The Comprehensive

SQL Course
Malvik Vaghadia
Contents
Relational Databases
What is MySQL?
What is SQL?
Objects in MySQL
Data Query Language
Data Types
Data Definition and Manipulation Language
Relational Database Design
Operators and the Where Clause
Internal and Metadata Schemas
Functions
Grouping and Aggregating Data
Joining Tables and Set Operators
Order of SQL Operations
Subqueries and Views
Data Control Language
Transaction Control Language
Relational Databases
What is a Database?
A database is a structured collection of digital
information that can be easily accessed, managed, and
organized for various purposes, such as storing,
retrieving, and manipulating data.

What is a Relational Database?

Relational databases are a specific type of database that
organizes and stores data in tables with rows and
columns, where relationships between different tables
can be established to facilitate efficient data retrieval and
management.

What is a Table?
A table is a structured arrangement of data in rows and
columns, commonly used to organize and display
information.
Relational Databases (2)
Benefits of Relational Databases
• Tables adhere to a predefined table structure
• Data types can restrict the type of values that are inserted into
columns
• Constraints can define rules to determine what kind of values are
allowed
• Data Integrity and reliability
• Data remains accurate, consistent, and adheres to predefined
rules, reducing the risk of errors and inconsistencies.
• Databases can store massive amounts of data
• Relational databases can be implemented on cloud infrastructure
and scale up to petabytes of data and beyond

How is data stored in Relational Databases?

Relational Databases store the data in a normalized manner.
This means that they organise data into separate tables.

These separate tables are related to each other via a

common column. So they have a link to each other which
the relational database can leverage when performing
queries against the tables.
Relational Databases (3)
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
An RDBMS is software used to create, manage, and manipulate relational
databases. Common RDBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle and
Microsoft SQL Server.
What is MySQL?
• MySQL is an open-source relational
database management system
• It’s an open-source software, which
means it is freely available for anyone to
use, modify, and distribute
• MySQL is available in several editions,
including a free, open-source community
edition
What is SQL?
• SQL stands for “Structured Query Language”
• You can pronounce it as “S.Q.L” or “Sequel”
• SQL is the language used to communicate with
relational databases
• SQL is a declarative language. You specify the ‘what’
rather than the ‘how’
• This is in contrast with imperative languages like C++,
Java and Python, where you specify the ‘how’

• ANSI stands for American National Standards Institute.

It is a set of SQL standards and guidelines for database
management systems (DBMS)
• The goal of ANSI SQL is to provide a standardised way
to interact with relational databases, making it easier
for users to write SQL queries that can work across
different database platforms
• Most Relational Database Management Systems will be
generally ANSI compliant, but will still have their own
slight variations from the ANSI SQL Standards
Objects in MySQL

• At the highest level is the MySQL server itself

• We then have Schemas. Each Schema is a logical
container for other objects
• A relational database can have multiple schemas
• Each schema contains objects such as Tables, Views,
Stored Procedures and Functions
Countries Data Model

• The ”COUNTRIES” table is a Fact Table

• The “REGIONS” and “SUBREGIONS” tables are
Dimension Tables
• A Fact Table contains measurements and metrics
• A Dimension Table contains only descriptive attribute
Data Query
Language
The SELECT Statement

• You start with SELECT followed by the column names

you’d like to return; each column name is separated by
a comma. You then type the FROM keyword followed
by the table reference
• You use dot notation to qualify the table name with the
schema to provide context to the SQL engine; this way
the SQL engine knows which schema to look in
• Semi-colons (;) are used to terminate an individual
statement
• FROM specifies the table, SELECT specifies the
columns
• The FROM operation is executed before the
SELECT operation
USE SCHEMA

• You can use the “USE SCHEMA”

command to switch context between
schemas, simply type USE followed by
the schema name
• … you can then avoid using dot notation
to qualify the table name with the
schema reference
Statements vs Queries
• “Queries” are a subset of “Statements”
• A 'statement' refers to any type of code in SQL
that can manipulate data, delete data, create
tables, and more
• On the other hand, a 'query' is a specific type of
SQL statement, namely the 'SELECT' statement
• Queries are used to retrieve data from a database
• So, while a “Query” is a type of “statement”, a
“statement” can encompass a broader range of
actions in SQL
SELECT * (STAR)

