds), or to produce a phrase that gives the same meaning as the
complex form by using ordinary words to express the force of the gram-

33
34 Chapter 4. Analysis of Grammatical Complexes 1.19. Modes of complex formation 35

matical elements involved in the complex formation (as in the analysis of 1.19 Modes of complex formation
forms derived thtough suffixation).
For these complex formations there are thus two kinds of analysis avail- An analysis in ordinary language is a restatemeni>in the "phrase mode"
able: analysis in the technical language of grammar (sastrfya-vigraha, (vtikya-vrtti) of the meaning expressed in a more compact mode by the
"technical analysis;' or alaukika-vigraha, "extraordinary analysis"), and formation being analyzed. Sanskrit grammar recognizes five modes (vrtti )
analysis in ordinary, non-technical language (laukika-vigraha). of the formation of derived words for which a vigraha in ordinary language
The siistrfya-vigraha proceeds by naming the sequence of stems and may be possible:
suffixes involved, together with any inserted elements required by the se-
I. san-ady-anta-dhiitu-vrtti, or the formation of new verbal stems (end-
quence. For example, a genitive tatpuru~a compound such as raja-puru~a~
ing in the suffix san, etc.), i.e., of denominative verbs by adding
("king's man") will be explained in a technical analysis as being made up
suffixes to nouns, and of stems of secondary conjugation by adding
of the stem rajan with the termination of the genitive singular, -as (which
suffixes to verbal roots (Sections 1.22-1.26).
is dropped in the final form), followed by the stem puru~a with the ter-
mination of the nominative singular, -so The actual analysis will take the 2. krd-vrtti, or the formation of new nominal stems by primary deriva-
form rajan + Nas + puru~a + sUo The extra letters added in the names for tion, i.e., by adding krt suffixes to verbal roots (Sections 1.27-1.34).
the suffixes serve various purposes and disappear in the final form; here
the N in Nas indicates that certain things are inserted before this suffix 3. taddhita-vrtti, or the formation of new nominal stems by secondary
when it comes after a feminine stem, and the U in sU is simply to make it derivation, i.e., by adding taddhita suffixes to nominal stems (Sec-
possible to pronounce the name of the suffix. Similarly, the taddhita forma- tions 1.35-1.42).
tion steyam ("thievery," from stena, "thief'), may be analyzed in technical
4. samiisa-vrtti, or the formation of new nominal stems thtough the
terms as stena + yaT + am. Here the T in the technical name of the taddhita
compounding of nouns (Sections 1.43-1.72).
suffix yaT indicates which sort of pitch accent the suffix carries.
For these same formations the laukika-vigraha proceeds by expanding 5. ekase~a-vrtti, or expressing the sense of several words related by
each formation into a phrase having the same meaning: rajfia~ puru~a~ meaning or syntactical concord thtough the retention of only bne
("a man of the king's") and stenasya karma ("the activity of a thief'). of those words, e.g., "dogs" for "dogs and bitches" (Sections 1.73-
This sort of analysis in ordinary language occurs constantly in Sanskrit 1.75).
commentaries, and is obviously more readily accessible to students than
analysis in technical language, since it requires no knowledge of the artifi-
cialterminology of PilJ!.inian grammar. What it does require is familiarity 1.20 General principles of analysis
with the modes of complex formation susceptible to such analysis (Sec-
tion 1.19), the general principles of analysis involved (Section 1.20), the For each type and subtype of complex formation susceptible to analysis in
manner in which the formulas of analysis are inserted in a running com- ordinary language, there exists a basic formula of analysis that, while it
mentary (Section 1.21), and the common formulas used in analyzing each may be understood without a knowledge of the details of PiiI,tinian gram-
type of complex formation (Sections 1.27-1.75). mar, is based directly on the treatment of these formations by Piinini and
Full coverage of the terms required in technical grammatical analysis his successors. For some formations, notably those derived by the ~ddition
and the procedures by which they are used by the commeotators is beyond of taddhita suffixes (Section 1.35), the formula follows the exact wording
the scope of this handbook, but a brief overview of how such analyses are of the rules of PiiI,lini. For others, the formulas are desigued to express the
usually worded by commentators is given below in Section 1.20. meanings assigned to the formation by PiiI,1ini.
 Chapter 4. Analysis of Grammatical Complexes 1.20. General principles ofanalysis 37
36

Some words are analyzed not in terms of formulas used for types or which they are inserted, because the formula itself may often be obscured
subtypes of complex formations but in terms of the specification by the in ways described in the following section.
grammarians of a meaning for that particular word. Such irregular words For all these reasons the treatment of each type of complex forma-
are said to be nipiitita, "set down," as opposed to words that are lak~m:la­ tion in this handbook includes a statement of the basic formula of analysis
labdha, i.e., whose formation is arrived at by more general rules (see, for appropriate to that formation, drawn from the works of the grammarians,
example, Section 1.34). alongside any examples taken from commentaries.
To some extent the formulas actually used by many commentators are Of the five types of complex formation listed above, the first three
drawn from a practical tradition of commentarial techrtiques rather than (derivative verbs, nouns of primary derivation, and nouns of secondary
directly from a close adherence to the detailed explanations of the gram- derivation) are also susceptible to analysis in terms of the technical ele-
marians. Thus for some formations (e.g., nan-tatpuru~a compounds, Sec- ments of Pfu:J.inian grammar in addition to analysis in ordinary language.
tion 1.58) the formula usually encountered in the commentaries is more While both approaches depend upon the details of Pal)ini's treatment of
straightforward and less strict than some grammarians would like, and for the language, the technical analysis goes beyond the ordinary analysis in
others (e.g., samlihiira-dvandva compounds, Section 1.63) the commen- employing the specially coded terrrtinology used by Pfu:J.ini in referring to
tators often do not bother to include in their formula of analysis the full grammatical elements. In the analysis of derived forms the most important
details of the special elements of meaning involved in the formation. And of these elements are the suffixes, and the Pfu:J.inian treatment of suffixes
for some formations the full standard formula coexists with a simplified involves three special problems.
formula used when the complex formation forms part of a larger complex First, Pfu:J.ini recognizes derivation by suffixation only, so that many
(as in the analysis of kannadhiiraya compounds serving as members of phenomena that we might not automically associate with suffixes are de-
larger compounds, Section 1.71). scribed by the Pfu:J.inians as being due to the addition of some suffix. For ex-
When some of the less common formations are to be analyzed, the ample, the form -libha that occurs at the end of the upapada compound an-
degree to which the formulas used in a given commentary coincide with alyzed by Mallinatha and Hemadri in the examples used in Section 1.21.2
the formulas offered by the granunarians may also be influenced by the is a derivative of the verbal root bhii, and the vowel of the root appears to
type of reader for whom the commentary is intended. Rudimentary lists have been shortened. For reasons of economy the way that Pal)ini expllnns
of simple formulas of analysis, collected in short handbooks such as the such a form is to say that it is the result of the addition of a short -a suffix,
Samiisacakra, join lists of verbal and nominal paradigms as the first items before which the long -li of the root has dropped. Similarly, formations that
memorized by students in the traditional system of Sanskrit-medium ed- appear to consist of the bare root with no alteration (e.g., the final member
ucation, and commentaries intended for students in their early years of of veda-vid, "Veda-knowing," which is simply the root vid, "to know") are
study will naturally attempt to conform to the formulas presented in these explained by Pfu,tirti as the result of the addition of a "null suffix," i.e., a
elementary handbooks. suffix that completely disappears.
Careful study of the basic formulas of analysis available for each type Second, the technical names of the suffixes generally contain extra let-
of formation is valuable in several ways. First, a knowlege of the formulas ters beyond the actual form of the suffix itself, the purpose of which is
is useful in itself as an aid to a clearer understanding of the different types purely indicatory. For example, the short -a suffix that forms the compo-
of complex formations used in Sanskrit. Second, farrtiliarity with the nature nent -libha is technically called Ka, and in this name the K is merely a
of the more important formulas is helpful in recogrtizing an analysis for "dummy letter" serving to convey grammatical information abont the re-
what it is, should it show up unexpectedly in an otherwise discursive work-; sulting form. Such an indicatory phoneme (displayed here in uppercase)
of commentary. Finally, the ability to recogrtize the basic formulas easily is called an anubandha or it, and it does not appear in the final form. The
is necessary if one is to understand the sentences in running glosses into general purpose of K in this role is to indicate that when the suffix marked
 Chapter 4. Analysis of Grammatical Complexes 1.21. Insertion of analyses in a commentary 39
38

with it is added to a root, the gUl)a-strengthening usually caused by the ad- ing the base to which the suffix is added; for example, one way of referring
dition of a suffix doe not occur (e.g., when the suffix Ka is added to the to verbal roots is by adding the suffix -ti, so that the· word manam, formed
root budh, the resulting form is budha rather than bodha), and there is also from the root ma ("to measure"), may be analyzed by saying mater LyuT
a special rule to the effect that the final vowel of roots in long -a is dropped ("LyuT [i.e., the taddhita suffix -ana] after mati [i.e., the verbal root ma]").
before suffixes with indicatory K (thus the form -abha rather than -abha). Second, the meaning of these suffixes is indicated by preceding the
Third, in the technical names of some suffixes even the actual form technical name of the suffix with its meaning in the locative case (cf. Chap-
of the suffix does not appear, being replaced by some substitute specified ter 6). Thus for saisavam a commentator might say bhiive aN ("aN in
by Pal)ini. For example, yu in the technical name of suffixes stands for the the sense of a state or condition"; see Section 1.28), and for manam, 'if it
longer form ana, and to this yu will be added indicatory letters covenng the is interpreted as having instrumental force (miyate aneneti mfinam, "one
grammatical phenomena associated with the suffix in question. Thus LyuT measures with it, thus a measurer:' i.e., an instrument of measuring) the
is the name of the krt suffix -ana that produces nominal stems in which comment might be kararte LyuT ("LyuT in the sense of an instrument"; see
the acute accent rest~ on the syllable before the suffix (which phenomenon Section 1.29.3).
is indicated by the L in the technical name) and for which the feminine This same technique is used in dealing with other grammatical ele-
stems end in -I rather than the usual -a (which is indicated by the T in the ments as well. Verbal roots, for example, as they appear in the tradi-
technical name). tionallist (the Dhiitupa,tha, an appendix to Pal)ini's grammar), are provided
All three of these problems arise in the case of a suffix such as KviP, with indicatory letters of their own-e.g., kr, "to do," is technically called
the technical name for one of the null suffixes mentioned under the heading PUkrtil, with the PU indicating that the root may take a certain suffix, and
of the first problem noted above. The actual suffix is vi, which is said to the til indicating that the root takes atmanepada endings with the benefit of
always disappear, so that it is in effect replaced by zero. The K, once the action accrues to the agent. The meaning of the root is indicated by a
again, indicates lack of strengthening, and the P indicates that roots ending word i~ the locative case placed after the technical name of the root-e.g.,
in short vowels will add the augment -t (e.g., loka-krt, "world-making," PUkrN kararte, "kr in the sense of doing."
from the root kr). Commentators frequently use such technical remarks as supplements
The mearti~gs of these indicatory letrers are fully explained by Otto to analyses in ordinary language or in place of them. In the quotations
von Biihtlingk in his Partini's Grammatik and (much more accessibly for from commentators offered in the handbook we will often include such
readers of English) by G. V. Devasthali in his Anubandhas of Partini. Both remarks as samples of this approach, but a full understanding of their use
books also give lists of the suffixes, both with and without the indicatory requires a dedicated study of PilI)inian grammar.
letters, and some similar information is provided by M. R. Kale in A Higher
Sanskrit Grammar. A more thorough introduction to Pal)ini's methods is
available in the works by George Cardona listed in the Appendix. We 1.21 Insertion of analyses in a commentary
cannot reproduce this information here, but we can point out the two most
common ways in which these technical names of suffixes are used. The formulas of analysis described below in Sections 1.22-1.75 are in-
First, the actual technical analysis of a complex formation consists of serted at the proper places in a running commentary in much the same way
the technical name of the suffix, preceded by the ablative of the item to as the simple glosses described in Section 1.9 (for detailed examples of
which the suffix is added. Thus the word saisavam ("infancy"), formed the arrangement of running commentaries and the insertion of explanatory
from siSu ("infant") by the addition of the short -a suffix technically called material, see Sections 1.76--1.80). In their placement within a commen-
aN (the J:I indicates v,ddhi-strengthening of the first syllable of the forma- tary the formulas of analysis differ from simple glosses only in that, as
ti~n) is analyzed sisor aJ:l. Further technical devices may used in identify- the examples given in the following sections indicate, an analysis is usu-
40 Chapter 4. Analysis of Grammatical Complexes 1.21. Insertion ofanalyses in a commentary 41

