Detailed Notes of EVS by Prakhar Gupta naam to

suna hoga.
NOTE(IMPORTANT): There are many images and
value tables present in the ppt’s. Refer to them as
they can be asked.
Lecture 1: Introduction to Environmental Studies
 Environment: Definition
o Environment refers to the sum of all conditions which surrounds man at a
given point in space and time. - C.C. Park
o It describes, in aggregate, all the external forces, influences and conditions,
which affect the life, nature, behavior, growth, development and maturity of
living organisms - Douglas and Holland
o The word environment is derived from the French word "environ" meaning
"encompass", "encircle", etc.
o Jacob Van Erkul introduced it to the subject in the early 1900
 Constituents of Environment
o Physical: Land, Air, Water
o Biological: Plants, Animals, Humans, Microbes
o Cultural: Economical, Social, Political
 Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
o Environmental studies require a systematic understanding and are highly
interdisciplinary and holistic.
o Life Science: Biology, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Biotechnology
o Physical Science: Physics, Chemistry; Earth Science, Geography
o Technology: Civil, Chemical, Nanotechnology, Mechanical
o Management / Law: Economics, Sociology, Law, Mass Communication
o Modelling: Mathematics, Computer Science, Statistics
 Engineering in Environmental Studies
o Information Technology: Remote sensing and GIS Database, Computational
Toxicology, ENVIS
o Chemical Engineering: Comprehensive Solutions, Wastewater treatment,
Curbing Air Pollution
o Electrical Engineering: Efficient transformers, Efficient motors/Engines, LED
o Civil Engineering: Green Buildings, Geotechnical engineers, Environmental
engineers
 Major Environmental Problems
o Global Warming
o Ozone Layer Depletion
o Acid Rain
o Deforestation
o Loss of Biodiversity
o Water Pollution
o Desertification
o Waste Disposal
 o Rapid Population Growth
o Depletions of Non-Renewable Energy Resources
o Food and Water Shortage
 Importance of Environmental Studies
o Enlightens - Protection & Conservation
o Environmental issues are of international importance
o Explosive increase in population
o Need for alternative solutions
o Need for wise planning of development
o Need to save humanity from extinction
 Need for Public Awareness
o To understand natural and man-made environments are interdependent
o To understand the consequences of Environmental Degradation
o Every individual's duty to protect the environment
o Environmental consciousness to be propagated
o Importance of reformative measures to be taken
o Mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, strongly influence public
opinion
o Can join as a Member:
 Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology (ANERT)
 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
 Delhi Greens (NGO)
 Environmentalist Foundation of India
 Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS)
 Discussions with friends and relatives - saving paper, water, etc.
 Practice - 3Rs principle of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
 Join local movements that support environmental activities
 Practice and promote good civic sense
 Take part in events organized on World Environment Day, Wildlife
Week, etc.
 Spend time with Nature
 Objectives of Environmental Education
o International Conference, Tbilisi, USSR (1977)
 Awareness: Environment & its allied problems
 Knowledge: Basic understanding and associated problems
 Attitude: Concern and motivation to protect
 Evaluation: Environmental measure & educational program
 Skill: Identifying & Solving
 Participation: Sense of responsibility
 Environmental Education: GOALS
o To promote exchange of ideas and information
o To develop teaching materials for the formal education sector
o To encourage NGOs for promoting awareness
o To promote environmental education through educational and research
institutes
o To ensure training and manpower development in environmental education
o To mobilize people's awareness for the preservation and conservation of the
environment
 Formal Environmental Education in India
o In Schools: Through text books, audio-visual and field visits
 o In Colleges & University: M.Sc., Ph.D. in Environmental Science, M.E. and
M.Tech. in Environmental Engineering, PG diploma in Environmental
Management
o Environmental Appreciation Course: IGNOU & MOEF - 3 months awareness
course
o In Management and Business Schools: Managers can introduce
environmentally sound practices
 Non-Formal Environmental Education
o National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC): Introduced in 1986,
multi-media campaign, Financial assistance to NGO's / Schools / Institutions
to conduct an awareness program, Activities - Seminars, workshops, camps,
rallies, exhibitions, debates, planting of trees, etc.
o Eco Clubs of National Green Corps: To sensitize school students, Eco-clubs -
100 schools in every district, Training to teachers
 Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the Environment (GLOBE)
o India joined in 2000
o Students of GLOBE collect data about environmental parameters to explain
various hypotheses
o Students interact with GLOBE scientists
o Students participate in workshops
 Mass Awareness
o Focused on rural areas
o Doordarshan telecast environmental based programs / documentaries /
commercials
 Other awareness program
o Green Olympiad by TERI - 8000 students for Russia, UAE and India
o Awareness activities on Environment Day (June 5) - ATREE
o Quiz programs
o Tribal get educated
 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
o A branch of applied ethics that deals with the ethical relationship between
human beings and the natural environment.
o A systematic and critical study of practices, beliefs, and rules applied to the
environment that are considered moral, i.e., good/bad, right/wrong, and
virtuous/vicious.
o THREE ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES
 Biocentrism: All living things also have value; All life has ethical
standing; Development is opposed if it destroys life, even if it creates
jobs.
 Ecocentrism: Whole ecological systems have value; Values the well-
being of species, communities, or ecosystems; Holistic perspective.
 Anthropocentrism: "This is our planet: planet Earth. It contains an
astonishing variety of landscapes and climates. Since life began,
around 4,000 million years ago, it has gone through extraordinary
changes in its climate and in the species that live on it. But now it
seems that our planet is being transformed – not by natural events, but
by the actions of one species: mankind." – David Attenborough’s
opening narration in The Truth about Climate Change (2006)
 Ecological Footprint
 o Measures how fast we consume resources and generate waste compared to
how fast nature can absorb our waste and generate new resources.
o The USA has the highest ecological footprint at 5.0, while India has the lowest
at 0.7. The world average is 1.7.
 Carbon Footprint
o China has the largest carbon footprint, followed by the USA, India, and the
Russian Federation.
 Water Footprint
o Shows the amount of water needed to produce different food items. For
example, it takes 1,700 liters of water to produce 1 kg of wheat, and 2,500
liters of water to produce 1 kg of rice.
 Sustainable development
o UN: Development that "meets the needs of the present without sacrificing the
ability of future generations to meet theirs".
o Using resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future
availability of resources.
o Sustainability involves:
 Renewable energy sources
 Soil conservation, high-efficiency irrigation, organic agriculture
 Pollution reduction
 Habitat and species protection
 Recycling
 Fighting global climate change
 People in Environment
o Charles Darwin - 'Origin of Species'
o Ralph Emerson - dangers of commerce to our environment
o Henry Thoreau - Wilderness
o John Muir - Sequoia trees
o Rachel Carson - Pesticide effects
o E.O Wilson - Diversity of Life
o Salim Ali's - SACON - Fall of Sparrow
o Indira Gandhi - The Wildlife Protection Act
o S P Godrej - Wildlife Conservation
o M S Swaminathan - Agriculture
o Madhav Gadgil - Ecologist
o M C Mehta - Leading Environmental Lawyer - protecting the Taj Mahal,
cleaning up the Ganges River, initiating Government to implement
environmental education
o Medha Patkar - Tribal people welfare
o Sunderlal Bahuguna - Chipko Movement
 Environmental Calendar
o World Wetland Day: February 2
o World Forest Day: March 21
o World Day for Water: March 22
o Earth Day: April 24
o International Biodiversity Day: May 31
o World Environment Day: June 5
o World Ocean Day: June 8
o World Population Day: July 11
o World Ozone Day: September 16
 o World Conservation Day: October 24
o International Day for Biological Diversity: December 29

