Low Impact Development Stormwater Management Practice Inspection and Maintenance Guide

7.4 Permeable Pavements

7.4.1 BMP Overview

Permeable pavements contain many small openings (i.e., joints or pores) that allow rainfall and
snowmelt to drain through them instead of running off the surface as it does on impervious
pavements like conventional asphalt and concrete (Permeable Pavement Task Committee, 2015).
Permeable pavements treat the precipitation that falls on them and may be designed to also receive
runoff from adjacent impermeable surfaces (e.g., pavements and roofs) as either sheet flow or from a
pipe (e.g., roof downspout) discharged to the pavement surface or connected to the aggregate base .
Water that has infiltrated through the permeable pavement is temporarily stored in the clear stone
(i.e., washed gravel) aggregate base. There it either percolates into the underlying native sub-soil and
replenishes the groundwater system, or the filtered water is conveyed to a municipal storm sewer or
another stormwater BMP by a perforated pipe sub-drain. An overflow outlet is necessary to safely
convey flows from major storm events to a storm sewer or another BMP. Key components of
permeable pavements for inspection and maintenance are described in Table 7.19 and Figure 7.4.

Properly functioning permeable pavements reduce the quantity of runoff and pollutants being
discharged to municipal storm sewers and receiving waters (i.e., rivers, lakes and wetlands) and can
help replenish groundwater resources. They can be used for low to medium traffic roads, parking
spaces, driveways, pedestrian plazas and walkways.

There are a variety of types of permeable pavements that differ in terms of the surface layer:

 permeable interlocking pavers (i.e., block pavers) – Precast modular units made of
concrete, pervious concrete or rubber/plastic composite designed to create open joints
between pavers that are filled with fine, washed aggregate and installed on an open-
graded aggregate (i.e., clear stone) base and sub-base.
 permeable interlocking grid systems (i.e., grid pavers) – Precast concrete or manufactured
plastic grids with open cells that can be filled with aggregate or a mixture of sand, gravel
and topsoil and planted with grass or low-growing ground covers and are installed on an
open-graded aggregate base.
 pervious concrete – a rigid pavement installed on an open-graded aggregate base that
uses a cementitious binder to adhere aggregate together, similar to conventional
concrete, except that the fine aggregate component is minimized or eliminated which
results in the formation of connected pores throughout.
 porous asphalt – a flexible pavement installed on an open-graded aggregate base that
uses a bituminous binder to adhere aggregate together, similar to conventional asphalt,
except that the fine aggregate component is minimized or eliminated which results in the
formation of connected pores throughout.

Depending on the permeability of the underlying native sub-soil and other constraints, the pavement
may be designed with no sub-drain for full infiltration, with a sub-drain for partial infiltration, or with

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an impermeable liner and sub-drain for a no infiltration or detention and filtration only practice. The
sub-drain pipe may feature a flow restrictor (e.g., orificed cap, ball valve) for BMP designed to control
the peak flow rate.

Table 7.19: Key components of permeable pavements for inspection and maintenance.