ally placed before the complex being analyzed, while synonyms and other 1.21.2 Indicating the inflection of the original
simple glosses usually follow the words they explain (Section 1.10).
In practice commentators often do not bother to repeat the full original The formulas for the analysis of derivative and compound nouns as offered
form of the complex being analyzed (especially when it is a nominal com- by the grammarians generally present the noun that is being analyzed in
pound); in such instances the analysis itself replaces the repetition of the the nominative case. Of course such nouns may appear in any case in a
original formation, or the analysis may conclude with a simple reference to text being commented on, and in order to make the transition from the
the original form rather than with its actual restatement (as in the phrases standard formula to the inflection found in the original text a commentator
tat tatha, tat tath8ktam, tat tatha-bhlitam, etc., used at the end of analyses may follow either of two procedures in analyzing the noun.
of bahuvrfhi compounds; Section 1.70). One procedure is to modify the basic formula by inflecting the syntac-
The basic formula of analysis may often be obscured by the addition tically predominant part of the analysis to match the inflection of the noun
of other material when the commentator finds it necessary either to gloss being commented on. For example, where the text has raja-putrat, "from
the words used in the analysis (Section 1.21.1), or to indicate the inflec- the king's son," the commentator may give the analysis rajna~ putrii/,
tion of the complex being analyzed as it appears in the original text (Sec- based on the nominative-case formula rajna~ putra~ but reflecting the
tion 1.21.2). ablative case of the word being explained. Such an analysis is called a
parini~!hita-vibhakti-vigraha, "analysis (using) the case-ending of the fin-
1.21.1 Glossing the words used in the analysis ished (form)."
The other procedure is to use the standard formula without modifica-
Within the basic framework of a standard formula of analysis, commenta-
tion, and then to add a pronoun to pick up the formation and convert it
tors may insert glosses of the words making up that analysis at any point,
to the required inflection. Using this method the analysis of raja-putrat
using the same techniques that are employed in glossing separate words
would be rajna/:! putras tasmii/, "the king's son, from him." Such an anal-
in the original text. For example, the word marut-sakha~, an epithet of
ysis is called a prathamdnta-vigraha, "analysis ending in the nominative
fire, is a straightforward genitive tatpuru~a compound, meaning "friend of case-ending."
the wind," and its analysis, using the standard formula (Section 1.53.1) is
Where a pronoun already OCCurs at the end of a standard formula, as for
therefore simply maruta~ sakhii marut-sakha~, "friend of the wind; wind-
example in the analysis of bahuvrfhi compounds, the same two options are
friend." In employing this standard formula, however, the commentator
still available. Here the pronoun already present at the end of the standard
Mallinatha inserts synonyms after the first member in the analysis and af-
formula is the syntactically predominant part of the analysis, as it refers to
ter the repetition of the entire compound;
the same thing that the formation as a whole refers to. Thus the analysis
Ragh.M. 2.10 marutab viiyob sakhii marut-sakho 'gnib. Friend of the of the compound dfrgha-kan:zat, "from Long-ear," may be either dfrghau
wind, of air; wind-friend, fire. kan:zau yasya tasmilt (tath8ktat), "whose ears are long, from him (who
is so-called)," or, with the addition of a further pronoun to pick up the
This technique is taken a step further in the practice of using syn- analysis, dfrghau kan:zau yasya sa (tathOktas) tasmat, "whose ears are long,
onyms in place of the parts of the original complex when analyzing the he (IS so-called), from him."
complex. For example, the analysis given by Mallinatha of the compound . Just as parts of a formula of analysis may be separaied by interven-
marut-prayukta~ ("impelled by the wind") in the same verse is not maruta mg glosses (Section 1.21.1), this "pick-up" pronoun added at the end of a
prayukta~ but vayuna prerita~-synonyms for the original members of the nominative-case analysis may be separated from the body of the analysis
compound, displayed in the analysis with the same inflection and position by any amount of intervening explanatory material. For example, th~ com-
that the original members would have in the standard formula of analysis. pound marut-sakhah used as an example in Section 1.21.1 is actually the
42 Chapter 4. Analysis of Grammatical Complexes

first member of a longer compound, marut-sakhdbham ("shining like fire,"

masculine accusative singular), which Mallinatha interprets as an upapada
compound (Sections 1.32, 1.59). He therefore uses a pronoun to pick up
marut-sakhab for the rest of the analysis of the longer compound, and then
he must add another pronoun at the end to place the whole compound in the
accusative case. But before adding this last pronoun he pauses to explain Chapter 5
which krt suffix is used to form the last part of the compound:

Ragh.M. 2.10 marula viiyo~ sakhii marut-sakho 'gnifl. sa iWlbhiitfti

marut-sakhiibhafl. "iitos copasarge" iti ka-pratyayafl. tam. Friend of Derivative Verbs
the wind, of the air: wind-friend, fire. (He) shines as he does, thus
wind-friend-shiner. The suffix Ka (i.e., -a, without strengthening of the
root to which it is added) by (Pa. 3.1.136) "And (there is the suffix) ka
after (a root ending in) long -ii, when a verbal prefix is used." Him. 1.22 IntrOduction
Note that insertions such as this do not alter the basic formula of analy-
sis: they simply interrupt it. The same problem arises when a commentator Of the five modes of complex formation recognized in Pfu,tinian grammar,
offers more than one explanation of a part of the analysis, for he will carry four result m denved nominal stems. The fifth involves the addition of
on with the basic structure of the formula no matter how many alternatives suffixes to verbal roots and to nominal stems to create formations that are
he inserts in a part of the formula. For example, when the commentator treated as derived verbal roots. The first of these "root-fOrming suffixes"
Hemadri analyzed this same compound marut-sakhdbham, he not only in- taken up by Pii~ini is the desiderative suffix -sa, called san by Pa~ini (the fi-
serted a quotation from a dictionary, but also could not decide whethet nal -n serves only to indicate that the resulting formation will have the anute
marut-sakhab means Agni or Indra, and whether the longer compound is pitch accent on its first syllable). The formations so derived are therefore
an upapada compound, as Mallinatha thought, or a madhyamapadalopa- called san-ady-anta-dhiltu ("roots ending in san, etc.," Pa. 3.1.5-3.1:32;
bahuvrfhi compound (Section 1.66.2): corresponding to "derivative or secondary conjugation," Whitney 996 ff.).
Some of the suffixes are added to items already technically consid-
Ragh.H.2.10 maruto vayofl sakhii iti marut-sakho 'gnis tasydbhewibhii ered roots :-vithout producing any change in meaning that requires anal-
yasya. indrasyeti va, "pulomtirir marutsakhii" iti dhana1'J1jayafl. tadvad YStS m ordmary language. This is true, for example, of verbs that use
abhiitfti vii. tam. Friend of the wind, of the air, thus wind~friend, fire. the causative suffix without clear causative meaning, including the items
Whose appearance is like the appearance of his [i.e., of Agni's]. Or [like VIewed by Pfu)ini as roots of the cur-adi or tenth-class and by Western
the appearance] of Indra's: "Pulomari, Marutsakha [among the epithets of grammanans as denominatives with causative rather than denominative
Indra]," says [the lexicographer] DhanaI)ljaya. Or, (he) shines as he does, accent (corayati, cintayati, etc., Pa. 3.1.25; Whitney 607, 775, 1041 b,
thus [wind-friend-shiner]. Him. 1056), and it is also true of the roots that use the desiderative suffix without
cl~ar desiderative meaning (Pa. 3.1.6-3.1.7; Whitney 1040)-jugupsate,
In reading the examples quoted from commentaries in the sections that
tltlk:;ate, clkltsatl, mfma'!'sate, bfbhatsate, dfdamsate, §f§amsate. But these
follow, take care to separate the features of expression required in order to
suffixes also produce four large groups of form~tions susc~ptible to analy-
match the inflection of the word being explained from those features proper
SIS m ordmary language: desiderative verbs (Section 1.23), intensive' verbs
to the formula of analysis being exemplified.
(SectIon 1.24), causative verbs (Section 1.25), and denominative verbs

43
44 Chapter 5. Derivative Verbs 1.24. Intensives 45

(Section 1.26). 1.24 Intensives

These are the yan-anta-dhatus, "roots ending in [the'suffix] yan," Pa. 3.1.22-
1.23 Desideratives 3.1.24; "intensive or frequentative verbs," Whitney 1000-1025. In the ba-
sic formulas for the analysis of intensives and frequentatives the finite sim-
These are the sann-anta-dhtitus, "roots ending in (the suffix) san," Pa. 3.1.7; ple verb is used with the addition of punaf:z punah ("again and again") for
"desiderative verbs," Whitney 1026-1040. A straightforward desiderative the frequentative meaning or bhrsam ("intensely") for the intensive mean-
formation is analyzed in ordinary language by a formula using the verb i~ ing:
(icchati) after the infinitive of the root in question:
Klisikli 3.1.22 puna~ puna~ pacati piipacyate he cooks repeatedly

Klisikli 3.1.7 kartum icchati cikfr~ati. He wishes to do. Kasikii 3.1.22 bhrsa1!l jvalatijajva/yate it blazes intensely