Lecture 2: Environment and Its Components

 Components of Environment
o As per British Literature
1. Biotic components - producers, consumers and decomposers.
2. Abiotic components - climatic (water, air) and edaphic (land).
o As per American Literature
1. Atmosphere (Air)
2. Lithosphere (Land)
3. Hydrosphere (Water)
4. Biosphere (Flora/Fauna/Microbes/ Humans)
5. Anthroposphere (Man-made)
 Solar System
o Shows the planets in our solar system and their relative sizes.
 Uniqueness of Planet Earth
o Earth is the only planet with liquid water on its surface.
o Earth's atmosphere is the only one having a significant (21%) proportion of
molecular oxygen.
o Earth is the only planet in the solar system having living organisms.
o Earth is the only terrestrial planet having a moderately strong magnetic field.
o Earth is the only terrestrial planet having a large satellite.
 The Structure of the Earth: LAYERS
o Inner Core
o Outer Core
o Lower Mantle
o Upper Mantle
o Crust
o Troposphere
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Thermosphere
o Exosphere
 Atmosphere
o Atmosphere includes the thick gaseous mantle surrounding the planet Earth.
o It spreads up to 500 km above the earth's surface.
o Apart from gases there are water vapor, dust, subatomic particles, and smoke
particles in a suspended state, etc.
o Protects life on Earth by absorbing UV radiation, warming the surface through
heat retention, and reducing temperature extremes between day and night.
 Gas composition in atmosphere
o Major components: Nitrogen (78.09%), Oxygen (20.94%), Water vapour
(0.1%)
o Minor Components: Argon (0.9%), Carbon dioxide (0.032%)
o Trace components: Neon (0.0018%), Helium (0.0005%), Methane (0.0002%)
 Layers of Atmosphere
o Troposphere
o Ozone
 o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Karman Line
o Thermosphere
o Exosphere
 Troposphere
o Lowest layer - extends up to 10 km; contains 99 % of the water vapor and
atmospheric gases.
o The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains most clouds
and half of the Earth's atmosphere.
o Weather occurs in this layer.
o Most of the layer's heat is from Earth.
o Temperature cools about 6.5 degrees Celsius per kilometer of altitude.
 Stratosphere
o Directly above the troposphere, extending from 10 km to about 50 km above
Earth's surface.
o Has the Ozone Layer (20-30 km).
o Many jet aircrafts fly in the stratosphere because it is very stable.
 Mesosphere
o Extends from the top of the stratosphere to about 85 km above Earth.
o Coldest layer with little ozone.
o Ionosphere here - layer of charged particles.
o Need oxygen to live in this region.
o Air quite Cold - 90° C (-130°F) near the top of the mesosphere.
 Thermosphere
o Thickest atmospheric layer found between 85 km and 500 km above Earth's
surface.
o The thermosphere is a layer with auroras, known for its high temperatures.
o Warms as it filters out X-rays and gamma rays from the Sun.
 Solid Earth (Lithosphere)
o Shows the layers of the Earth's crust and mantle.
 The word lithosphere originated from a Greek word meaning "rocky" + "layer"
 The Earth's layers:
o 1. The Core: - approx 3500 kms in radius - located at the center
o 2. The Mantle: - surrounds the core - thickness of 2900 kms.
o 3. The Crust: - floats on top of the mantle. Composed of basalt rich oceanic
and granitic rich continental crust.
 The Earth's composition:
1. Most abundant elements - Fe, O, Si, Mg
2. Most common minerals consist of silica ($SiO_2$) mixed in varying
proportions with other elements such as Fe, Mg, Al, Ca, K, Na
3. Felsic = more silica (less Fe/Mg) & less dense Eg, Granite
4. Mafic = less silica (more Fe/Mg) & more dense Eg, Basalt
 Crust
o Ranges from 5-70 km in depth and is the outermost layer.
o The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlies the ocean basins (5-10
km) and is composed of dense iron, magnesium, silicate igneous rocks, like
basalt. ($SiMa$)
 o The thicker crust is continental crust (20-70 km), which is less dense and
composed of sodium potassium aluminum silicate rocks, like granite.
($SiAl$)
 Mantle
o Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of
Earth.
o The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium.
 Upper mantle - 670 km radius ($CrFeSiMa$)
 Lower mantle - 2230 km in radius ($NiFeSiMa$)
o Asthenosphere: (a,without; sthenos:strength) is the weak that acts as a
"lubricant" for the tectonic plates to slide over. The asthenosphere extends
from 100 km depth to 660 km beneath the Earth's surface.
 Core
o Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts:
 Solid inner core with a radius of ~1,200 km.
 Liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~2,250 km.
o Rich in iron & nickel.
 Hydrosphere
o Includes all water (71%) on Earth.
o Water exists in all three states:
 Solid (ice)
 Liquid (water)
 Gas (water vapor)
 Total water on Earth
o Oceans: 97%
o Freshwater: 3% (Ice-caps and glaciers: 70%, Groundwater: 29%, Accessible
freshwater: 1%)
 Anthroposphere (Man-made)
o Shows the impact of human activities on the environment.