Component Description
Contributing The area from which runoff directed to the BMP originates. CDAs include
Drainage Area impervious and pervious areas draining to the BMP and the BMP itself. CDAs
should be free of point sources of pollutants (e.g., leaking waste containers, spills,
failing ESCs). Trash, sediment and debris should be removed regularly from
pavements and other stormwater conveyances (e.g., gutters, eavestroughs)
draining to the BMP.
Pavement The surface should be inspected to confirm dimensions are acceptable, check for
surface damage, deformation (e.g. ruts), unevenness, open joints and sediment
accumulation. Permeable pavements should not allow ponding of water on the
surface to occur when functioning acceptably so any observation of surface
ponding indicates that a problem exists. Trash and natural debris should be
periodically removed. Permeable interlocking pavers, pervious concrete and
porous asphalt need to be swept and vacuumed regularly to remove fine sediment
from joints and pores, and plowed of snow and spread with deicing salt as needed
during winter. Sand should not be spread as an anti-slip agent as it will clog the
joints or pores. Grid systems with topsoil and grass fill are maintained like lawns.
Vegetation Permeable interlocking grid systems may be filled with topsoil and planted with
grass. Routine maintenance of grid system grass cover is the same as conventional
lawns (i.e., weeding, mowing, watering during droughts). In the first 2 months of
establishment, plantings need to be irrigated frequently (e.g., bi-weekly). Where
compost amended topsoil is used to fill grid cells, periodic top dressing with
compost should be all that is needed to maintain healthy vegetation cover (i.e.,
application of chemical fertilizers should not be a part of routine maintenance).
Overflow Flows exceeding the storage capacity of the BMP are conveyed to an adjacent
outlets drainage system via an overflow outlet structure (e.g., flush curb, curb-cut,
catchbasin). Overflow outlet structures must be kept free of obstructions to ensure
stormwater is safely conveyed during major storm events.
Sub-drain Sub-drains are optional components that may be included where the permeability
of the underlying native sub-soil is low or, due to other constraints, an
impermeable liner is required. They are installed in the pavement base to collect
and convey filtered water to an adjacent drainage system. Sub-drains are
comprised of perforated pipes wrapped in a gravel blanket and in some cases
geotextile filter fabric. The perforated pipe must be kept free of obstructions to
ensure that the subsurface water storage capacity of the BMP drains within a
specified time period. A maintenance port standpipe may be connected to the
perforated pipe to provide a means of flushing and inspecting it. Perforated pipes
should be routinely flushed with water to remove sediment. If the sub-drain is
equipped with a flow-restrictor (e.g., orifice plate, ball valve) to attenuate flow rates,
the flow restrictor must be inspected and cleaned regularly.

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Monitoring Standpipes that extend from just below the surface of the pavement to the bottom
well of the excavation and contain perforations or slots to allow observation and
measurement of subsurface water level in the BMP. Monitoring wells are needed
to determine if the BMP drains within an acceptable time period and to track
drainage performance over its operating lifespan. Standpipes should be securely
capped on both ends and remain undamaged and free of sediment which may
require periodic flushing.
Control The manhole or catchbasin to which the sub-drain outlets that provides access to
structure the sub-drain and flow restrictor device, if present. Inspect for damage and
sediment.

7.4.2 Inspection and Testing Framework

Table 7.20 describes what visual and testing indicators should be used during each type of inspection
for permeable pavements and provides a basis for planning field work. Numbers in the first column
refer to the section of Chapter 8 that provides detailed guidance on standard protocols and test
methods for assessing the respective indicator.

7.4.3 Critical Timing of Construction Inspections

Construction inspections take place during several points in the construction sequence, specific to the
type of LID BMP, but at a minimum should be done weekly and include the following:

1. During site preparation, prior to BMP excavation and grading to ensure the CDA is stabilized
and/or flow diversion devices are in place and confirm that construction materials meet
design specifications;
2. At completion of excavation and grading, prior to backfilling and installation of pipes to
ensure depths, slopes and elevations are acceptable;
3. At completion of installation of pipes, prior to completion of backfilling to ensure slopes and
elevations are acceptable;
4. After final grading, prior to surface course installation to ensure depths, slopes and elevations
are acceptable;
5. Prior to hand-off points in the construction sequence when the contractor responsible for the
work changes (i.e., hand-offs between the storm sewer servicing, paving, building and
landscaping contractors);
6. After every large storm event (e.g., 15 mm rainfall depth or greater) to ensure flow diversion
devices are functioning and adequately maintained.

Table 7.21 describes critical points during the construction sequence when inspections should be
performed prior to proceeding further. Table 7.21 can also be used as a checklist during Construction
inspections, in addition to the Inspection Field Data Forms provided in Appendix C.

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Figure 7.4: Generalized plan and cross-section views of a permeable pavement showing key components.

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Table 7.20: Inspection and testing indicators framework for permeable pavements.

INSPECTION AND TESTING FRAMEWORK

PERMEABLE PAVEMENTS Inspection Type
Section Indicator Construction Assumption Routine Verification
Operation
Visual indicators
C.1 CDA condition x x x x
C.6 BMP dimensions x x x
C.9 Standing water x x x
C.10 Trash x x
C.17 Vegetation cover x x x x
C.18 Vegetation condition x x
C.19 Vegetation composition x x x
C.20 Monitoring well condition x x x x
C.21 Sub-drain/Perforated pipe obstruction x x
C.22 Overflow outlet obstruction x x x x
C.23 Pavement surface condition x x
C.24 Pavement surface sediment accumulation x x x x
C.25 Control structure condition x x x x
C.26 Control structure sediment accumulation x x x x
Testing indicators
8.4 Surface infiltration rate testing x (x)
8.5 Natural or simulated storm event testing x (x)
8.6 Continuous monitoring x (x)
(x) denotes indicators to be used for Performance Verification inspections only (i.e., not for Maintenance Verification inspections)

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Table 7.21: Critical timing of construction inspections - permeable pavements.