The same principle applies to the analysis of desiderative formations in As in the analysis of desideratives (Section 1.23), the same basic for-
which the addition of a further suffix has produced a participle, an adjective mula applies even when further suffixation occurs:
in -u, or a noun in -ii; the same suffix will be added to the root i~ in the
Kum.M. 1.23 jarigamyante bhrsaJ?'l gacchantftijarigama
analysis:
deva-tiryari-manu~yfdayal:z.
They move all around-they go
intensely-thus moving creatures-gods, animals, humans, and so forth.
Kum.M.3.14 fpsitam iiptum i~!am desired sought to be obtained

Here a krt suffix used in the sense of the agent (Section 1.29) is added to
Ragh.M. 1.2 titfr~us taritum icchuJ;. desirous of crossing seeking to
the intensive formation in order to form a nominal stem.
cross
Again as in the analysis of desideratives, certain idiomatic uses of the
intensive require special analysis: '
Ragh.M. 1. 7 vijig~ii1Jii'!J vijetum icchiinarn of those desirous of
conquering of those seeking to conquer
Kiisikii 3.1.23 ku.tila1!l krtimati cankramyate he moves crookedly (i.e.,
he goes in zig-zag fashion).
Kum.M. 2. 7 sisrk~ayii sra~!um icchaya through the desire of
creating through the wish to create KiiSikii 3.1.24 garhita,!, lumpati lolupyate he breaks it in a
reprehensible way (i.e., he busts it all to pieces).
Certain idiomatic uses of the desiderative require special analysis:

Kasikii 3.1. 7 sanke pati~yati kulam {pipaWfati kulam] I fear the bank 1.25 Causatives
is going to fall-the bank is likely to fall
These are the r;ij-anta-dhatus, "roots ending in [the suffix] nic," Pa. 3.1.26;
Klisikli 3.1.7 [Janke mari~yate iva] iva mumiir~ati I fear the dog is "causative verbs," Whitney 1041-1052. Straightforward c~usative forma-
going to die-the dog is likely to die tions may theoretically be analyzed by using the present participle ~f the
root in question, followed by some verb of instigation; thus gamayati, "he
46 Chapter 5. Derivative Verbs 1.26. Denominatives 47

causes him to go," may be analyzed gacchantal!' prerayati, "he sets him 1.26.2 Behavior toward
going." In practice, however, such formations are only very rarely ana-
lyzed in ordinary language; instead a commentator will offer the causative (pa. 3.1.10):
form of a synonymous verb as a gloss or provide an analysis in the techni-
Kiisikii 3.1.10 putram ivacarati putriyati he treats (him) like a son
cal terminology of P~inian grammar.
As in the analysis of ihe derivative verbs described in the previous two
sections, certain idiomatic uses of the causative require special analysis. 1.26.3 Behavior like
An example:
(Pa.3.1.11):
Kasikii 3.1.26 ka,!,sa-vadham lica~.te ka'!'sa'!l ghiitayati He tells the
story of the slaying of Karrsa-he has KaJ!lS3 slain. KaSlk53.1.11 iyena ivficarati syenayati it acts like a falcon

Ragh.M. 2.61 amrtam iWicaratfty amrtiiyamiinami it acts like the

nectar of immortality, thus acting like the nectar of immortality
1.26 Denominatives
These are ihe nama-dhatus, "roots [formed from] nouns," Pa. 3.1.8 ff.; "de- 1.26.4 Becoming something
nominative verbs," Whitney 1053-1068. Denominative verbs are formed
(Pa. 3.1.12-3.1.13):
by ihe addition of suffixes to substantives and adjectives. They fall into sev-
eral groups according to the precise meaning imparted by the suffix. For Kasika 3.1.12 (abhrso) bhrso bhavati bhrsayate (not having been
each group ihe standard formula of analysis in ordinary language is based intense) it becomes intense-it itensifies
directly upon the wording of ihe portions of the rules of P~ini describing
ihose meanings; ihe commentators follow ihese basic formulas of analysis Ragh.M. 2.17 fyiimiini bhavantfti syiimiiyamiiniini they become dark,
quite closely, but sometimes omit the elements referring to finer details of thus darkening
meaning. In the following examples, the basic formulas are taken from ihe
For ihe basic formula and the optional omission of its first part, cf. the
Kasiki/, and ihe elements sometimes omitted by commentators have been
analySIS of CVt formatIOns (Section 1.42.4).
placed in parentheses.

1.26.5 Making something so

1.26.1 Desire to have
(Pa.3.1.21):
(Pa. 3.1.8-3.1.9):
Kiisikii 3.1.21 mu~¢afJl karoti mUTp!ayati he makes it shaven-he
Kasikli. 3.1.8 (iitmanaM putram icchati pumyati he desires a son (for
shaves it
himself)
Ragh.M. 3.35 laghayi~yata iaghu,!, kari~yatii by the' one being about
Ragh.M. 1.35 putrakamyaya atmana~ putrecchaya through desIre
to lighten it-by the one being about to make it light
for a son through the wish for a son for themselves
Ragh.M. 5.73 malinayanti malinani kurvanti they dirty them~they
In ihe last example the denominative stem has been subjected to further make them dirty
suffixation in order to produce a krt formation (cf. Section 1.23).
48 Chapter 5. Derivative Verbs

1.26.6 Feeling something

(Pa.3.1.18):
Kasikfi 3.1.18 sukha'!l vedayati sukhayate he feels happiness

Chapter 6
1.26.7 Doing or making something
(Pa. 3.1.17, etc.):
Primary Nominal Derivation
Kiisikfi 3.1.17 sabdaf!l karoti sabdiiyate he makes sound-he sounds

Kiiiikfi 3.1.19 namaf:l karoti namasyati he does honor-he honors

Often a particular noun will call for a more specific verb:

1.27 Introduction
Kiisikii 3.1.25 satyam iica~!e satyiipayati he tells the truth
The formations called krt or krd-anta ("ending in krt suffixes;' Pa. 3.1.91-
Kiisikii 3.1.15 tapas carati tapasyati he performs austerities
3.4.117; "primary derivatives," Whitney 1143-1201) are the nominal stems
Such meanings shade off into the next category. (including participles and verbals) derived through the addition of suffixes
to verbal roots. In general terms the category of krt suffixes includes all
1.26.8 Making use of something suffixes added directly to verbal roots with the exception of the san-adi
suffixes ("root-fonning suffixes," Sections 1.22-1.26) and the tin suffuo<es
(Pa. 3.1.15, etc.): (the inflectional endings of finite verbs).
In this category belong many specific analyses applying to particular words. Akin to the krt suffixes are the suffixes called ul}-adi ("beginning ~ith
A few examples follow. Ul}"), which serve the same function of deriving nominal stems from verbal
roots, but often do so through forced and improbable etymologies. They
Kiisikii 3.1.15 romanthaTJl vartayati romanthiiyate it turns over the are preserved in collections outside the grammar of Pat)ini, and although
cud-it chews the cud Pi1t)ini makes reference to this group of suffixes (Pa. 3.3.1-2, 3.4.75), his
KiiSikii 3.1.20 [puccha,!, paryasyati] paripucchayate it tosses its tail general policy is to take the nouns derived by ul}-adi suffixes as ready-made
around-it wags its tail
forms, so that he does not concern himself with their derivation. The com-
mentators mention them rather infrequently in comparison with the suffixes
KiiSikii 3.1.25 slokair upastauty upailokayati he praises with taught by Pi1t)ini, and when they do refer to them their techniques of anal-
eulogies-he eulogizes ysis are the same as those used in analyzing krt formations. For example,
Kiisikii 3.1.25 lomany anumli.r~.ty anulomayati he strokes the hairs in :~ the first of the ul}-adi suffixes, Ul} (the purpose of the final· -'.I is to indicate
the direction in which they lie-he curries
that the vowel of the root to which it is added is subject to vrddhi strength-
ening), is said to form the word kiiru from the root kr, and this formation is
Klisikii 3.1.25 varma1}Q sQ'!'lnahyati saJ!lvarmayati he girds with analyzed karotfti karu~ Silpf, "he makes, thus a maker, an artisan," exactly
armor-be armors as in the analysis of kartari krt formations (Section 1.29.1).

49
50 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.28. Basic bhave meanings 51

As in the analysis of the other types of complex formations, the for- 1- be a participle with simple bhiive meaning:
mulas of analysis in ordinary language used by the commentators to ex- }
Ragh.M. 2.54 prahrta,!, tu prahtiras tu but the stroke-but the
plain krt formations follow very closely the treatment of these formations
striking.
in Pa'!ini's grammar. Thus the formulas of analysis may be divided by
their being applicable to either of two major categories of meaning: that of When, however, the formation being explained is an indeclinable ver-
the verbal action itself (Section 1.28), and that of the various participants bal form, more complicated formulas are required.
in an action (Section 1.29). Beyond these basic varieties of meaning, the Continuatives are generally analyzed by using a verbal noun derived
precise meaning of a formation may be narrowed by restrictions of relative from the same root, followed by a continuative form of the root kr:
time (Section 1.30) or by any of a number of other restrictions of meaning
Ragh.M. 3.51 prahasya prahiisa11'l k,tvii laughing performing the
(Section 1.31). Furthermore, many k,t formations are possible only when
action of laughing.
compounded with an accompanying word (Section 1.32). The various ver-
bal participles form special subsets of k,t formations, and some of these When this technique is used, it is often the continuative made from
require special treatment (Section 1.33). Finally, the explanation of cer- kr, rather than the verbal noun, that indicates the presence of secondary
tain formations depends not upon the basic formulas of analysis but upon meanings such as that of the causative:
the specification by the grammarians of particular meanings for particular
Ragh.M.5.62 praveSya prave.sa'!l ktirayitvti showing in causing him
words (Section 1.34). "
to perform the action of entering

The rarer l}amul form of continuative is usually glossed simply by of-

1.28 Basic bhiive meanings fering the commoner form of the continuative as a synonym:
A great many k,t suffixes are used bhiive, i.e., in the sense of the verbal ac- Kum.M. 4.26 stanau sambiidhya stana~sambiidham striking the
tion itself. Most of the resulting formations are nouns of action correspond- breasts-striking the breasts
ing in meaning to the English gerund in '-ing'. Since the only straightfor-
ward method of duplicating the meaning of such formations in ordinary Infinitives may often be explained through the use of a verbal nouh in
language in Sanskrit is through the use of another verbal noun formed with the dative case, but even where this is possible other more roundabout ex-
a different suffix, the explanation of these items in commentaries is usually pressions are also allowed, which generally use verbal formations referring
achieved either by giving an analysis in technical terminology or by simply to the agent rather than to the verbal act itself:
offering a synonym: KiiSikii 3.3.11 {paktuTfl vrajati] piikiiya vrajati [he goes in order to
cook] he goes for cooking
Ragh.M.5.45 bhange bhafijane in breaking-in (the action of)
breaking Kiisikii 3.3.11 bhoktuTfl vrajati bhojako vrajati he goes in order to
eat-he goes as an eater
Ragh.M.5.61 iigamena iigamanena by tbe arrival-by the arriving
Kasikii 3.3.12 [asvan diitu'!' vrajati] Qsva-diiyo vrajatt· [he goes in
Kum. V. 1.59 sa11'lmiirjana11'l saTflmiirgaJ,l (the action of)
order to give horses] he goes as one intending to give horses
sweeping-sweeping
KiiSikii 3.3.13 {kartuTfl vrajati] kari~iimiti vrajati [he goes in order
The offering of a synonym in the form of another verbal noun using a to do] he goes (with the thought), "I shall do"
different suffix is also employed when the word being glossed happens to
52 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.29. Basie karaka meanings 53