Lecture 3: Ecosystems
 Introduction to Ecology
o The meaning of the word ecology was given by German Biologist Hackle in
1869.
o The word ecology is derived from Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning house,
habitat or place of living and ‘Logos’ meaning to study.
o Ecology is defined as the study of interrelationship of different organisms with
each other and with their environment. It is concerned with the general
principles that apply to both animals and plants.
 Ecological Organization Levels
o Individual
o Population
o Community
o Ecosystem
o Biome
o Biosphere
 Ecosystem
 o Defined area in which a community of plants and animals live with
interactions taking place among the organisms between the community and its
non-living physical environment.
o The nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical features such as hills,
mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands.
o It is also controlled by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the
temperature and the rainfall in the region.
 Ecosystems: Fundamental Characteristics
o Structure:
 Living (biotic)
 Nonliving (abiotic)
o Process:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter (chemicals)
o Change:
 Dynamic (not static)
 Succession, etc.
 Ecosystem Services
o What nature provides us for free.
o Supporting: Photosynthesis, Biodiversity, Habitat, Stewardship, Aesthetic
o Provisioning: Food, Clean Water, Fish, Wood, Pollination
o Regulating: Cool temperatures, Control Flooding, Purify Water, Store Carbon
o Cultural: Recreation, Education
 Components of Ecosystem
o I. Abiotic
 a) Consists of Non-living chemical & physical components such as
water, air, nutrients in the soil or water & Solar Energy.
 b) Physical & chemical factors that influence living organisms in land
(terrestrial) ecosystem & aquatic life zones.
 c) Abiotic factors can act as limiting factors that keep a population at
a certain level.
 Abiotic Components are mainly of two types:

1. Climatic Factors: includes rain, temperature, humidity,
light, wind, moisture, etc.


2. Edaphic Factors: includes soil, pH, Topography,

Minerals, etc.
o II. Biotic factors
 All the living things that directly or indirectly interact with other living
organisms and the physical environment can also be limiting factors
ex. bacteria, animals, plants.
 The Major Biological Components of Ecosystem:
 A. Autotrophs (Producers)