• Using * with the SELECT Statement

returns all columns from the table
• This can save the manual effort of having
to type out each column
• Using SELECT Star is not efficient if you
only need to return a few columns. This
is because you will retrieve more data
than necessary, which can slow down the
query
Aliasing Column Names

• To alias a column name you simply add the “AS”

keyword followed by the aliased column name
• Aliasing a column does not change the underlying
data
• Specifying the “AS” keyword is optional; provided
you have a whitespace after the column reference
and before the aliased name
• But for good practice and readability it is always
recommended to leave the “AS” keyword
• You can provide an alias with whitespace characters
by using single or double quotes
Aliasing Table Names

• To alias a table name you simply add the “AS”

keyword followed by the aliased table name
• Aliasing a table does not change the underlying
data
• Aliasing a table is useful when working with
multiple tables in a single query, this is so you
can qualify the column references with the
aliased table to make your query syntactically
easier
• You should consider the order of execution of
SQL clauses
Adding Comments to SQL Code

There are several reasons why code should contain comments.

• They are a way of adding documentation to your code. Comments in
SQL code explain the purpose of queries, tables, and columns, making
it easier for developers to understand what is going on
• Comments can help identify and resolve issues by providing context,
especially in complex SQL queries or when multiple team members
work on the same database.
• Well-placed comments enhance the readability of code. They can
clarify complex algorithms, logic, or business rules, making the code
easier to follow and maintain.
• In a team environment, comments help facilitate collaboration. Team
members can quickly grasp your intentions and contribute effectively
to the codebase.
• Over time, code undergoes updates, enhancements, and bug fixes.
Comments can act as a reference point for making changes without
unintentionally altering the code's original purpose. A brief comment
can remind you or others why a particular approach was chosen.
• When new developers join a project, comments can be invaluable for
getting them up to speed quickly. A brief comment can provide
context and reduce the learning curve.
Selecting Distinct Rows

• The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to retrieve unique

values from a specified column or set of columns in a table. It
ensures that the result set contains only unique rows and
eliminates duplicate rows.

Ordering Rows

• You specify the column, or columns that you want to order by

after the ORDER BY clause. After each column you can
specify ASC for ascending or DESC for descending order.
• By default the ordering is ASC if nothing is specified.
Limiting Rows

• The LIMIT clause goes after the ORDER BY clause

• O is the offset, if this is omitted then by default the
offset is 0
• N is the number of rows
Data Types
Numerical Data Types
• An exact numeric data type, also known as a fixed-point numeric
data type, is a category of data types used to store numbers with a
fixed number of decimal places
• In this category we have INTEGERS, DECIMALS and NUMERIC

• An approximate numeric data type, also known as a floating-

point numeric data type, is a category of data types used to store
numbers with a fractional part or numbers that can have a wide
range of values
• In this category we have FLOAT and DOUBLE
• These data types are considered "approximate" because they
represent numbers with a finite level of precision
• However, they are very efficient in terms of storage and
computational speed
String Data Types
• CHAR is short for character, and is a fixed-length
character data type
• Each value stored in a CHAR column will always occupy
the same amount of storage, regardless of the actual
length of the data
• If you insert a shorter string into a CHAR column,
MySQL pads the extra space with spaces to match the
specified length
• For example, if you insert the string 'hello' into a CHAR(10)
column, it will be stored as 'hello ' (with 4 spaces at the end)
• VARCHAR stands for "variable character" and is a
variable-length character data type
• Unlike with CHAR, the actual storage used by a
VARCHAR column depends on the length of the data
you store in it
• If you insert the string 'hello' into a VARCHAR(10) column, it
will be stored as 'hello' (without extra spaces)
Date and Time Data Types
Data Definition and
Manipulation
Language
Creating Schemas

Dropping Schemas
Creating Tables

• https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/create-table.html
• Anything in square brackets is optional