1.29 Basic kiiraka meanings by which (something) is covered--eoncealed-is a covering, a leaf of a

door
The krt suffixes that do not refer to the verbal action itself refer to a par-
ticipant in that action. In the PaJ)inian system there are six categories of Notice also that, as in the analysis of other types of complex forma-
such participation, called ktirakas. With few exceptions (Sections 1.30.1, tions, the commentator may insert glosses at any point in the analysis.
1.31, 1.32.4, 1.32.5) formations made with such suffixes are analyzed us-
ing formulas containing finite forms of the verb in question. When the
1.29.1 kartari
suffix is used in the sense of the agent (Section 1.29.1) or the object (Sec-
tion 1.29.2) of the action, an active or passive finite verb is sufficient to Formations made with krt suffixes used in the sense of the agent of an
indicate the thing to which the formation refers, since by PaJ)ini's rules the action are analyzed with finite active forms of the verb in question. Where
verbal termination of an active verb is itself used kartari (in the sense of the word being analyzed is plural, a plural form of the finite verb will be
the agent), and that of a passive verb is used karma,:,i (in the sense of the used. The same basic formula applies whether the word being analyzed is
object). The thing teferred to by the formation will then be the grammati- a substantive or an adjective.
cal subject of the finite verb. But where the suffix is prescribed by PilJ;1ini
in the sense of some other ktiraka (Sections 1.29.3-1.29.6), the category Ragh.M.4.12 tapatftitapanaJ;t sarya~ it heats, thus heater, the sun
of participation through which the thing referred to is connected with the
verbal action must be indicated by using some form of the pronoun idam, Ragh.M. 4.42 yudhyanta iti yodhii!} they fight, thus fighters
exhibited in the grammatical case appropriate to the ktiraka in question.
Ragh.M. 2.72 sukhayatiti sukha~ it pleases, thus pleasant
None of these formulas, unlike those used in the analysis of deriva-
tive verbs and of nominal compounds, can be substituted directly for the When such formations contain a verbal prefix, two methods of analysis
word that it analyzes, because in each of these formulas the syntactically are available. The prefix may be expanded, so to speak, into a separate
predominate element is a verb, while the word being analyzed is a noun. adverbial form:
Instead the formula in itself merely offers a clear explanation of the manner
in which the thing referred to particpates in the verbal action. Accordingly, Ragh.M. 12.68 vise~etla bhf~ayate safran iti vibh~a!la,-, he especially
each of these formulas must be concluded with the particle iti followed by frightens his enemies, thus terrifying
the word being explained. For example, in order to explain that the word
ptieaka refers to the agent in the action of cooking, the basic formula is Kum. v: 1.15 niyata1J1jharati sravatfti nirjharalJ it
simply paean', "he cooks"; but the full analysis is paeatiti ptieaka~, "he fiows-streams---continuously, thus a cascade
cooks, thus [he is] a cooker." Much less frequently a commentator will
avoid the need for the particle iti by using a relative pronoun: ya~ paeati sa Or the prefix may simply be retained with the finite verb used in the
ptieakah, "he who cooks is a cooker." The same technique is occasionally analysis:
used in analyzing formations involving any of the ktirakas; compare the
following analyses: Ragh.M. 1.38 utkiranti vi~ljJantfty utkirii!} they scatter
upwards-toss upwards, thus scattering up
Kum.C. 7.53 apidhfyate 'nenety apidhiina'!' kapii!am (something) is
covered by this, thus a covering, a leaf of a door Kum. v: 5.44 upayacchate svfkarotfty upayantii pati he
takes-accepts as his own, thus taker, bridegroom
Kuru. V 7.53 apidhfyate sthagyate yena tad apidhiinam kava.ta~ that
54 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.30. Temporal restrictions 55

1.29.2 karmafli 1.29.5 apiidiine

Fonnations made with krt suffixes used in the sense of the object of an Formations made with krt suffixes used in the sense:~f a point of departure
action are analyzed in much the same way as kartari fonnations, except involved in an action are analyzed with a finite verb and a fonn of the
that the finite verb used in the analysis will be passive rather that active. pronoun idam exhibited in the ablative case.

Ragh.M. 2.65 ktimyata iti kamo varafz it is desired, thus a desire a

Ragh.M. 1.2 prabhavaty asmiid iti prabhaval} kara1)am (something)
choice
arises from this, thus a source a cause
Ragh.M. 1.20 priirabhyanta itf priirambhiil} they are undertaken, thus
undertakings

Ragh.M. 2.4 prasuyata iti prasutil} santatiJ:t it is procreated, thus

1.29.6 adhikarw}e
procreation offspring
Formations made with krt suffixes used in the sense of a location involved
in an action are analyzed with a finite verb and a form of the pronoun idam
exhibited in the locative case.
1.29.3 karafle
Fonnations made with krt suffixes used in the sense of an instrument in- Kum. V 6.43 sa'!lcaranty asminn iti sa'!'caro margafi. (people) travel
volved in an action are analyzed with a finite verb, usually passive, and a on this, thus a road a street
fonn of the pronoun idam exhibited in the instrumental case.
Ragh.M. 5.40 dhfyate 'syam iti dhiinf (something) is put in it, thus a
Ragh.M.5.57 sa7[lmohyate 'neneri sa,!,mohanam (one) is infatuated receptacle
by means of this, thus infatuating
Kum.M. 1.7 likhyate yesu te lekhiil} patrikiih those on which writil1g
Kum.M.2.4 vibhajyate 'neneti vibhiigal} (something) is divided by is done are writing sheets leaves
this, thus a division

Kum.M. 3.40 vihanyanta ebhir iti vighniil} pratyiihah (people) are Notice that in the last example the commentator has used the alteruative
approach described in the introduction to Section 1.29.
obstructed by these, thus obstructions obstacles

1.30 Temporal restrictions

1.29.4 sampradiine
Fonnations made with krt suffixes used in the sense of the one for whose While most k.rt suffixes are used with present or temporally indefinite force,
sake an action are analyzed with a finite verb and a fonn of the pronoun a great many suffixes are assigned specific temporal meaning, and this
idam exhibited in the dative case. specification will be reflected in the analysis of the resuliing fonnations.
Most common is the specification of past time (Section 1.30.1), but one
Kum. V. 6.87 [6.88] arpyate 'sma ity arpa~al} (something) is offered! also often finds present time assigned to participles that usually refer to
to this, thus recipient i past time (Section 1.30.2), and some suffixes have future meaning (Sec-
tion 1.30.3).
 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.31. Other restrictions ofmeaning 57
56

1.30.1 bhiite Kum.M. 1.58 arcitam ... pujyamanam worshiped ... being
worshiped
In addition to the various past participles, many other words are formed
with krt suffixes expressly assigned past meaning by PaI;lini; the specifi-
cation' bhute ("in the sense of what is past") applies throughout a large
1.30.3 bhavi~yati
segment ofPaI;lini's rules for krt suffixes (3.2.84-3.2.122) and appears spo-
radicallv elsewhere as well. Formations to which this specification applies Formations made with krt suffixes used with future sense, like those to
are con~entionally glossed through the use of past participles (either active which present sense is expressly assigned, may either be analyzed with a
or passive) rather being analyzed through the use of of finite verbs. In such finite future verb and iti, or glossed with a future participle.
glosses the particle iti is not necessary, since the participle, by virtue of its .l
own nominal character, can be substituted directly for the noun bemg ex- Kum V. 1.49 [1.50] bhavisyatfti bhavitrf she will be, thus future
plained. For the same reason it is possible to indicate the case of the word
being glossed by the case of the participle used, so that the formatIOn need Ragh.M. 5.32 samprasthital} prasthiisyamana~ san going forth being
not be exhibited in the nominative case, as is necessary with formulas of about to go forth

analysis using finite verbs and iti.

Ragh.M. 1.44 yajvaniilfl vidhine~!avatam Of those who have 1.31 Other restrictions of meaning
sacrificed of those who have offered sacrifice in accordance with the rules
In addition to the temporal specifications just described, there are other
Kum.M.2.46 yajvahhi/] vidhivail i~tavadbhi~ By those who have conditions of meaning (upadhi) that are applied to various krt suffixes by
sacrificed by those who have offered sacrifice in accordance with the rules paI;lini. Often the condition amounts to a restriction on which suffixes may
be used with a particular root in particular meanings. For example, the
Here the past active participle is used. For further examples and for suffixes mentioned in Pi!. 3.1.145-147 carry the restriction iilpini, "when
examples of past passive participles in the explanation of krt formations, an artisan is being referred to," and as a result words such as nartaka,
see Section 1.32.4. "dancer," and gathaka or gayana, "singer," should be used only when
speaking of professional dancers and singers, and not when speaking of
just anyone who happens to dance or sing. Such restrictions of meaning
1.30.2 vartamiine
are not usually reflected in the analyses offered by commentators; although
Specification of present meaning is necessary only for formations that by ; they may often refer to the rule that lays down such a restriction, they will
more general rules would otherwise have past or future meaning. By far the ,I generally be content with the usual formula of analysis-gayatfti gayana~,
most common instance is the assignment of present meaning to the "past , etc.
passive participle." When this occurs the commentator wil1 either use the : Some more general conditions of meaning, however, are regularly in-
usual formula for the analysis of a krt suffix used karmalJi (Section 1.29.2). 'f corporated in the fonnulas of analysis used by commentators. By far the
or will gloss the item with a . most frequently encountered of these is the specification tac-chf/a (i.e., tat-
if/a). "having that (action) as one's nature or habit, characterized by that
Ragh.M. 5.2 srilyata iti sruta,!, vedasiistram it is heard, thus irota, (actiVity)," a condition that applies throughout a lengthy sequence of rules
the Vedic scripture in PaI;lini (3.2.134-3.2.179) and in some other rules as well. For example,
58 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.32. Accompanying words (upapada) 59

the word satya-vildi, "truth-speaking" (an upapada compound; see Sec- word in another meaning (viz., as the technical term for suffixes of pri-
tion 1.32), may be used accurately in reference to a man who habitually Or mary derivation). It is therefore not possible to ana}yze the compound as
characteristically speaks the truth, even if he does not happen to be speak- a straightforward tatpuru~a compound using the same words that make up
ing at the moment, but it may not be used accurately in referring to an the compound, since one cannot say *mantrlil}iiJTl krt, as one could say, for
habitual liar, even if he happens to be speaking the truth at the moment. example, mantrilnil,!, sra~til in analyzing the genitive tatpuru~a compound
In explaining formations involving this condition of meaning, some mantra-sraHil. Instead the analysis of an upapada compound is usually
commentators simply supply Par,tini's specification tac-chfla after a finite achieved by analyzing the krt formation at the end of the compound with
verb giving the general meaning of the fcOllation: the standard formulas used for uncompounded krt formations and exhibit-
ing the rrpapada separately in the case that indicates its relationship to the
Ragh.H. 2.3 dayiilui} dayate tac-chila!) compassionate-he has action expressed by the verbal form in that formula, rather than its rela-
compassion, one who is characterized by that tionship to a noun that expresses the sense of the final member of the com-
pound:
Much more frequently, commentators follow the model of Par,tini's
specification by glossing the formation with a word in which -Sfla is placed Ragb.M. 1.61 mantriin krtaviin mantra-krt One who has made
in compound with a verbal noun denoting the action in question. mantras-a mantra-maker