 Make their own food by Photosynthesis

 Sunlight: $6CO_2 + 6H_2O \longrightarrow
C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$
 Source of food in an ecosystem
  On land most producers are green plants
 In aquatic ecosystems - algae, phytoplankton
 B. Heterotrophs (Consumers)
 Get their energy and nutrients by feeding on other
organisms or their remains.
 I. Primary Consumers or herbivores: Are those that
eat producers (plants) as a source of food.
 II. Secondary Consumers or carnivores: Eat
herbivores.
 III. Tertiary Consumers: Large Carnivores which feed
on secondary consumers.
 IV. Quaternary consumers: Largest Carnivores that
feed on tertiary consumers. Not eaten by any animals.
 V. Omnivores: Have mixed diet that include both
plants and animals.
 Decomposers / Saprophytes
o Dead bodies of producers / consumers (Organic matter) are eaten and broken
down into inorganic compounds by bacteria and fungi.
o Inorganic compounds go back to producers as fertilizers.
o Play a vital role in maintaining a continuous cycle of materials.
 Classification of Ecology
o 1. Autecology : It deals with the study of an individual species of organisms
and it’s population. The ecologists study the behavior and adaptations of
particular species to the environmental condition at every stage of that
individual’s life cycle. It is also called the Species Ecology / Population
Ecology.
o 2. Synecology : It deals with the study of communities, their composition,
their behavior and relation with the environment. It is also called Community
Ecology.
 Classification of Ecosystem
o Based on Environment or habitat
 1. Aquatic Ecosystem : The study of interaction of organisms in the
water
 A. Marine water ecosystem - Ocean, Deep Sea
 B. Freshwater ecosystem
 i) Lotic (Running water) - River, Stream, Spring
 ii) Lentic (Standing Water) - Pond, Lake
 2. Terrestrial Ecosystem : The study of interaction of organisms on
land :
 a. Grassland Ecosystem
 b. Forest Ecosystem
 c. Desert Ecosystem
 3. Artificial Ecosystem
 1. Aquatic Ecosystem
o Marine Ecosystem: The study of interaction of organisms in the ocean or
deep sea.
o Estuaries: An area in which fresh water from a river mixes with salt water
from the ocean; a transition area from the land to the ocean.
o Freshwater Ecosystem:
 Lentic (still water): Lake ecosystem
  Lotic (flowing water): River ecosystem
 2. Terrestrial Ecosystem
o a. Grassland Ecosystem
 32% of Earth’s surface is covered with grasslands
 Grasslands occur in regions that are too dry for forests but that have
sufficient soil water to support a closed herbaceous plant canopy that is
lacking in deserts.
 Highly fertile
 Classification is based on -
 dominant vegetation
 dominant species
 climate conditions
 1. Temperate grasslands
 2. Tropical grasslands
 3. Polar grasslands
o Temperate grasslands
 Located in the temperate latitude
 Green vegetation
 Soil is very fertile
 Very short, soft and nutritive
o Tropical grasslands
 Located in the tropical latitude
 Dry and brown colour vegetation
 Soil is not very fertile
 Tall (3m), coarse and spiky
o Polar grasslands
 Located on the northern hemisphere.
 Cold temperatures.
 Average winter temperature is -34° Celsius
o b. Forest Ecosystem
 Predominance of trees that are interspersed with large number of
species of herbs, shrubs, climbers, lichens algae & a variety of wild
animals & birds.
 Depending upon the climatic condition forests can be of different
types:
 Tropical Rain Forest
 Tropical Deciduous forests
 Tropical Scrub Forests
 Temperate Rain Forests
 Temperate Deciduous Forests
 Evergreen Coniferous Forests
o c. Desert Ecosystem
 They occur in regions where evaporation exceeds precipitation
 Two kinds of deserts:
 Hot deserts
 Temperatures are very warm all year round
 The summers are very hot
 Cold deserts
 Short, warm summers
 Long, cold winters
  Found in north and south poles
 Food Chain
o Every organism needs to obtain energy in order to live. For example, plants
get energy from the sun, some animals eat plants, and some animals eat other
animals.
o A food chain is the sequence of who eats whom in a biological community (an
ecosystem) to obtain nutrition.
 Trophic Levels
o Producers - Trophic level 1
o Herbivores - Trophic level 2
o Small Carnivores - Trophic level 3
o Big Carnivores - Trophic level 4
 Food chain helps to maintain:
o Biodiversity; Feeding relationship; Energy flow; Nutrients passage
o Only disadvantage is "Biomagnification"
 Keystone Species: A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and
crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions. Without keystone species, the
ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether.
 Food Web
o A food web (or food cycle) depicts feeding connections (what-eats-what) in an
ecological community and hence is also referred to as a consumer-resource
system.
o The food web is a simplified illustration of the various methods of feeding that
links an ecosystem into a unified system of exchange.
o Various food chains are often interlinked at different trophic levels to form a
complex interaction between different species from the point of view of food.
o Food Web provides more than one alternatives of food to most of the
organisms in an ecosystem and thus increases their chances of survival.
 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
o 1. The first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only be changed from one form to another. Energy for the
functioning of an ecosystem comes from the Sun. Solar energy is absorbed by
plants where it is converted to stored chemical energy.
o 2. The second law of thermodynamics states that whenever energy is
transformed, there is a loss energy through the release of heat. This occurs
when energy is transferred between trophic levels as illustrated in a food web.
When one animal feeds off another, there is a loss of heat (energy) in the
process.
 Ecological Pyramids
o Charles Elton (1927)
o Eltonian Pyramids
o Graphical representation of the trophic structure and function at successive
trophic levels
 Pyramid of Numbers
o
1. Graphical representation of the numbers of individuals in each
population in a food chain.
o
  Can be used to examine how the population of a certain species affects
another.
o

3. Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger

than any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon
ascending the pyramid.
 Pyramid of Biomass
o Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic level.
o Biomass weight is determined after dehydration.
o Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic levels.
o Measured in Kg, grams or pounds.
 Pyramid of Energy
o Shows the energy available at each trophic level.
o The size of the blocks represents the proportion of productivity.
o Measured in Joules or Calories.
 Biogeochemical Cycles
o Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves
through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. A cycle is a series of change which
comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated.
o The term "biogeochemical" tells us that biological, geological and chemical
factors are all involved. The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and water etc. through the biological
and physical world are known as biogeochemical cycles.
 Hydrological Cycle
o 1. Water can be in the atmosphere, on the land, in the ocean, and even
underground. It is recycled over and over through the water cycle. In this,
water changes state between liquid, solid (ice), and gas (water vapor).
o 2. Most water vapor gets into the atmosphere by a process called
evaporation. This process turns the water that is at the top of the ocean,
rivers, and lakes into water vapor in the atmosphere using energy from the
Sun. Water vapor can also form from snow and ice through the process of
sublimation and can evaporate from plants by a process called
transpiration.
o 3. The water vapor rises in the atmosphere and cools, forming tiny water
droplets by a process called condensation. Those water droplets make up
clouds. If those tiny water droplets combine with each other they grow larger
and eventually become too heavy to stay in the air. Then they fall to the
ground as rain, snow, and other types of precipitation.
o 4. Most of the precipitation that falls becomes a part of the ocean or part
of rivers, lakes, and streams that eventually lead to the ocean. Some of the
snow and ice that falls as precipitation stays at the Earth surface in glaciers
and other types of ice. Some of the precipitation seeps into the ground and
becomes a part of the groundwater.
 Carbon Cycle
o 1. In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon
dioxide ($CO_2$). Through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is
pulled from the air to make plant food from carbon.
 o 2. Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the animals
that eat them. Animals that eat other animals get the carbon from their food
too.
o 3. When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decay
bringing the carbon into the ground. Some become buried miles
underground and will become fossil fuels in millions and millions of years.
o 4. Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas ($CO_2$)
into the atmosphere. Animals and plants get rid of carbon dioxide gas
through a process called respiration.
o 5. When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars
and trucks, most of the carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon
dioxide gas.
o **6. Of the huge amount of carbon that is released from fuels, 3.3 billion tons
enters the atmosphere and most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater. **
o 7. The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the
atmosphere.
 Nitrogen Cycle
o 1. Nitrogen fixation: The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into
nitrogenous compounds by bacteria (Rhizobia) found in the root nodules of
legumes and certain other plants, and in the soil.
o 2. Assimilation: Plants take nitrogen from the soil, by absorption through
their roots in the form of their nitrate ions or ammonium ions. All nitrogen
obtained by animals can be traced back to the eating of plants.
o 3. Ammonification: When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste,
the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases, convert
the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium ($NH_4^+$).
o 4. Nitrification: The oxidation of the ammonium compounds in dead organic
material into nitrites and nitrates by soil nitrobacteria, making nitrogen
available to plants.