Construction Sequence Step Inspection Item Observations 1

and Timing
Site Preparation – after site Natural heritage system and tree protection
clearing and grading, prior to areas remain fenced off
BMP excavation and grading ESCs protecting BMP layout area are installed
properly
CDA is stabilized or runoff is diverted around
BMP layout area
BMP layout area has been cleared and is
staked/delineated
Benchmark elevation(s) are established nearby
Construction materials have been confirmed to
meet design specifications
BMP Excavation and Grading - Excavation location, footprint, depth and slope
prior to backfilling and are acceptable
installation of Excavated soil is stockpiled outside the CDA
pipes/catchbasins
BMP Installation – after Impermeable liner installed correctly, if
installation of applicable
pipes/catchbasins, prior to Structural components (e.g., pavement base,
completion of backfilling curbs) installation is acceptable
Installations of sub-drain pipes (e.g., locations,
elevations, slopes), standpipes/monitoring wells
are acceptable
Sub-drain trench dams installed correctly
(location, elevation)
Surface coarse installation (elevation, slope,
monitoring wells) is acceptable

Notes:
1. S = Satisfactory; U= Unsatisfactory; NA = Not Applicable

7.4.4 Inspection Field Data Forms

Template forms for recording inspection observations, measurements, sampling location details and
follow-up actions have been prepared for each LID BMP type and can be found in Appendix C.

7.4.5 Routine Maintenance

Table 7.22 describes routine maintenance tasks for permeable pavements, organized by BMP
component, along with recommended minimum frequencies. It also suggests higher frequencies for
certain tasks that may be warranted for BMPs located in highly visible locations or those receiving flow
from high traffic (vehicle or pedestrian) areas or those designed with higher than recommended

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impermeable drainage area to permeable BMP footprint area ratios (I:P ratios). Tasks involving
removal of trash, debris and sediment and weeding/trimming of vegetation for BMPs in such contexts
may need to be done more frequently (i.e., higher standards may be warranted).

Individuals conducting vegetation maintenance and in particular, weeding (i.e., removal of

undesirable vegetation), should be familiar with the species of plants specified in the planting plan
and experienced in plant identification and methods of removing/controlling noxious weeds. Key
resources on these topics are provided below:

 Agriculture and Agri-food Canada’s WeedInfo database, http://www.weedinfo.ca/en/

 Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs’ Ontario Weed Gallery,
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/ontweeds/weedgal.htm
 Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs’ Noxious Weeds In Ontario list,
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/noxious_weeds.htm
 Ontario Invasive Plant Council’s Quick Reference Guide to Invasive Plant Species,
http://www.ontarioinvasiveplants.ca/files/Invasives_booklet_2.pdf
 Plants of Southern Ontario (book), 2014, by Richard Dickinson and France Royer, Lone Pine
Publishing, 528 pgs.
 Weeds of North America (book), 2014, by Richard Dickinson and France Royer, University of
Chicago Press, 656 pgs.

Table 7.22: Routine maintenance tasks for permeable pavements.

Component Routine Maintenance Task Frequency1

Minimum2 High3
Contributing  Remove trash, natural debris, clippings and BA Q
Drainage sediment
Area  Re-plant or seed bare soil areas A BA
Overflow  Remove trash, natural debris and clippings BA Q
outlets  Remove accumulated sediment A BA
Pavement  Remove trash, natural debris and clippings BA Q
surface (rakes and leaf blowers)
 Remove accumulated sediment (sweep and A BA
vacuum)4
 Replace/top up joint or grid fill material (if A BA
applicable)
 Remove undesirable vegetation (e.g., tree A BA
seedlings, invasives/weeds)
 Plow snow and apply de-icing salt during AN AN
winter
 Re-paint lines/parking space divisions (if Every 3 Every 3
applicable) years years