Ragh.M 4.85 ji~l}ur jaya·Sfla~ victorious characterized by victory

When, however, a compound ends with a lqt formation for which .the
Ragh.M. 2. 72 sahi~l}uJ:t ... sahana-sflaf:l forbearing ... rules of Par,tini provide a derivation as an independent word and do not
characterized by forbearance restrict it to use in compound with an upapada, we have a regular tatpuru~a
compound, and a commentator may thus analyze the krt formation in the
Kum.M.l.23 sthiti-if[aJ}sthiivarii!J §aiIa·vrk~fdayaJ:l characterized by usual way outside the compound, and then analyze the compound itself as
standing still-stationary things, mountains, trees, etc. a straightforward tatpuru~a:

Slightly different formulas may be used when the krt formation being Ragh.M. 2.3 dharantfti dhara!). ... payasa,!, dhara!) paya-dhariii}
analyzed occurs at the end of a compound (Section 1.32.5). stanaf! they bear (something), thus bearers. ... bearers of
milk-milk-bearers, breasts

1.32 Accompanying words (npapada)

Occasionally it may not be clear which interpretation of a given com-
Many lqt formations occur only at the end of nominal compounds when pound is more appropriate:
expressing a given sense, and thus cannot be used in that sense without
a subordinate word (upapada) accompanying them as the first member of Kum.M. 1.20 jiiniititijiiaf!.... vedaniiniilJIjiiaJ.l [vedanii-jfia?z). athavii
the compound. To take as an example the formation that has proVided" He knows, thus a knower. . ,. a knower
vedaniif!l janiitfti vedanii-jiiaJ.l.
the name for the entire class of primary compounds, the word krt itself, .~ of pain [3 pain-knower], Or: he knows pain, thus a pain~knower.
formed from the root kr, "to do, to make," occurs at the end of compounds .
in the sense of "who has done or made (something)"--e.g., mantra-krt, For upapada compounds in which the krt suffix is used bMve, i.e., in
"one who has made mantras." The word krt is not available in this mean- the sense of the verbal action, the only way of analyzing the compound
ing outside such compounds, although it does appear as an uncompounded in non-technical language is to substitute a freestanding synonym for the
60 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.32. Accompanying words (upapada) 61

krt formation and proceed with the standard analysis for a tatpuru~a com- j Ragh.M. 1.85 mahfrJ1. kJiyate f~!a iti mahf-ksit. tasya mahi.ksitah He
pound (usually a genitive tatpuru~a, with the first member displayed in rules~ontrols-the earth, thus earth-ruler. Of hiJIl, of the eartJ,-~uler.
the objective genitive case in the analysis), just as the substitution of a
synonym is the usual way of explaining uncompounded bhiive krt forma- Kum. v: 5.22 mahlintam utk!~.tam arhatfti mahfrha bahudhana it
tions (Section 1.28). For example, Pii 3.1.108 prescribes the formation ? deserves a great (price)-a high (price), thus costly, worth much money
of the noun hatyti, "the action of killing," from the verbal root han, pro-
As in the analysis of uncompounded forms, relative pronouns may be
vided that the form is accompanied in compound by an upapada. The
used to avoid the use of iti. Compare the following two analyses:
compound brahma-hatyti means "the killing of a brahmin," and is analyzed'
as a straightforward genitive tatpuru~a compound-brahmallo hananam- Kum.M. 2.51 sena'!1 nayariti senti-nfS camii-pati(l ... ta'!l senii-nyam.
with the substitution ofthe verbal noun hananam for hatyti. Because hatya He leads an army. thus anny-Ieader, general ... [we wish to create] him,
cannot occur without an upapada, the analysis *brahmal}o hatyii is impos-':; [we wish to create] an army-leader.
s i b l e . !
Most upapada compounds, however, do not involve bhiive krt forma- Kum. V 2.51 sena'!! nayari yas ta'!! senii-nyam who leads an army,
tions as their final member, and are therefore analyzed with formulas us- him-an army leader
ing finite verbs. The most common situation is a kartari krt formation as ,j
the final member (i.e., a formation referring to the agent, Section 1.29.1), 1.32.2 kartari krt with non-accusative
with an upapada appearing in the accusative case in the analysis (Sec-
When the first member of the upapada compound does not refer to the
tion 1.32.1), but the upapada may also appear in some other case (Sec-
direct object of the verbal action involved in the second member, it will
tion 1.32.2), and many other compounds have a krt formation in the sense
appear in the analysis in some Case other than the accusative.
of some other karaka as the final member (Section 1.32.3). Krt forma-
tions that appear at the end of upapada compounds, like those functioning Kum.M. 1.50 kamena svecchaya caratiti kiima-caral} he roams at'
as freestanding words, may involve temporal restrictions (Section 1.32.4) will-at his own desire-thus roaming-at-will
or other conditions of meaning (Section 1.32.5), which will sometimes re- .~
quire formulas of analysis that differ slightly from those used in analyzing' Kum.M. 3.37 palikaj jayata iti parika-jam it is born from the mud,
uncompounded krt formations. thus mud-born

RaghM. 4.72 guhasu serata iti guhii-sayiil} they lie in caves, thus
1.32.1 kartari krt with accusative cave-lying

Most upapada compounds have as their final member a krt formation re- This class of compounds includes many in which the first member re-
ferring to the agent of the action expressed by the verbal root to which the tains its case ending within the compound, a phenomenon that does not
krt suffix is added, and as their first member a word referring to the direct affect the basic formula of analysis:
object of that action. These compounds are analyzed by displaying the first
member in the accusative case, and using the standard kartari krt formula Ragh.M. 5.72 stambe ramanta iti stambe-ramii/;l hasti~~ they
(Section 1.29.1) in analyzing the final member. delight in a clump of grass, thus stambe-ramas, elephants

Kum.M. 1.10 vane carantiti vane-carii/;l kiriitii~ they roam in the

Ragh.M. 2.71 hutam a.1niitfti hutfSo 'gniJ:l it eats the oblation, thus the
forest, thus forest-roamers, mountain tribesmen
oblation·eater, fire
 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation 1.32. Accompanying words (upapada) 63
62

Ragh.M. 1.23 piira·drsvana~ ptiram anta1J1 dr~!avataJ:1 limit-seers

1.32.3 krt in the sense of another kiiraka
who have seen the limit, the extremity
When the krt formation appearing as the final member of an upapada com-
pound is p;ssive, the standard formula for the analysis of a karma'}i k,t for- 1 The past passive participle may appear instead, when the verb is pas-
mation (Section 1.29.2) is used, and the upapada isexhlblled III the case , sive or has a "past passive participle" with active meaning. As in other
needed to express its connection with the verbal aClIon. In the followlllg upapada compounds, in the analysis of compounds involving intransitive
example the upapada refers to the instrument, and thus appears III the Ill- krt formations the upapada may appear in some case other than the ac-
strumental case. cusative.
Kum. V 1.10 tailena puryanta iti taila-piiral). they are filled with oil, Ragh.M. 5.69 sarasi jiitaf;. sarasi-jalJ kama/af:!. born in the
thus oil-filled water~water-bom lotus

The krt formation may have the sense of any of the other karakas as Ragh.M.1.31 magadha-va'!lsejatti magadha-va'!lia-jii born in the
well, and'for each the standard formula of analysis described for uncom- Magadha dynasty~Magadha·dynasty-born
pounded k,t formations (Section 1.29) will be used, with the upapada ap- .
pearin" in whatever case is appropriate to connect it wllh the verbal aclIon. Ragh.M. 1.85 tfrthfbhi~eke~a jiitii,!, firthfbhi~eka-jiim produced by
In the Ofallowing example, the krt suffix forming the final member of the bathing in the sacred ford-sacred-ford-bathing-produced
compound is used kara'}e, in the sense of the instrument (Section 1.29.3),
and the upapada refers to the object of the aclIon. Slllce a passIve verb IS
used in the analysis, the upapada shows up in the nominative case. 1.32.5 Other conditions of meaning

Ragh.M.3.10 pumiin suyate 'nenitipuTflsavanam a male is produced As with uncompounded k,t formations, the most common condition, of
meaning applied to k,t formations in upapada compounds is that of tiicchllya,
by means of this, thus a male·producing (rite)
"having that as one's characteristic or habitual action" (Section 1.31). H'!w-
ever, if the compounds ending in -§fla that are used to gloss uncompounded
1.32.4 Temporal restrictions krt formations are to used in glossing upapada compounds then one must
As in uncompounded krt formations, restrictions of the time referred to include the upapada as the first member of the compound gloss, or, if the
may apply, the most common instance being restriclIonto past lIme (S~c­ upapada has been exhibited separately in order to make a remark, one must
tion 1.30.1). These are ordinarily glossed wllh a past acave partIcIple, WIth either include the upapada in the compound gloss or use tat- as a substitute
which the particle iti is not strictly necessary, and may be either included for it there:
or omitted.
Ragh.M. 1.3 kavi-yaialJ-prarthf. kavrniiJ!l yasa/:t kiivya·ninnti!lena
Ragh.M.3.62 vrtra1Jl hataviin iti vrtro-hii he has slain Vftra, thus jiita'J'l tat-prtirthanti-sflaf;.. Seeking the fame of poets: the fame of
V~tra-slayer poets, produced by the making of poetry-characterized by the seeking of
it.
Kum. V 6.3 smaraYJ1sasitaviin smara-§iisanal;t who has chastised
Smara-the Smara-chastiser More commonly, such upapada compounds are analyzed by using the
Kum. v: 1.19 pak~tlJ?ls chinnavlin it; pak~a-cchit he has clipped the infinitive of the verb in question, with the upapada as a separate object in
the accusative, followed by iflam asya, "whose nature it is to ... ," and iti.
wings, thus wing-clipper
64 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation i.34. irregular forms (nipatana) 65
Ragh.M. 1.43 sva-niJ:t.svasam anukartLIf!l srlam asyeti Most participles are simply glossed with participles of the same form
sva~niJ:tsvii.sanukiiril}am whose nature it is to imitate their own breath, from a root of eq~ivalent meaning.
thus imitating their own breath
Ragh.M. 12.74 ia1!Jsatr bruvQ':lQ indicating telling
Ragh.M. 1.49 samidhas ca kustif!ls co phallini cfhartuJ!1 sf/am ye~am
iti
sarnit-kusa-phalfhartiJ:t., toif! samit-kusa-phaliharai/;r whose nature it is Ragh.M. 11.10 uhyamiina iva vahanena priipyamiilJa iva as if being
to bring fuel, kusa grass, and fruits-bringers of fuel. kusa grass, and carried along as if being transported by a vehicle
fruits; by them, by bringers of fuel, kusa grass, and fruit
The same procedure is followed in general for a past passive participle,
Other conditions of meaning are analyzed with formulas dependent but other synonyms of different form are chosen if the participle is used
upon the specification of meaning provided in the rules of PaI)ini. For with active meaning, with present meaning, or in the sense of the verbal
example, the suffix -in that is prescribed with the condition tticchllye for action itself (bhtive).
compounds such as svani!rsvtisanuktirin in the example given above (by
pa. 3.2.78) is prescribed in the sense of the agent with the condition kartary Ragh.M. 3.5 iidrta iidrtaviin with respect having felt respect
upamtine, "when (the upapada) is (another) agent serving as a standard of
comparison" for some other compounds (by Pa. 3.2.79). Such compounds Ragh.M. 12.75 Iajjitii lajjtivatf embarrassed with embarrassment
will be glossed by exhibiting the upapada in the nominative case, followed Kum.M. 4.17 upagiifjhiini iilinganiini embraces embracings
by iva and the standard formula for the analysis of a kartari krt formation
(Section 1.29.1): Gerundives are analyzed with several formulas designed to bring out
the speCIfic meaning of the participle in the context, most often by using
Ragh.M 4.4 dvirada iva . .. gacchatfti dvirada-giimi he walks ... like other gerundives together with infinitive forms, but sometimes with Com-
an elephant, thus walking like an elephant pounds beginning with verbal nouns.