Dropping Tables

• https://dev.mysql.com/doc/refman/8.0/en/alter-table.html
• Anything in square brackets is optional
Inserting Rows

• You can insert records into a Database Table by using the

INSERT INTO statement
• The values you enter must adhere to the data type
requirements

• If you do not reference the columns in your INSERT INTO

statement then the values must be specified as per the
column order in the table definition

• You can insert multiple records at a time using the above

syntax
Create Table As Statement

• The CREATE TABLE AS (CTAS) statement allows you to

create a new table by copying the structure and data
from an existing table or the result of a SELECT query

Truncate Table

• The TRUNCATE TABLE statement deletes all records

from the table but retains the table structure
Alter Table

• The ALTER TABLE statement is used to modify an

existing database table's structure, such as adding,
modifying, or dropping columns

Updating Rows

Deleting Rows
Constraints in SQL
Constraints are rules and conditions that are applied to
tables and their columns to ensure the integrity,
accuracy, and consistency of the data stored in a
relational database.

• NOT NULL prevents NULL values

• UNIQUE prevents duplicate values (excluding NULLs)
• DEFAULT ensures that a default value is inserted when
a value is not explicitly provided for a column
• CHECK constraint is used to limit the value range that
can be placed in a column.
Dropping Constraints
The NOT NULL and DEFAULT constraints can be removed by
re-defining the column with the constraint using the ALTER
TABLE statement.
Simply exclude the constraint in the column specification and it
will be removed.

For the UNIQUE and CHECK constraint you will have to use the
syntax below, specifying the unique name given the the
constraint.

• The UNIQUE constraint name is generally the column name

with the constraint
• You can identify the CHECK constraint name by using the
SHOW CREATE TABLE statement.
Relational Database
Design
Normalization
Normalization is the process of organizing data in a
database to reduce redundancy and improve data
integrity. This involves breaking down large tables into
smaller ones and using relationships between tables to
minimise data duplication

• Data arranged in a normalized manner reduces

redundancy and is stored more efficiency
• In some instances it can slow down query
performance, but that depends on the type of query
• Denormalization is the opposite of normalization, i.e.
combining smaller tables into a larger table
Types of Relationships
• In a one-to-one relationship, each record in one table is associated
with exactly one record in another table, and vice versa

• In a one-to-many relationship, each record in one table can be

associated with one or more records in another table, but each record
in the second table is associated with only one record in the first table

• In a many-to-many relationship, many records in one table can be

associated with many records in another table, and vice versa. Many-
to-many relationships are often implemented using junction tables
(also known as bridge tables or linking tables)
Primary Keys
Primary keys and foreign keys are essential concepts that are used to
establish and maintain relationships between tables and ensure data
integrity.
A primary key is a column in a table that uniquely identifies each record
(row) in that table.

The key characteristics of primary keys are:

• Uniqueness: Each value in the primary key column must be unique
across all records in the table
• Non-null: The values in the primary key column cannot be NULL,
ensuring that each record has a unique identifier

• You cannot drop a PK until its dependencies have been

removed
Foreign Keys
Primary keys and foreign keys are essential concepts that are
used to establish and maintain relationships between tables and
ensure data integrity.
A foreign key is a column in a table that establishes a link
between the data in two tables.
The key characteristics of foreign keys are:
• Referential Integrity: A foreign key enforces referential
integrity, ensuring that the values in the foreign key column of
the table match the values in the primary key column of
another table
Entity Relationship Diagram
Entity relationship diagrams (ERD) help us understand the
connection between various Tables ("entities") that make up a
Schema.

The most common type of notation is Crow’s Foot.

Operators and the
Where Clause
The Where Clause
• You can use the WHERE clause in SELECT, UPDATE and
DELETE statements

Order of Operator Precedence

 Internal and
Metadata Schemas
Internal and Metadata Schemas

Information Schema Table Reference

Functions
Functions

Links

Functions and Operators

String Functions

Numerical Functions

Date and Time Functions

Aggregate Functions
 Grouping and
Aggregating Data
Group By Clause

The GROUP BY clause in SQL is used with the SELECT

statement to group rows that have the same values in
specified columns.