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Vegetation  Watering during first two months after BW BW

planting
 Watering for the remainder of the first two (2) AN AN
growing seasons (i.e., May to September) after
planting or until vegetation is established
 Watering for the remainder of the BMP D AN
lifespan
 Mow grass to maintain height between 5 to 10 M BM
cm.
 Remove undesirable vegetation (e.g., tree A BA
seedlings, invasives/weeds)
 Overseed and top dress bare areas with A BA
compost to maintain a minimum of 80% grass
cover 5
Sub-drain &  Flush out accumulated sediment with hose or A A
Monitoring pressure washer
well

Notes:
1. A = Annually; AN = As needed based on Routine Operation inspections; BA = Bi-annually or
twice per year, ideally in the spring and late fall/early winter; BM = Bi-monthly; BW = Bi-
weekly or twice per week; M = Monthly; D = During drought conditions classified by
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Canadian Drought Monitor as severe (D2) or higher (AAC,
2015); Q = Quarterly or four times per year, ideally in the spring, summer, early fall and late
fall/early winter; W = Weekly.
2. These frequencies are recommended as the minimum necessary to ensure the BMP functions
adequately over its expected lifespan.
3. High priority BMPs such as or those draining to a sensitive receiving waterbody, those
receiving drainage from high traffic areas, or those designed with larger than recommended
impervious drainage area to pervious BMP footprint area ratios (i.e., I:P ratios), may warrant a
higher frequency of routine maintenance tasks involving removal of trash/debris/sediment
and mowing/weeding/trimming of vegetation.
4. For permeable interlocking pavers, pervious concrete and porous asphalt, use regenerative air
vacuum sweepers for routine maintenance and pure vacuum sweepers for rehabilitating slow
draining/clogged pavements. Sweeping and vacuuming should be done during dry weather.
5. For grid systems where cells are filled with topsoil and grass, aim to achieve 80% grass cover
by the end of the establishment/warranty period (e.g., two years after planting).

Tips to help preserve BMP function

 Never use sealants on porous asphalt nor pervious concrete;

 Prohibit access by construction vehicles to prevent tracking of sediment on to the surface;

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 Prohibit storage of soil, compost, sand, salt or unwashed gravel on permeable pavements to
prevent clogging of joints or pores, or protect the pavement surface with tarps or geotextile
during temporary storage of such materials;
 Landscaped areas adjacent to permeable pavements should be covered with vegetation and
not drain to the pavement where possible to prevent eroding soil from reaching the surface;
 Use a mulching mower to mow permeable interlocking grid systems with grass cover;
 Permeable pavements can be plowed for snow removal like conventional pavements. To
reduce the risk of dislodging pavers or grids and minimize displacement of joint/cell fill
material, the plow blade should be slightly raised off the pavement surface (e.g., 0.6 cm or
1/4”) with a shoe attachment;
 Plowed snow piles should not be stored on permeable pavements to reduce the risk of
clogging from sediment accumulation upon melting;
 Do not spread sand on permeable pavements as part of winter maintenance as it will quickly
clog the joints or pores and impair drainage function. On permeable interlocking pavers and
grid systems filled with gravel, if application of an anti-skid material is desirable, spread the
same fine washed gravel material used to fill the paver joints or grid cells; and
 De-icers should be used sparingly, as needed during winter. Due to their freely draining
design, ice will not form on permeable pavements as readily as it does on conventional
impermeable pavements during winter thaw-freeze cycles.

7.4.6 Rehabilitation and Repair

Table 7.23 provides guidance on rehabilitation and repair work specific to permeable pavements
organized according to BMP component.

Table 7.23: Rehabilitation and repair guidance for permeable pavements.

BMP Component Problem Task

Pavement Major cracks, spalling or Fill small potholes or cracks with patching mixes
surface raveling of the porous (consult with product vendor for further guidance).
asphalt or pervious Large potholes or cracks may require cutting and
concrete surface replacement of a section of the surface layer.
Replace with the same permeable material where
possible. Conventional asphalt or concrete could be
acceptable if the cumulative area remains below
15% of the total BMP footprint area.
Paver or grid unit is Replace or reset unit by hand and restore joint or
missing, damaged or grid cell fill material that meets design specification.
displaced