By a subsequent rule (Pa. 3.2.83), the same suffix can be added to the Ragh.M. 1. 71 asahyii sotlhum asakya unbearahle unable to be bobe
root man, "to consider," in the sense of an agent when accompanied by an
upapada, with the condition of meaning titma-mtine (considering oneself Ragh.M. 1.86 ytiyayitu,!, yogya'!'ytijyam worthy of sponsoring a
to be so). Accordingly, the formula of analysis for such compounds adds sacrifice-fit for sacrificing
the object titmtinam: ., Ragh.M. 4.6 stutyam stotrfirham praiseworthy deserving praise
Kasikfi 3.2.83 darsanfyam iitmiinaY!l manyate ... da,.sanfya-miinf he ~~
Ragh.M. 1.3 upahasyatiim upahiisa-vi~ayatiim being laughable
considers himself good-looking ... (thus,) considering himself being an object of laughter
good-looking

1.34 Irregular forms (nipiitana)

1.33 Verbal participles
:11 Formations that diverge from the general rules of the class to which they
The category of krt formations includes verbal participles, which are treated :I belong, either lD thelf meaning or in their form, are often singled out by
in several ways by commentators. ~ the grammanans for an explicit individual specification of the formation
66 Chapter 6. Primary Nominal Derivation

as irregular (nipiitana). Such words are said to be nipiitita, "set down."

Commentators frequently mention the rules specifying these forms, and
explain them either with simple synonyms or with a formula of analysis
based on the meaning of the form rather than on the general formula for the
class to which the form belongs. The following are examples of irregular
gerundives: Chapter 7
Kum. v: 3.18 bhavya eva bhavitaiva. ... bhavya-sabdaJ:! kanari
nipatitaJ:!. is surely to be will certainly be. '" The word bhavya is set Secondary Nominal Derivation
down as an irregular form (by Pa9-ini 3.4.68) in the sense of the agent
(rather than in the sense of the object, as one would expect).

Ragh.M. 11.8 bhinatti kii/am iti bhidya~. "bhidy6ddyau nade" (Pii~ini

3.1.115) iti kyab-antau niptititau. It bursts its bank, thus a rushing 1.35 Introduction
river. By Pa~ini 3.].115 (the words bhidya and uddya) are set down as
irregular gerundive forms (with active meaning, rather than passive The formations called taddhita or taddhitanta ("ending in taddhita suf-
fixes," Pa. 4.1.76-5.4.160; "secondary derivatives," Whitney 1202-1245)
meaning as one would expect).
are the nominal stems derived through the addition of suffixes to other nom-
Kum.M. 3.57 an~avadyam a-garhyam. "avadya-paflya~" iti nipata(z. inal stems. In general terms the category of taddhita suffixes includes all
uncensurable not deserving of censure. By Pa:r:tini 3.1.101 (the word suffixes added directly to nominal stems with the exception of the suffixes
avadya) is set down as an irregular form (in the meaning "censurable," used to form denominative verbs (Section 1.26), the strf suffixes (which
although the regular form in other senses of the word is anudya). convert nominal stems to the feminine gender) and the sup suffixes (the
inflectional endings of nouns).
Most of the formulas used to analyze taddhita formations are taken
directly from P~ini's specifications of the meanings for each suffix. In
Pa~ini's rules the nominal stem to which a suffix may be added is generally
represented by the pronoun tat or an equivalent, and the analysis of any
particular formation simply substitutes the noun that serves as the base
in that formation for the form of tat prescribed by PiiI)ini. To take as an
example the me"lning that has given the taddhita class of suffixes its name,
Pa. 5.1.5 states "tasmai hitam," "good for that, beneficial to that," and any
formation derived by the addition of a suffix added to a base to produce
a word with this meaning can be analyzed by exhibiting the base in the
dative case, followed by the word "hita":

KiiSika 5.1.5 vatsebhyo hito (go-dhuk) vatSijla~ beneficial to

calves-(a dairyman) good to calves

67
68 Chapter 7. Secondary Nominal Derivation 1.36. Dependentformulas ofanalysis 69

Kasik§. 5.1.10 sarvasmai hilam siirvam beneficial to all-good for all (instrumental)

Formulas of this type may be called dependent formulas of analysis kulii/ena krtam-kauliilakam "made by a pattir"
(Section 1.36). Other formulas that follow the specifications of Plil)ini in
dadnti sQ,!/skrram--dadhikam "prepared with yogurt"
precisely the same way are those in which the base to which the suffix is
added is exhibited in the genitive case (Section 1.37), in the nominative nilvii ttiryam-niivyam "crossable by boat"
case (Section 1.38), or as the first member of a nominal compound (Sec-
tion 1.39). Important subdivisions of taddhita suffixes are the possessive (dative)
suffixes (matvarthfya, Section lAO), the suffixes that have the force of par-
iitmane hita!z-iitmanfna!;t "good for oneself'
ticular case endings (vibhaktisaf!ljfiaka, Section 1.41), and the suffixes that
produce formations referring to the same object as the base to which the gave hitam-gavyam "good for a cow"
suffix is added (sviirthika, Section 1.42).
As in other categories of grammatical complexes (cf. Sections 1.20, (ablative)
1.34), some particular taddhita formations are individually specified by
nyiiyiid anapetam-nyiiyyam "not deviating from the law"
Plil)ini as exceptional forms (nipiita), rather than being derived through
more general rules. Such specification is called nipiitana by the com- manor jiita~-manu~yal} "born from Manu, human"
mentators, and the words so specified are said to be nipiitita. Typically
they involve either unusual forms or, more often, very specific meanings, vidu~al:z f~an-nyana~-vidvatkalpal} "slightly less than learned, Le.,
that could not be known from the general rules for the suffixes with which fairly learned" (cf. Section 1.42.3), Section 2.19.3
they are formed. For example, the word va0in, although made by adding
(genitive)
the possessive suffix -in (called in! by Plil)ini) to the noun va0a, has the
very specific meaning of a member of the first va0a or social class, i.e., a fifor bhiiva~-faiSavam "the state of a child, childhood"
brahmaciirin or student. Ihis meaning is specified in Pli. 5.2.134, "After
va0a in the sense of a brahmaciirin," in the section of his rules dealing P!thor bhiival:z-piirthavam "the state of being wide, wideness"
with this suffix.
kti~.thasya vikiiral:z-kii~.thamayam modification of wood, wooden
Ragh.M. 5.19 van}f brahmaca.rf. "van:zino brahmacari'.la~" ity amaraJ:z.
gaviif!l samaha~-gotrii collection of cows, herd of cattle"
"varniid brahmactiriIJi" itfni·pratyayaJ:z. A van.rin a brahmaciin'n.
Amara says "van:zins are brahmaca.rins." The suffix inl by (Pa. 5.2.134) miitul:z bhriitii-miitural} "mother's brother, materal uncle"
"After van:za in the sense of a brahmacarin."
riijfiiif!l yogyaf!l-riijanyakam "appropriate for kings"

1.36 Dependent formulas of analysis (note the use of ayam in the following genitive examples:)

devasyayam-daiva!J "this is a god's, belonging to a god"

In these the suffix is treated as though it were the second member of a
dependent tatpuru~a compound. Thus in the analysis the word to which janasyayam-janakfyal} "this is the people's, belonging to the people"
the suffix is added is placed in whatever case is required by its relation to
the word expressing the meaning of the suffix:
70 Chapter 7. Secondary Nominal Derivation 1.36. Dependent formulas of analysis 71

(locative) 1.36.2 Instrumental

Where the other oblique cases are involved, the formulas are akin to those
atithi~u sadhu(i.-iititheyal} "good toward guests, hospitable"
used in analyzing case-tatpuruJas.

sabhtiyiifJl sadhuJ:i.-sabhyaIJ "good in the court, polite" Kum.M. 3.64 pataftgena tulya1'(l patangavat salahhavat . .. "tena
tulyarJl kriya ced vatiJ:l " iti vati-pratyayaJ:i.. equivalent to a moth
u~.tre bhavafi--au~trakal;t "relating to a camel" moth-like like a moth ... The suffix vatl by (Pa~ini 5.1.115) "There is
(the suffix) vatl in the meaning of 'like this,' if an action is referred to."
grf~me bhavafi--gra~makalJ "produced in summer"
Ragh.M.4.31 navya naubhis tarya nadf~ navigable erossable by
kuru~u jiital:t-kauravakal) "born among the Kurus" boats rivers

1.36.1 Accusative 1.36.3 Dative

When the word to which the suffix is added is displayed in the accusative Kir.M. 13.69 atmane hiram iitmaninam.
case in the analysis, the formula used is like that employed in analyzing "atma-visva-jana-bhogottarapadiit khaf:i.." beneficial to oneself good
for oneself. By (Pa. 5.1.9) "(The suffix) kha (i.e., -rna) after atman, viiva,
upapada compounds (Sections 1.32, 1.59):
jana, and a word ending in bhoga."

vyiikarartam adhfta iti vaiyiikara1JalJ "he studies grammar, thus Sisu.M.1.41 vi.§vasmaijaniiya hitarrz visvajanfnam.
grammarian" "litma-visva-jana-bhogottarapadiit khal.z." beneficial for all people
good for all people. By (Pa. 5.1.9) "(The suffix) kha (i.e., -rna) after
dharmalfl caratiti dharmikal} "he practises righteousness, thus litman, visva, jana, and a word ending in bhoga."
righteous"
Sisu.M. 14.4 he slina sarvahitatvat slirvaf:i., tatsambodhane.
"sarva-puru~iibhyiiTJ'l ~a~~hafiau." 0 (you who are) good for all
And this formula may be used with the first element in other cases as well: good-far-all because of being beneficial for all; (the vocative) in
addressing that. (The suffix is by Pa. 5.1.10) "After sanJa and puru:5a there
urjupena taratity au~upika!J "he crosses by boat, thus boatman" are (the suffixes) f:/a and ifhaN (i.e., -a and -eya, respectively)."