It is often used with aggregate functions like COUNT(),

MAX(), MIN(), SUM(), AVG(), and others to perform an
operation on each group of rows.

The non-aggregated columns in the SELECT clause must

be in the GROUP BY clause.
Having Clause

The WHERE clause filters records from a result set based on

a condition(s).
The HAVING clause is very similar, except it filters records
after a table has been aggregated.
The HAVING clause can only be used in conjunction with
the GROUP BY clause.

Syntax:
Joining Tables and
Set Operators
Joining Tables
A JOIN operation in SQL is used to combine rows from
two or more tables based on a related column between
them. It enables the retrieval of data that resides in
multiple tables in a single query.

Syntax
JOIN syntax with other clauses

The JOIN operation can be used in combination with

other SQL clauses.

Syntax
Set Operators
The UNION and UNION ALL operators combine all
results from two query blocks into a single result.
UNION omits any duplicates, UNION ALL does not.

The INTERSECT operator combines only those rows

where the results of two statements have in common,
omitting any duplicates.

The EXCEPT operator returns results from the first

statement which are not present in the second
statement.

Syntax

CROSS JOIN returns the Cartesian product of two

tables, combining each row of the first table with each
row of the second
Order of SQL
Operations
Order of SQL Execution
Column Aliasing and SQL
Execution Order
The WHERE clause will only accept pre-aliased column
references.

The GROUP BY, HAVING and ORDER BY clauses can

accept both pre-aliased or aliased column references.

This behaviour is specific to MySQL and may not be

supported in other SQL databases.
Subqueries and
Views
Subqueries
• Subqueries are queries nested within queries
• They allow you to use the result of one query as a condition or part of
another query.
• They can perform operations that usually require multiple queries and
structure these queries in a more efficient, streamlined manner.
• Subqueries can be used in various clauses like SELECT, FROM, JOIN,
WHERE, and HAVING.
• They're especially useful for performing complex filtering, aggregating
data, or comparing values against a subset of data.
• Subqueries must be enclosed in parentheses and can return single or
multiple rows, depending on their placement and purpose.
Views
In SQL Views are virtual tables that represent data from
one or more tables.
SQL Views are constructed from a query.
They be queried like a regular table, but they do not
store any physical data; they simply reference underlying
tables.

Views offer several benefits such as:

• Simplification of complex code
• Data Abstraction
• Security
• Storage

Syntax:
Data Control
Language
Grant and Revoke

You can create a new user via the Administration

Pane on MySQL or via the CREATE USER
statement.

You can GRANT and REVOKE privileges to a user

for database objects via the Administration Pane
on MySQL or via the SQL statements.

Create User Syntax

Grant and Revoke Syntax

Transaction Control
Language
Transaction Control Language

Transaction Control Language (TCL) in SQL is used for

managing transactions in a relational database. It allows you to
control and maintain the integrity and consistency of your
database by defining the boundaries of transactions.

Key TCL statements include:

• COMMIT, which confirms and saves the changes made within
a transaction to the database
• ROLLBACK, which undoes the changes made within a
transaction, returning the database to its previous state
• SAVEPOINT which allows you to undo the transactions up to
a specified point

A transaction can be any data manipulation language

operation, such as INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE.

Transactions in relational databases adhere to the ACID

properties which are:
• Atomicity: All operations in the transaction are treated as a
single unit, which either completes fully or not at all
• Consistency: The transaction brings the database from one
consistent state to another
• Isolation: Concurrent transactions are isolated from each
other, ensuring that their concurrent execution results in a
system state that would be obtained if the transactions were
executed serially
• Durability: Once a transaction has been committed, its effects
are permanent
Commit, Rollback and Savepoint

By default MySQL automatically commits every

individual transaction.

To prevent this you can start a transaction with:

BEGIN; or
START TRANSACTION;

Syntax
Commit a transaction:
COMMIT;

Rollback a transaction (you cannot rollback once

committed):
ROLLBACK;

Create a savepoint:
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

Rollback to a savepoint:
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;