UNIT- 4 & 5

Introduction, Rectifiers & Power Supplies

Q1) List out the Evolution of Electronics.

Q2) Define Moore’s Law

Ans) Moore's law states that the number of transistors that are integrated on a single chip
doubles about every two years.
Q3) What is Scale of Integration. List out the Scale of Integration.
Ans) The number of Transistors that can be integrated on a single chip is known as Scale of
Integration.

Q4) Explain in detail about Energy Band Theory of Solids

Ans) Energy Band
When two isolated charges are brought close to each other, the electrons in the outermost orbit
experience an attractive force fromthe nearest atomic nucleus.
Due to this reason, the energies of the electrons will not be at the same level, the energy levels of
electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy level of
the electron. The grouping of these different energy levels is known as the energy band.

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Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons
contain a series of energy levels and forman energy band known as the valence band. The valence
band has the highest occupied energy.
Conduction Band
The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these valence
electrons leave the outermost orbit even at roomtemperature and become free electrons. The
free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as conduction electrons.
The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest occupied energy
levels.
Forbidden Gap
The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as the forbidden gap. As
the name suggests, the forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no electrons stay in this band. If
the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band electrons are tightly bound or firmly
attached to the nucleus. We require some amount of external energy that is equal to the forbidden
energy gap for the electrons to jump fromValence Band to Conduction Band.
Conductors
For Conductors there is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which
results in the overlapping of both the bands. The number of free electrons available at room
temperature is very large.
Ex) Gold, Alluminium, Silver, Copper.
Insulators
These substances do not allow electricity to pass through them. They have high resistivity and
very low conductivity. The energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7eV. The material cannot
conduct because the movement of the electrons fromthe valence band to the conduction band is

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not possible.
Ex)Glass &Wood.
Semi Conductors
The energy band diagramof semiconductors is shown where the conduction band is empty and the
valence band is completely filled but the forbidden gap between the two bands is very small that is
about 1eV. For Germanium, the forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV.
Ex)Germaniumand Silicon.
Q5) Compare Insulators, Conductors and Semi-Conductors.

Q6) What is Doping ? what are the types of Doping?

Ans) Adding Impurities to purest formof Semi-Conductor Materials is Called Doping. The Doping
5
Concentration is about adding 1Impure atomin Million atoms. i.e., 1in 10 atoms.
Doping is of two types 1) Trivalent Impurities 2) Pentavalent Impurities.
Adding Trivalent impurities like Galium, Alluminiumand Boron to purest formof Semi-Conductor
Material yields P-Type Materials. In P-Type Materials Majority Carriers are Holes and Minority
Carriers are electrons.
Adding Pentavalent impurities like Bismuth, Arsenic & Phosporous to purest formof Semi-
Conductor Material yields N-Type Materials. In N-Type Materials Majority Carriers are Electrons
and Minority Carriers are Holes.
Q7) List out the differences between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semi-Conductor.

Q8) List out the Differences between P-Type and N-Type Semi Conductor Materials.

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Q9) Explain the working Phenomenon of P-NJunction Diode and its V-I Characteristics.
Ans) AP-Njunction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types,
namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.
The P-side, or positive side, of a semiconductor, contains more holes than the N-side, or negative
side, which has more electrons and used in allowing the flow of electric current in one direction
and blocking in the opposite.
In a PNjunction diode, an ionized donor is left behind on the N-side when an electron diffuses from
the N-side to the P-side and a layer of positive charge develops on the N-side of the junction. When
a hole moves fromthe P-side to the N-side, an ionized acceptor is left behind on the P-side,
causing a layer of negative charges to accumulate on the P-side of the junction. The depletion area
is defined as a region of positive and negative charge on each side of the junction. An electric field
with a direction froma positive charge to a negative charge develops on either side of the junction.

The electric potential between P and N-regions changes when an external potential is supplied to
the PNjunction terminals. As a result, the flow of the majority of carriers is altered, allowing
electrons and holes to diffuse through the PNjunction.
The diode is thought to be in the forward bias state if the applied voltage reduces the width of the
depletion layer, and reverse bias if the applied voltage increases the width of the depletion layer.