Examples from the commentaries:

1.36.4 Ablative

Ragh.M. 1.25 da~ifam arhantfti da~ifyii~. "da~ifddibhyo yat" iti Kum.M. 1.26 abhijanlid iigatena iibhijanena come from a good
ya-pratyayaJ:i. .... tlin da'.'r!yiin They deserve punishment, thus family of good family
punishable. The suffix -ya by (Pa~ini 5.1.36) "(The suffix) yaT after Kum. V. 5.29 1M 30J brahma~a iigatam brahmamayam, tena
da!/-rja, etc." .... Those criminals. [brahmamayenaJ vedotthena tejasii coming from brahma brahmanic,
with that [brahmaniel-arising from the Vedas-splendor
72 Chapter 7. Secondary Nominal Derivation 1.36. Dependentformulas of analysis 73

Ragh.M. 4.4 pitur ligatQ/?t pitryam. "pitur yat" iti yat-pratyayaJ:z.. Ragh.M. 1.20 "prak" ity avyayena purva-janmocyate. tatra bhavtif;,
si,!"hiisanam coming from the father paternal-the suffix yaT (i.e., priiktaniiJ:z. "sayaf!1-ciraTJ1- "ity-iidina .tyul-pratyayaly,. By the
-ya) by (Pa. 4.3.79) "yaT after pitr (in the sense of coming from indeclinable priik ("before") a fonner lifetime is r~ferred to. Pertaining to
than-throne. that former. The suffix .tyuL (i.e., -ana, before which -t- is inserted) by
(Pa. 4.3.23) "after siiyam, ciram, ...."
Ragh.M.5.9 janapadebhya agatairjiinapadailJ. "tata ligata" ity a~.
ka{ialigarfyai!J with country from the country-the suffix al! by Ragh.M. 1.36 priivT:ji bhavaly, pravT:jel}yaly,. "pravT:ja el}yall" ity
(Pa. 4.3.74) "come from that"-straw erya-pratyayaJ;,. tam priivr~e1}yam. Occurring in the
monsoon-monsoonal. The suffix -el}ya by (Pa. 4.3.17) "el}ya after
Ragh.M. 1.60 daivfnii,!, devebhya agattintiY!l durbhik~adfnam, priivT:ja (in the sense of OCCurring in that)." That monsoonaL
miinu~lfuj1J1 manu~yebhya agatiinti'!l caura-bhayiidfniim. ubhayatrapi
"tata iigataJ:t" ity Q?!. "!i¢-¢hQ1}-an- "ity-adinii nfp. tipadiim of Ragh.M. 1.88 vane bhavaf!1 vanya1!l kanda-mulildikam occurring in
disasters (both) divine coming from the gods, such as famine, and the forest forest (food), such as bulbs and roots.
human coming from humans, such as the danger of theft. In both there is
Kum.M. 3.23 haimavatam himavati bhavam. Himalayan occurring
the suffix at:lby (Pa. 4.3.74) "come from that." There is (the feminine
in the Himalaya.
suffix) NIP (i.e., -0 by (Pa. 4.1.15).

Kum. V. 2.3 arthad anapetli acalitli arthyii anadhyaropitfinhaly,. When the relevant rule of Pal)ini specifies any special condition of mean-
"dharma-pathy-artha-nyayad anapete." not deviating-not ing (called an upiidhi), the commentator will include that specification in
moving-from the facts factual without hyperbole. (The suffix -ya is analyzing the fonnation. Here, for example, are two refinements on the
added by Pa. 4.4.92) "After dharma, pathin, artha, and nyiiya in the sense tatra bhavam fonnula;
of not deviating."
Ragh.M. 2.70 priisthiinikalJl prasthiina-ka/e bhavam. tat-kii16citam ity
Kum.M.2.2 arthad anapetiibhi~ arthyiibhi~. artha-yuktiibhir ity arthaJ;,. "kiila! !han" iti !haii-pratyayaJ;,. pertaining to starting a
arthaly,. "dharma-pathy-anha-nyayad anapete" iti yat-pratyayaly,. not journey occurring on the occasion of starting a journey; i.e., appropriate
deviating from meaning meaningful provided with meaning. (The suffix for that occasion. The suffix !haN (i.e., -ika, by Pa. 4.3.11) "(The suffix)
-ya is added by Pa. 4.4.92) "After dharma, pathin, artha, and nyiiya in the .thaN after (a word referring to) an occasion."
sense of not deviating."
Ragh.M.5.15 iira1}yakii aral}ye bhavii manu:jyii muni-pramukhiiJ;,.
Ragh.M. 2.55 nyiiyyii nyiiyii anapetii. yuktety artha~. "aral}yan manu~e" iti vuii-pratyayaJ;,. wilderness peoplehumans
dharma-pathy-anhfidina yat-pratyayaly,. lawful not deviating from the occurring in the wilderness, such as sages. The suffix vuN (i.e., -aka) by
law; i.e., proper. The suffix yaT by (Pa. 4.4.92.) "After dharma, pathin, (Pa. 4.2.129) "After ararya when referring to humans."
artha, ... ."
Another common locative fonnula is tatra siidhub, "good in that, good at
that." ,

1.36.5 Locative
Ragh.M. 1.55 sabhiiyii,!, siidhava~ sabhyii~. "sabhiiyii ya~" iti
Perhaps the most common locative fonnula of analysis is tatra bhavam, ya-pratyayah. Good at court courteous. The suffix -ya by (Pa. 4.4.105)
"occurring in that, pertaining to that." "(The suffix) -ya after sabhii."
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 CURRIED SWEETBREADS.

Wash and soak them as usual, then throw them into boiling water
with a little salt in it, and a whole onion, and let them simmer for ten
minutes; or, if at hand, substitute weak veal broth for the water. Lift
them out, place them on a drainer, and leave them until they are
perfectly cold; then cut them into half-inch slices, and either flour and
fry them lightly in butter, or put them, without this, into as much
curried gravy as will just cover them; stew them in it very gently, from
twenty to thirty minutes; add as much lemon-juice or chili vinegar as
will acidulate the sauce agreeably,[97] and serve the currie very hot.
As we have already stated in two or three previous receipts, an
ounce or more of sweet freshly-grated cocoa-nut, stewed tender in
the gravy, and strained from it, before the sweetbreads are added,
will give a peculiarly pleasant flavour to all curries.
97. We find that a small portion of Indian pickled mango, or of its liquor, is an
agreeable addition to a currie as well as to mullagatawny soup.

Blanched 10 minutes; sliced (fried or not); stewed 20 to 30

minutes.
 CURRIED OYSTERS.

“Let a hundred of large sea-oysters be opened into a basin without

losing one drop of their liquor. Put a lump of fresh butter into a good-
sized saucepan, and when it boils, add a large onion, cut into thin
slices, and let it fry in the uncovered stewpan until it is of a rich
brown: now add a bit more butter, and two or three tablespoonsful of
currie-powder. When these ingredients are well mixed over the fire
with a wooden spoon, add gradually either hot water, or broth from
the stock-pot; cover the stewpan, and let the whole boil up.
Meanwhile, have ready the meat of a cocoa-nut, grated or rasped
fine, put this into the stewpan with a few sour tamarinds (if they are
to be obtained, if not, a sour apple, chopped). Let the whole simmer
over the fire until the apple is dissolved, and the cocoa-nut very
tender; then add a cupful of strong thickening made of flour and
water, and sufficient salt, as a currie will not bear being salted at
table. Let this boil up for five minutes. Have ready also, a vegetable
marrow, or part of one, cut into bits, and sufficiently boiled to require
little or no further cooking. Put this in with a tomata or two; either of
these vegetables may be omitted. Now put into the stewpan the
oysters with their liquor, and the milk of the cocoa-nut, if it be
perfectly sweet; stir them well with the former ingredients; let the
currie stew gently for a few minutes, then throw in the strained juice
of half a lemon. Stir the currie from time to time with a wooden
spoon, and as soon as the oysters are done enough serve it up with
a corresponding dish of rice on the opposite side of the table. The
dish is considered at Madras the ne plus ultra of Indian cookery.”[98]
98. Native oysters, prepared as for sauce, may be curried by the receipt for eggs
or sweetbreads, with the addition of their liquor.

We have extracted this receipt, as it stands, from the Magazine of

Domestic Economy, the season in which we have met with it not
permitting us to have it tested. Such of our readers as may have
partaken of the true Oriental preparation, will be able to judge of its
correctness; and others may consider it worthy of a trial. We should
suppose it necessary to beard the oysters.
 CURRIED GRAVY.

The quantity of onion, eschalot, or garlic used for a currie should

be regulated by the taste of the persons for whom it is prepared; the
very large proportions of them which are acceptable to some eaters,
preventing others altogether from partaking of the dish. Slice, and fry
gently in a little good butter, from two to six large onions (with a bit of
garlic, and four or five eschalots, or none of either), when they are
coloured equally of a fine yellow-brown, lift them on to a sieve
reversed to drain; put them into a clean saucepan, add a pint and a
half of good gravy, with a couple of ounces of rasped cocoa-nut, or
of any of the other condiments we have already specified, which may
require as much stewing as the onions (an apple or two, for
instance), and simmer them softly from half to three quarters of an
hour, or until the onion is sufficiently tender to be pressed through a
strainer. We would recommend that for a delicate currie this should
always be done; for a common one it is not necessary; and many
persons prefer to have the whole of it left in this last. After the gravy
has been worked through the strainer, and again boils, add to it from
three to four dessertspoonsful of currie-powder, and one of flour, with
as much salt as the gravy may require, the whole mixed to a smooth
batter with a small cupful of good cream.[99] Simmer it from fifteen
to twenty minutes, and it will be ready for use. Lobster, prawns,
shrimps, maccaroni, hard-boiled eggs, cold calf’s head, and various
other meats may be heated and served in it with advantage. For all
of these, and indeed for every kind of currie, acid of some sort
should be added. Chili vinegar answers well when no fresh lemon-
juice is at hand.
99. This must be added only just before the currie is dished, when any acid fruit
has been boiled in the gravy: it may then be first blended with a small portion
of arrow-root, or flour.