 Nitrosomonas species converts ammonia to nitrites ($NO_2^-$).

 Nitrobacter species are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites
into nitrates ($NO_3^-$).
o 5. Denitrification: Process occurs when nitrates ($NO_3^-$) reduced to
gaseous nitrogen ($N_2$) as by bacterial action on soil.
 The Phosphorus Cycle
o 1. Phosphate Mining: Phosphate rock is found from 15-50ft below the
ground in a phosphate matrix. After the phosphate is collected it is use for
common human products, such as fertilizer.
o 2. Ingestion: Animals eat plants and other organic materials containing
phosphates.
o 3. Excretion: Animals are a key element in the phosphorus cycle. They
consume plants containing phosphorus and then excrete. The excrement is
then turned into run-off in water and decomposed in either the ground or
nearby water bodies by decomposers.
o 4. Decomposition: Organic material breaks down, returning organic
phosphorus to the soil as inorganic phosphorus. The inorganic phosphorus
then enters the oceans through runoff and erosion of rocks containing
phosphorus.
 o 5. Burial and Compaction: After decomposition organisms are compacted
into sediments to form rock. This then allows phosphorus to become trapped
inside rocks until geologic uplift occurs.
o 6. Geologic Uplift: Uplift exposing underground rocks to the surface allows
phosphorus to be made available to undergo the phosphorus cycle.
o 7. Erosion: Rocks or soil are broken down, transporting phosphorus across
land or into water.
o 8. Absorption: Plants absorb phosphates through their roots.
 Sulfur Cycle
o 1. Hydrogen sulfide gas ($H_2S$) is released into the atmosphere by
volcanic eruptions, hot springs, and the anaerobic decay of sulfur-
containing biological material in swamps, and tidal flats.
o 2. Certain marine algae produce dimethyl sulfide, ($CH_3)_2S$, a volatile
compound that enters the atmosphere as tiny droplets.
o **3. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil releases sulfur dioxide
into the atmosphere. **
o **4. Sulfur dioxide reacts with atmospheric oxygen to produce sulfur trioxide
($SO_3$). **
o 5. Some sulfur trioxide reacts with tiny water droplets to form sulfuric
acid ($H_2SO_4$).
o **6. Sulfur oxides also react with ammonia to produce tiny particles of
ammonium salts. **
o 7. The winds carry droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of sulfate salts,
which then fall to the earth in acid deposition.
o **8. By adding sulfur compounds to the air, the use of fossil fuels increases
the rate of acid deposition. **
o **9. All living things require sulfur to make proteins. **
o 10. Plants get sulfur by taking up ions of sulfate salts ($SO_4^{-2}$) from
the soil.
o 11. Animals get sulfur by eating plants, and all living things release sulfur
compounds when they decay.
o **12. Decomposition releases sulfate salts ($SO_4^{-2}$), which can be
taken up by plants, as well as gaseous hydrogen sulfide. **
o **13. Some hydrogen sulfide enters the atmosphere. **
o **14. But when decay occurs in an oxygen-free environment, anaerobic
bacteria break down hydrogen sulfide and release sulfur gas ($S_2$). **
o 15. Oxygen-requiring bacteria can incorporate sulfur into sulfate salts,
which can be taken up by plants and enter the food chain once again.