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Surface infiltration rate is Sweep and thoroughly vacuum with a pure vacuum
< 250 mm/h sweeper to remove accumulated sediment. Replace
joint fill material removed through vacuuming.
Pretreatment of the surface of slow draining
pavements (e.g., water-assisted techniques,
additional sweeping) prior to vacuuming may be
warranted where surface clogging of joints or pores
is visible. . If surface drainage performance remains
unacceptable, remove all pavers, bedding and joint
fill and top 5 cm (2”) of base aggregate and replace
with new materials that meet design specifications.
Vegetation Poor grass cover on Aerate or remove and replace growing medium in
interlocking permeable affected area with material that meets design
grid system specifications and replant.
Sub-drain Sub-drain perforated pipe Schedule hydro-vac truck or drain-snaking service to
is obstructed by sediment remove the obstruction.

7.4.7 Life Cycle Costs of Inspection and Maintenance

Estimates of the life cycle costs of inspection and maintenance have been produced using the latest
version of the LID Life Cycle Costing Tool (STEP, 2016) to assist stormwater infrastructure planners,
designers and asset managers with planning and preparing budgets. For more details of the tool’s
assumption, see Section 7.1.7 and refer to the project report (TRCA and U of T, 2013a).

For permeable pavements it is assumed that rehabilitation of the pavement surface will be needed
once the BMP reaches 30 years of age in order to maintain surface drainage performance at an
acceptable level. Included in the rehabilitation costs are (de)mobilization costs, as equipment would
not have been present on site. Design costs were not included in the rehabilitation as it was assumed
that the original LID practice design would be used to inform this work. The annual average
maintenance cost does not include rehabilitation costs and therefore represents an average of routine
maintenance tasks, as outlined in Table 7.22. All cost value estimates represent the NPV as the
calculation takes into account average annual interest (2%) and discount (3%) rates over the
evaluation time periods.

Design variations for permeable pavements can be broken down into three main categories: Full
Infiltration design, where the pavement drains through infiltration into the underlying subsoil alone
(i.e., no sub-drain); Partial Infiltration design, where drainage is through the combination of a sub-
drain and infiltration into the underlying subsoil (i.e., with a sub-drain); or No Infiltration (i.e., filtration-
only design) that includes an impermeable liner between the base of the BMP and the underlying
native sub-soil, where drainage is through a sub-drain alone (i.e., with a sub-drain and impermeable
liner). For each design variation, life cycle cost estimates have been calculated for two level-of-service
scenarios: the minimum recommended frequency of inspection and maintenance tasks (i.e., Table 7.20
and Table 7.22 “Minimum Frequency” column), and a high frequency scenario (i.e., Table 7.20 and
Table 7.22 “High Frequency” column) to provide an indication of the potential range. A rehabilitation

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period of 30 years is assumed, at which point rehabilitative maintenance of the pavement surface is
undertaken to maintain acceptable drainage performance.

The costing presented in this section is specific to permeable interlocking concrete pavers (PICP), as
defined in the Tool. This product has been selected for costing due to its popularity and well-
understood maintenance needs (Permeable Pavements Task Committee, 2015).

For all permeable pavement design variations, the CDA has been defined as 2,000 m2 of which
1,000 m2 is impermeable pavement draining to the pavers, and 1,000 m2 is permeable pavement. The
impervious area to pervious area ratio (I:P ratio) used to size the BMP footprint is 1:1, which is in
accordance with recommendations in the LID SWM Planning and Design Guide (CVC & TRCA, 2010).
The Full Infiltration design does not include a sub-drain and assumes a native sub-soil infiltration rate
of 20 mm/h. The base granular reservoir is 350 mm deep and is capable of storing runoff from a 61
mm rain event over the CDA. A monitoring well is included for inspection purposes. The Partial
Infiltration design includes a sub-drain and assumes a native sub-soil infiltration rate of 10 mm/h. The
base granular reservoir is 350 mm deep and is capable of storing runoff from a 9 mm rain event before
the stored volume reaches the perforated underdrain pipe located 50 mm above the native sub-soil.
Although a flow restrictor is recommended to maximize infiltration, the cost of this feature is not
included due to its relatively low cost. The No Infiltration design includes a sub-drain pipe installed on
the bottom of the sub-surface water storage reservoir and an impermeable liner. All other features are
the same as the Partial Infiltration design variation.