Onions, 2 to 6 (garlic, 1 clove, or eschalots, 4 to 5, or neither);

fried a light brown. Gravy, 1-1/2 pint; cocoa-nut, 2 oz. (3, if very
young): 1/2 to 3/4 hour. Currie-powder, 3 to 4 dessertspoonsful; flour,
1 dessertspoonful; salt, as needed; cream, 1 small cupful: 15 to 20
minutes.
Obs.-In India, curds are frequently added to curries, but that may
possibly be from their abounding much more than sweet cream in so
hot a climate.
 POTTED MEATS.

Any tender and well-roasted meat, taken free of fat, skin, and
gristle, as well as from the dry outsides, will answer for potting
admirably, better indeed than that which is generally baked for the
purpose, and which is usually quite deprived of its juices by the
process. Spiced or corned beef also is excellent when thus
prepared; and any of these will remain good a long time if mixed with
cold fresh butter, instead of that which is clarified; but no addition
that can be made to it will render the meat eatable, unless it be
thoroughly pounded; reduced, in fact, to the smoothest possible
paste, free from a single lump or a morsel of unbroken fibre. If rent
into fragments, instead of being quite cut through the grain in being
minced, before it is put into the mortar, no beating will bring it to the
proper state. Unless it be very dry, it is better to pound it for some
time before any butter is added, and it must be long and patiently
beaten after all the ingredients are mixed, that the whole may be
equally blended and well mellowed in flavour.
The quantity of butter required will depend upon the nature of the
meat; ham and salted beef will need a larger proportion than roast
meat, or than the breasts of poultry and game; white fish, from being
less dry, will require comparatively little. Salmon, lobsters, prawns,
and shrimps are all extremely good, prepared in this way. They
should, however, be perfectly fresh when they are pounded, and be
set immediately afterwards into a very cool place. For these, and for
white meats in general, mace, nutmeg, and cayenne or white
pepper, are the appropriate spices. A small quantity of cloves may
be added to hare and other brown meat, but allspice we would not
recommend unless the taste is known to be in favour of it. The
following receipt for pounding ham will serve as a general one for the
particular manner of proceeding.
 POTTED HAM.[100]

100. See Baked Ham, Chapter XIII., page 258.

(An excellent Receipt.)

To be eaten in perfection this should be made with a freshly cured
ham, which, after having been soaked for twelve hours, should be
wiped dry, nicely trimmed, closely wrapped in coarse paste, and
baked very tender. When it comes from the oven, remove the crust
and rind, and when the ham is perfectly cold, take for each pound of
the lean, which should be weighed after every morsel of skin and
fibre has been carefully removed, six ounces of cold roast veal,
prepared with equal nicety. Mince these quite fine with an
exceedingly sharp knife, taking care to cut through the meat, and not
to tear the fibre, as on this much of the excellence of the preparation
depends. Next put it into a large stone or marble mortar, and pound it
to the smoothest paste with eight ounces of fresh butter, which must
be added by degrees. When three parts beaten, strew over it a
teaspoonful of freshly-pounded mace, half a large, or the whole of a
small nutmeg grated, and the third of a teaspoonful of cayenne well
mixed together. It is better to limit the spice to this quantity in the first
instance, and to increase afterwards either of the three kinds to the
taste of the parties to whom the meat is to be served.[101] We do
not find half a teaspoonful of cayenne, and nearly two teaspoonsful
of mace, more than is generally approved. After the spice is added,
keep the meat often turned from the sides to the middle of the
mortar, that it may be seasoned equally in every part. When perfectly
pounded, press it into small potting-pans, and pour clarified
butter[102] over the top. If kept in a cool and dry place, this meat will
remain good for a fortnight, or more.
101. Spice, it must be observed, varies so very greatly in its quality that discretion
is always necessary in using it.

102. This should never be poured hot on the meat: it should be less than milk-
warm when added to it.
 Lean of ham, 1 lb.; lean of roast veal, 6 oz.; fresh butter, 8 oz.;
mace, from 1 to 2 teaspoonsful; 1/2 large nutmeg; cayenne, 1/4 to
1/2 teaspoonful.
Obs.—The roast veal is ordered in this receipt because the ham
alone is generally too salt; for the same reason butter, fresh taken
from the churn, or that which is but slightly salted and quite new,
should be used for it in preference to its own fat. When there is no
ready-dressed veal in the house, the best part of the neck, roasted
or stewed, will supply the requisite quantity. The remains of a cold
boiled ham will answer quite well for potting, even when a little dry.
 POTTED CHICKEN, PARTRIDGE, OR PHEASANT.

Roast the birds as for table, but let them be thoroughly done, for if
the gravy be left in, the meat will not keep half so well. Raise the
flesh of the breast, wings, and merrythought, quite clear from the
bones, take off the skin, mince, and then pound it very smoothly with
about one third of its weight of fresh butter, or something less, if the
meat should appear of a proper consistence without the full quantity;
season it with salt, mace, and cayenne only, and add these in small
portions until the meat is rather highly flavoured with both the last;
proceed with it as with other potted meats.
 POTTED OX-TONGUE.

Boil tender an unsmoked tongue of good flavour, and the following

day cut from it the quantity desired for potting, or take for this
purpose the remains of one which has already been served at table.
Trim off the skin and rind, weigh the meat, mince it very small, then
pound it as fine as possible with four ounces of butter to each pound
of tongue, a small teaspoonful of mace, half as much of nutmeg and
cloves, and a tolerably high seasoning of cayenne. After the spices
are well beaten with the meat, taste it, and add more if required. A
few ounces of any well-roasted meat mixed with the tongue will give
it firmness, in which it is apt to be deficient. The breasts of turkeys,
fowls, partridges, or pheasants, may be used for the purpose with
good effect.
Tongue, 1 lb.; butter, 4 oz.; mace, 1 teaspoonful; nutmeg and
cloves each, 1/2 teaspoonful; cayenne, 5 to 10 grains.
 POTTED ANCHOVIES.

Scrape the anchovies very clean, raise the flesh from the bones,
and pound it to a perfect paste in a Wedgwood or marble mortar;
then with the back of a wooden spoon press it through a hair-sieve
reversed. Next, weigh the anchovies, and pound them again with
double their weight of the freshest butter that can be procured, a
high seasoning of mace and cayenne, and a small quantity of finely-
grated nutmeg; set the mixture by in a cool place for three or four
hours to harden it before it is put into the potting pans. If butter be
poured over, it must be only lukewarm; but the anchovies will keep
well for two or three weeks without. A very small portion of rose-pink
may be added to improve the colour, but unless it be sparingly used,
it will impart a bitter flavour to the preparation. The quantity of butter
can be increased or diminished in proportion as it is wished that the
flavour of the anchovies should prevail.
Anchovies pounded, 3 oz.; butter, 6 oz.; mace, third of
teaspoonful; half as much cayenne; little nutmeg.
 LOBSTER BUTTER.

(For this see page 138, Chapter VI.)

 POTTED SHRIMPS, OR PRAWNS.

(Delicious.)
Let the fish be quite freshly boiled, shell them quickly, and just
before they are put into the mortar, chop them a little with a very
sharp knife; pound them perfectly with a small quantity of fresh
butter, mace, and cayenne. (See also page 92.)
Shrimps (unshelled), 2 quarts; butter, 2 to 4 oz.; mace, 1 small
saltspoonful; cayenne, 1/3 as much.
 POTTED MUSHROOMS.

The receipt for these, which we can recommend to the reader, will
be found in the next Chapter.
 MOULDED POTTED MEAT OR FISH.

(For the second course.)

Press very closely and smoothly into a pan or mould the potted
ham, or any other meat, of the present chapter, pour a thin layer of
clarified butter on the top, and let it become quite cold. When wanted
for table, wind round it for a moment a cloth which has been dipped
into hot water, loosen the meat gently from it with a thin knife, turn it
on to a dish, and glaze it lightly; lay a border of small salad round it,
with or without a decoration of hard eggs, or surround it instead with
clear savoury jelly cut in dice. The meat, for variety, may be equally
sliced, and laid regularly round a pile of small salad. A very elegant
second course dish may be made with potted lobsters in this way,
the centre being ornamented with a small shape of lobster butter.
(See page 138.)
 POTTED HARE.

The back of a well-roasted hare,

and such other parts of the flesh as
are not sinewy, if potted by the
directions already given for ham and
other meat, will be found superior to
the game prepared as it usually is by
baking it tender either with a large
quantity of butter, or with barely
sufficient water or gravy to cover it;
but when the old-fashioned mode of
potting is preferred, it must be Wedgwood Pestle and
cleansed as for roasting, wiped dry, Mortar.
cut into joints, which, after being
seasoned with salt, cayenne (or
pepper), and pounded cloves and mace or nutmeg well mingled,
should be closely packed in a jar or deep pan, and slowly baked until
very tender, with the addition of from half to a whole pound of fresh
butter laid equally over it, in small bits, or with only so much water or
other liquid as will prevent its becoming hard: the jar must be well
covered with at least two separate folds of thick brown paper tied
closely over it. It should then be left to become perfectly cold; and
the butter (when it has been used) should be taken off and scraped
free from moisture, that it may be added to the hare in pounding it.
All skin and sinew must be carefully removed, and the flesh minced
before it is put into the mortar. Additional seasoning must be added if
necessary; but the cook must remember that all should be well
blended, and no particular spice should be allowed to predominate in
the flavour of the preparation When water or gravy has been added
to the hare, firm fresh butter should be used in potting it: it will not
require a very large proportion, as the flesh will be far less dry and
firm than when it is roasted, though more of its juices will have been
withdrawn from it; and it will not remain good so long. The bones,
gravy, head, and ribs, will make a small tureen of excellent soup.
Thick slices of lean ham are sometimes baked with the hare, and
pounded with it.
 CHAPTER XVII.

Vegetables.

The quality of vegetables depends much both on the soil in which

they are grown, and on the degree of care bestowed upon their
culture; but if produced in ever so great perfection, their excellence
will be entirely destroyed if they be badly cooked.
With the exception of artichokes, which are said to be improved by
two or three days’ keeping, all the summer varieties should be
dressed before their first freshness has in any degree passed off (for
their flavour is never so fine as within a few hours of their being cut
or gathered); but when this cannot be done, precaution should be
taken to prevent their withering. The stalk-ends of asparagus,
cucumbers, and vegetable-marrow, should be placed in from one to
two inches of cold water; and all other kinds should be spread on a
cool brick floor. When this has been neglected, they must be thrown
into cold water for some time before they are boiled to recover them,
though they will prove even then but very inferior eating.
Vegetables when not sufficiently cooked are known to be so
exceedingly unwholesome and indigestible, that the custom of
serving them crisp, which means, in reality, only half-boiled, should
be altogether disregarded when health is considered of more
importance than fashion; but they should not be allowed to remain in
the water after they are quite done, or both their nutritive properties
and their flavour will be lost, and their good appearance destroyed.
Care should be taken to drain them thoroughly in a warm strainer,
and to serve them very hot, with well-made sauces, if with any.
Only dried peas or beans, Jerusalem artichokes, and potatoes, are
put at first into cold water. All others require plenty of fast-boiling
water, which should be ready salted and skimmed before they are
thrown into it.