Lecture 4: Ecological Succession

 Definition: Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change
and develop over time. It's a series of changes in an ecosystem when one community
is replaced by another due to changes in biotic and abiotic factors.
 Functions: It can regenerate a damaged community and create a community in a
previously uninhabited area. It occurs in all types of ecosystems. The changes are
progressive or directional.
 Stages: Succession involves a pioneer stage, a series of changes known as seral
stages, and finally, a climax stage.
  Primary Succession: This occurs on an entirely new habitat never before colonized,
such as a newly quarried rock face, lava flows, exposed land from a melting glacier,
or sand dunes. Examples include succession after a volcanic eruption and after a
glacier retreats. The sequence typically progresses from lichens and mosses to annual
weeds and grasses, then shrubs, and finally a climax forest. Pioneer species (lichens
and mosses) extract nutrients from dust and bare rock. Then, bacteria, fungi, insects,
and small worms add organics to the soil. Early successional plants are grasses and
herbs, followed by mid-successional plants (grass and low scrubs) and late
successional plants (trees). The climax community depends on climate and edaphic
factors.
 Secondary Succession: This happens in a previously colonized but disturbed or
damaged habitat, such as after felling trees in a forest, a fire, floods, hurricanes,
landslides, or agriculture. Examples include forest fire succession (nutrient release to
soil, regrowth by remnant roots and seeds, invasions from neighboring ecosystems,
and rapid restoration of energy flow and nutrient cycling) and succession after
farming.
 Factors in Succession:
o Facilitation: One species makes an area suitable for another in a different
niche (e.g., legumes add nitrogen so other plants thrive).
o Inhibition: Early species hinder the establishment and growth of later species;
more disturbance is needed to continue.
o Tolerance: Late successors are not affected by earlier ones; this explains the
mixture of species in climax communities.
o Climatic Factors: Precipitation, temperature, and insolation (incoming solar
radiation).
o Edaphic Factors: Alkalinity of soil, extreme acidity, iron toxicity, zinc
deficiency, and low nutrients in soil.
 Hydroseres: A wetland example of succession, progressing from open freshwater to
submerged plants, swamps, marshes, and finally climax woodland.
 Succession Types Based on Habitat: Lithosere (soil), hydro sere (water), halosere
(salty/saline land), and xerosere (desert).

Lecture 5: Biodiversity
 Definition: Biodiversity refers to the number, variety, and variability of life forms
found within a specified geographic region; it includes terrestrial and aquatic life and
is the product of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history. It covers
diversity within species, between species, and variations among ecosystems.
 Importance: Biodiversity provides ecosystem services, including provisioning (food,
water, wood), regulating (pollination, climate control), supporting (soil formation,
photosynthesis), and cultural (education, recreation) services. There are also
ecological, economic, and cultural/social/aesthetic roles.
 Ecological Role: All species provide at least one function in an ecosystem; these
functions regulate species balance, diversity, and health. Examples include biomass
production, atmospheric oxygen, soil formation, water purification, flood control, and
climate regulation.
 Economic Role: Biodiversity provides food (crop biodiversity or agro-biodiversity),
various goods (timber, paper, medicines), and genetic resources (used in
biotechnology and genetic engineering).
 Cultural, Social, Aesthetic Role: It contributes to education, recreation, exploration,
and tourism.
 World Biodiversity Day Themes: The provided source lists themes for World
Biodiversity Day from 2002 to 2023.
 Megadiverse Countries: These countries have at least 5,000 species of endemic
plants and border marine ecosystems. The list of megadiverse countries is provided in
the source.
 Factors Determining Diversity: Habitat stress, geographical isolation, dominance by
one species, availability of ecological niches, geological history, and edge effect.
 Classification of Biodiversity:
o Species Diversity: Refers to the number of plant and animal species in a
community/ecosystem; it varies between ecosystems. Tropical rainforests and
coral reefs have high species diversity, while isolated islands have low
diversity. The estimated total number of species on Earth is 8.7 million.
o Species Richness: The total number of species.
o Species Evenness: The relative abundance of species.
o Species Dominance: The most abundant species.
o Ecosystem Diversity: Deals with variations in ecosystems within a
geographical location and their impact on human existence and the
environment. Examples of ecosystems are provided in the source.
 Keystone Species: Determines the survival of a larger number of other species;
mostly top-level predators.
 Sentinel/Indicator Species: Act as indicators of potent danger to human life by
providing advance warning. Examples of sentinel species are included in the source.
 Species Extinction:
o Biological Extinction: Complete disappearance of a species, irreversible.
o Local Extinction: Ecological extinction.
o Background Extinction: Gradual disappearance of species.
o Mass Extinction: More than 65% of all species become extinct (millions of
years). Examples of mass extinction events are given in the source.
 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (1964): Uses criteria to evaluate the
extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. The goals of the Red List are
to provide scientifically-based information on species status, draw attention to
threatened biodiversity, influence national and international policy, and provide
information to guide conservation actions. More than 26,000 species are threatened
with extinction.
 Threatened Species: Facing threats to their survival and may be at risk of extinction.
The sources define vulnerable, endangered, and critically endangered species based
on population decline percentages. Examples of each type of threatened species are
provided.
 Biodiversity Hotspots: Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found
nowhere else on Earth (endemic species) and have lost at least 70% of their primary
native vegetation. Hotspots in India include the Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-
Burma region, and Sundaland (including the Nicobar group of islands).
 India's Biodiversity: India has approximately 45,000 plant species and 81,000
animal species; 18% of India's plants are endemic.
 Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation due to volcanic
eruptions, wildfires, droughts, severe storms, conversion of forests to agricultural
lands and industries, dam construction, and human settlements. The effects include
species divided into smaller populations, increased vulnerability to predators and
 competitors, limitations on species dispersal and colonization, and loss of migratory
bird habitats. An example of habitat fragmentation is shown in the source, which
depicts the proposed highway through the Serengeti National Park.
 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Entered into force on December 29,
1993, with three main objectives: conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use
of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resource
utilization.
 Conservation Measures:
o In-situ Conservation: Protecting species in their natural habitat (e.g., national
parks, biosphere reserves, wildlife sanctuaries).
o Ex-situ Conservation: Off-site protection away from natural habitat (e.g.,
seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, aquariums). Specific conservation
measures include prevention and control of forest fires, eliminating excessive
cutting of trees, using erosion-resisting grasses, wise management of tree
insects and diseases, conservation of endangered and endemic species,
minimizing pollution, stopping improper land degradation, curbing poaching,
restoration of species, and implementing educational programs.