Estimates of the life cycle costs of PICP permeable pavement in Canadian dollars per unit CDA ($/m2)
are presented in Table 7.24. The LID Life Cycle Costing Tool allows users to select what BMP type and
design variation applies, and to use the default assumptions to generate planning level cost estimates.
Users can also input their own values relating to a site or area, design, unit costs, and inspection and
maintenance task frequencies to generate customized cost estimates, specific to a certain project,
context or stormwater infrastructure program.

For all BMP design variations and maintenance scenarios, it is assumed that rehabilitation of the
pavement surface will be necessary when the BMP reaches 30 years of age to maintain acceptable
surface drainage performance. Rehabilitation of PICP pavements is assumed to typically involve the
following tasks and associated costs:

 Remove pavers, bedding and joint fill and top 5 cm (2”) of base aggregate and replace with
new material that meets design specifications;
 Construction and Assumption inspection and testing associated with rehabilitation work to
confirm that materials meet design specifications and installation is acceptable, including
compaction and surface infiltration rate testing.

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Table 7.24: Life cycle costs for permeable interlocking concrete pavers.

Permeable Interlocking
Minimum Frequency High Frequency
Concrete Pavers (PICP)
Design Variation Full Partial No Full Partial No
Infiltr. Infiltr. Infiltr. Infiltr. Infiltr. Infiltr.
Construction Costs $53.60 $54.85 $61.95 $53.60 $54.85 $61.95
Rehabilitation Costs $29.80 $29.80 $29.80 $29.35 $29.35 $29.35
Rehabilitation Period (years
30 30 30 30 30 30
in service)
50 YEAR EVALUATION PERIOD
Average Annual
$0.55 $0.55 $0.55 $0.95 $0.95 $0.95
Maintenance
Maintenance and
$57.35 $58.20 $58.20 $76.75 $77.60 $77.60
Rehabilitation
25 YEAR EVALUATION PERIOD
Average Annual
$0.60 $0.60 $0.60 $1.05 $1.05 $1.05
Maintenance
Maintenance and
$11.95 $12.40 $12.40 $20.90 $21.35 $21.35
Rehabilitation

Notes:
1. Estimated life cycle costs represent NPV of associated costs in Canadian dollars per square
metre of CDA ($/m2).
2. Average annual maintenance cost estimates represent NPV of all costs incurred over the time
period and do not include rehabilitation costs.
3. Rehabilitation cost estimates represent NPV of all costs related to rehabilitative maintenance
work assumed to be needed after 30 years in service, including those associated with
inspection.
4. Full Infiltration design life cycle costs are lower than Partial and No Infiltration designs due to
the absence of a sub-drain to construct, inspect and routinely flush.
5. Rehabilitation costs for Full Infiltration designs are estimated to be 54.8% to 55.6% of the
original construction costs for High and Minimum Recommended Frequency maintenance
program scenarios, respectively.
6. Rehabilitation costs for Partial Infiltration designs are estimated to be 53.5% to 54.3% of the
original construction costs for High and Minimum Recommended Frequency maintenance
program scenarios, respectively.
7. Rehabilitation costs for No Infiltration designs are estimated to be 47.4% to 48.1% of the
original construction costs for High and Minimum Recommended Frequency maintenance
program scenarios, respectively.
8. Maintenance and rehabilitation costs over a 25 year time period for the Minimum
Recommended maintenance scenario are estimated to be 22.3%, of the original construction
costs for Full Infiltration design, 22.6% for Partial Infiltration design, and 20.0% for No
Infiltration design.

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9. Maintenance and rehabilitation costs over a 25 year time period for the High Frequency
maintenance scenario are estimated to be 39.0% of the original construction costs for Full,
38.9% for Partial Infiltration designs, and 34.5% for No Infiltration designs.
10. Maintenance and rehabilitation costs over a 50 year time period for the Minimum
Recommended Frequency maintenance scenario are estimated to be approximately1.07 times
the original construction cost for Full, 1.06 times the original construction costs for Partial
Infiltration designs, and 93.9.% the original construction cost for No Infiltration designs.
11. Maintenance and rehabilitation costs over a 50 year time period for the High Frequency
maintenance scenario are estimated to be approximately 1.43 times the original construction
cost for Full, 1.41 times the original construction costs for Partial Infiltration designs, and 1.25
times the original construction cost for No Infiltration designs.

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