Lecture 6: Energy Resources

 Natural Resources: Any part of the natural environment (land, water, air, minerals,
forest, grassland, wildlife, fish, or even human population) that can be utilized to
promote human welfare.
 Classification of Natural Resources:
o Based on Origin: Biotic (from the biosphere, e.g., animals, birds, fish) and
abiotic (non-living things, e.g., land, water, air, minerals).
o Based on Stage of Development: Potential (exist in a region but may be used
in the future) and actual (surveyed, quantity and quality determined, and
currently used).
o Based on Renewability: Renewable (easily replenished or reproduced) and
non-renewable (formed over long geological periods, cannot be replenished).
 Non-renewable Resources: Fossil fuels (hydrocarbons found in the top layer of the
Earth's crust; coal, crude oil, and natural gas are examples).
 Coal Formation: Forms when wetland plants die, become buried, and undergo
physical and chemical changes over millions of years. The stages of coal formation
are peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.
 Thermal Power Plants: Use heat energy from burning fossil fuels to heat water,
produce steam, rotate turbines, and generate electricity. A diagram illustrates the
process.
 Crude Oil: A thick, greenish-brown flammable liquid found underground; it consists
of hydrocarbons mixed with oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and other elements. It's formed
from the remains of marine plant and animal life. Fractional distillation is used to
separate components like gasoline, naphtha, paraffin, fuel oil, diesel, lubricating oil,
and bitumen.
 Natural Gas: A mixture of gases (methane, ethane, propane, and butane). Propane
and butane are removed to make liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). It is highly
flammable and odorless and is used for heating, cooking, and powering vehicles.
 Ores: Mineral deposits from which valuable metals and nonmetals can be recovered
at a profit; they don't replace themselves quickly. Examples of metallic and non-
metallic ores are provided.
  Nuclear Energy: A form of energy released from the nucleus of atoms. It can be
produced by fission (nuclei split) or fusion (nuclei fuse).
 Renewable Resources:
o Solar Power: Provides heat and light; it's the technology of obtaining usable
energy from sunlight. It is widely used where other power supplies are absent.
It can provide energy for 5 billion years. Applications include electricity
generation using photovoltaic cells and concentrated solar power, heating
buildings, heating foodstuffs, heating water or air, and heating and cooling air.
Parabolic troughs and solar power towers are two types of concentrating solar
power systems.
o Solar Cells: Convert solar energy to electrical energy; they're made from
semiconductors like silicon, germanium, and gallium. A single cell produces a
low voltage and wattage, so multiple cells are arranged in panels.
o Wind Energy: The conversion of wind energy into more useful forms, usually
electricity using wind turbines. It's used in large-scale wind farms and small
turbines.
o Hydroelectric Power: Energy of moving water; it's used for irrigation and
operating various machines.
o Tidal Energy: From the rise and fall of tides; France was the first country to
use it. Examples of locations using tidal energy are provided in the source.
o Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): Uses warm surface water to
boil ammonia, the vapor rotates turbines to produce electricity, and cold
bottom water cools the vapor back to liquid.
o Biomass Fuels: Plant products (wood, algae, aquatic plants, trees, crops,
straw, sawdust) and animal wastes (cow dung). They are commonly used
renewable energy. Animal wastes undergo anaerobic fermentation to form
biogas (55% methane and 45% CO2). The residue can be used as manure.
o Geothermal Energy: Geothermal power plants use steam from reservoirs of
hot water to produce electricity.

Lecture 7: Forest Resources

 Forest: The term “forest” is derived from the Latin word “foris,” meaning outside.
Originally, it referred to un-cultivated and uninhabited land. Allen and Sharpe define
a forest as a community of trees and associated organisms covering a considerable
area, using water and minerals to mature and reproduce, and furnishing mankind with
indispensable products and services. Forest resources play an important role in the
economy. Living things in forests include trees, shrubs, and wildlife; non-living things
include water, nutrients, rocks, and sunlight. Forests have aesthetic, recreational,
economic, historical, cultural, and religious values. Forests provide fuel, wood,
timber, wildlife habitat, industrial forest products, climate regulation, and medicinal
resources.
 Ecological Role of Forests: Provide an environment for plants and animals,
protective canopy, reduced soil erosion, air pollution prevention, noise muffling,
strong wind buffering, nutrient provision from decomposing plants, carbon
sequestration, ground water recharge, and soil formation through weathering. Plants
and trees have medicinal value.
 Economic Role of Forests: Provide timber, paper, fuel wood, bamboo, cane, food,
fibers, essential oils, medicinal plants, spices, insecticides, fodder for cattle and other
grazing animals, relaxation and recreation, and aesthetic value.
  Deforestation: Removal or cutting down of forests and transformation of natural
vegetation into clear land. India's forest cover has fallen below the minimum
recommended level.
 Causes of Deforestation: Agriculture, commercial logging, mining, increasing
population, urbanization, industrialization, construction of dam reservoirs, forest fires,
and overgrazing.
 Effects of Deforestation: Habitat destruction, increased soil erosion, reduced oxygen,
increased pollution, decreased availability of forest products, loss of biodiversity,
scarcity of fuel wood, lowered water table, and global warming.
 Conservation of Forests:
o Government Initiatives: India's first Forest Policy (1952) aimed to increase
forest and tree cover to 33%. Other government aims include sustainable
development and conservation of forests, afforestation of wastelands,
conservation of wildlife and biodiversity, joint forest management (JFM), eco-
tourism, and reduced use of timber and other forest products.
o Individual and Private Body Roles: Report deforestation, connect with
NGOs, create awareness about national parks and sanctuaries, pressure
authorities to implement forest policies, use ecologically sensitive public
transport, avoid littering, participate in preserving greenery, and look for
alternatives (e.g., recycling, reuse).

Lecture 8: Water Resources

 Water: Basic to human and animal life; indispensable for plants. Sources of water are
described. Uses include agriculture, industry, households, recreation, and
environmental activities. Abundantly distributed in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
lithosphere. Total water available is 1386 million km³.
 Importance of Water: All living things need water; it composes the majority of the
body of organisms and serves as habitat. It helps regulate climate, shapes the Earth’s
surface, and dilutes and degrades wastes.
 Hydrosphere: 97% of Earth's water is salt water; 2% is frozen; the remaining 1% is
mainly groundwater, with a small fraction above ground or in the air. Surface water
contains organic matter and mineral nutrients; groundwater contains dissolved
minerals. A world map shows projected water stress levels in 2040.
 Water Wars: Conflicts between countries, states, or groups over access to water
resources. Many countries in the Middle East face water shortages. Most water in this
region comes from the Nile, Jordan, or Tigris rivers. There are no cooperative
agreements for the use of 158 of the world's 263 shared water basins.
 Causes for Water Stress: Increased population, increased demand for goods, water
evaporation from large hydropower reservoirs, domestic use, agricultural use, and
industrial use.
 Water Pollution: Runoff from agricultural fields, untreated industrial wastes,
chemicals, smoke from vehicle exhausts, untreated municipal sewage, which all
contribute to acid rain, cause increasing pollution of freshwater sources (surface and
groundwater).
 Additional Stress in Urban Areas: Lakes, tanks, and ponds are destroyed;
groundwater extraction affects quality; sewage exceeds treatment plant capacity; solid
and liquid waste disposal is problematic.
 Sustainable Water Management: Building small reservoirs instead of mega-
projects, developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands, treating and
 recycling wastewater, preventing leakages from dams and canals, controlling
intensive technologies in industries, recycling wastewater, preventing loss in
municipal pipes, effective rainwater harvesting, landscaping with low-water plants,
and purifying and reusing water.
 Sandra Postel Quote: Highlights unsustainable water use and the false message of
abundance due to government subsidies.
 Water Withdrawals: A chart showing water withdrawals per capita worldwide in
2020 by select country.
 Dams: 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies on dams; hydropower provides 9%
of the world's total electric power supply. Benefits include year-round water supply,
extra water for agriculture and industry, and hydropower generation. Problems in
mega-dam projects include ecosystem impacts, river course changes, displacement of
people and animals, impacts on lives, cultures, and spiritual existence, water logging
and salination, disruption of fish movement and navigation, emission of greenhouse
gases, and conflicts over equitable distribution. A diagram outlines advantages and
disadvantages of dams.
 Benefits of Harvesting Rainwater: Conserves water, decreases bills, lowers demand
on freshwater resources, slows erosion, and reduces flooding.

Lecture 9: Mineral and Land Resources

 Mineral Resources: Exhaustible, non-renewable resources. Essential for industries;
consumption increased due to rapid industrialization. Short supply for some minerals
(copper, mercury, silver); some are at risk of exhaustion. A table lists minerals and
their uses.
 Mining: Process of taking out minerals or ores from Earth. It involves prospecting,
exploration, development, exploitation, and reclamation. Professionals involved
include engineers, geophysicists, geologists, and geochemists. A flow chart depicts
the mining process.
 Surface Mining: Open-pit mining (making pits, for example for copper, iron, marble,
granite), dredging (underwater deposits), strip mining (top soil removed and mined),
contour strip mining (mountainous terrains), mountain top mining (blasting by using
explosives).
 Sub-surface Mining: Deep beneath Earth’s surface; deep holes are dug out and ores
extracted. Risks include collapse, toxic gas explosion, and underground water
pollution. An example of deep mining is provided.
 Disadvantages of Mining: Damages topsoil, affects vegetation, causes cracks in
buildings and roads, gas leakage, transportation problems, wind erosion, pollutes
ground and surface water, soil pollution, air pollution, and respiratory illnesses for
miners.
 Conservation of Minerals: Recycling (used items collected, remelted, and
reprocessed), reuse (e.g., glass bottles), substitution (rare minerals replaced by
abundant ones, for example steel, tin, copper being substituted by plastics, ceramics,
glass), decreased consumption (durable and repairable products), and use of waste
(waste material as raw materials for another industry).
 Land Resources: One-fifth of Earth’s surface is covered with forests, grasslands,
wetlands, agricultural lands, and urban settlements. It’s a source of materials essential
to humans. Fertile soil supports life; plants obtain water and minerals; dead plants and
animals provide nutrients. Pedology is the study of soil science.
 Soil Formation:
 o Weathering: Breakdown of rocks into smaller particles.
 Physical Weathering: Caused by temperature, frost, drying/wetting.
 Chemical Weathering: Caused by carbonation, oxidation, reduction,
hydration, hydrolysis, acidification.
 Biological Weathering: Microbial activity, plant roots, burrowing
animals.
o Pedogenesis: Maturation of soil through humus.
 Land Degradation: Soil erosion (removal of topsoil by water, wind, snow), water
logging, salinity, shifting agriculture, and desertification. Over-grazing, tilling, and
over-cropping increase soil erosion. Depletion of soil fertility is caused by clearing
natural vegetation for residential areas and industrialization.
 Methods to Prevent Loss of Soil: Conservation tillage (incorporating residues from
previous cropping), organic farming (biofertilizers replacing synthetic chemicals),
crop rotation, contour ploughing, mulching, strip cropping, terrace farming,
agrostological methods (growing grasses), afforestation, and windbreaks. Images
illustrate contour ploughing, strip cropping, terrace farming, and windbreaks.

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