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The diode is said to be in the zero bias or un-bias state if the width of the depletion layer remains
unchanged.
V-I Characteristics
When the diode is in forward bias, as the voltage applied to the diode is overcoming the potential
barrier, the current increases slowly and the curve obtained is non-linear. Once the potential
barrier is crossed by the diode, the diode behaves normally and the curve rises sharply as further
external voltage increases rapidly which is known as cut-in Voltage or Knee Voltage. For
germaniumdiodes, the cut-in voltage is 0.3 V, and for silicone diodes, the cut-in voltage is 0.7 V
When the PNjunction diode is under reverse bias, this results in an increase in the potential barrier
and resistance also increases. Minority carriers are present in the junction which creates reverse
saturation current flows in the beginning.
If the applied voltage increases rapidly, there is increased kinetic energy due to minority charge
carriers which affect the majority charges. In this stage the diode breaks down. or the voltage is
called breakdown voltage, This may also destroy the diode.

Q10) Explain in detail about Forward Bias and Reverse Bias Condition of P-NJunction Diode.
Ans) Forward Bias
The PNjunction is forward-biased when the P-type is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the N-type is connected to the negative terminal. In this condition, the applied electric
field and the built-in electric field at the PNjunction are in opposing directions. As a result, the
depletion area becomes thinner and less resistant. When the applied voltage is high, the resistance
of the depletion area becomes insignificant. At 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion zone in
silicon becomes absolutely insignificant, allowing current to flow freely.

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Reverse Bias
The PNjunction is reverse biased when the P-type is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and the N-type is connected to the positive side. In this condition, the applied electric field
and the built-in electric field are both in the same direction. The resultant electric field and the
built-in electric field are also in the same direction, resulting in a more resistive, thicker depletion
area. Increasing the applied voltage results in a thicker and more resistant depletion area.

Q11) Explain the Working Phenomenon of Zener Diode in Reverse Bias Conditions.
Ans) AZener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped semiconductor
device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a Zener diode’s
terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon,
known as the Zener Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.
AZener diode functions similarly to a regular diode when forward-biased. However, in reverse-
biased mode, a small leakage current flows through the diode.

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There are two types of breakdowns in a Zener Diode: Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs in both normal diodes and Zener diodes when subjected to high
reverse voltage. When a significant reverse voltage is applied to the PNjunction, the free
electrons gain enough energy to accelerate at high velocities. These high-velocity electrons collide
with other atoms, causing the ejection of additional electrons. This continuous collision process
generates a large number of free electrons, resulting in a rapid increase in electric current through
the diode. In the case of a normal diode, this sudden surge in current could permanently damage it.
However, a Zener diode is specifically designed to withstand avalanche breakdown and can handle
the sudden current spike. Avalanche breakdown typically occurs in Zener diodes with a Zener
voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
Zener Breakdown
When the reverse bias voltage applied to a Zener diode approaches its Zener voltage, the electric
field within the depletion region becomes strong enough to attract and remove electrons from
their valence band. These valence electrons, energized by the intense electric field, break free
fromtheir parent atoms. This phenomenon takes place in the Zener breakdown region, where even
a slight increase in voltage leads to a rapid surge in electric current.
Q12) List out the differences between Zener Break down and Avalanche Breakdown.

Q13) Explain how Zener Diode acts as a Voltage Regulator?

Ans) Zener diode is a silicon semiconductor with a p-n junction that is specifically designed to
work in the reverse biased condition. When forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal diode,
but when the reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide range of
currents. Due to this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in d.c. circuit. The primary objective
of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage. Let us say if Zener
voltage of 5 V is used then, the voltage becomes constant at 5 V, and it does not change.
Voltage Regulator
Avoltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps down the input

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voltage to the desired level and keeps it at that same level during the supply. This ensures that
even when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop. The voltage regulator is used for two main
reasons, and they are:
To vary or regulate the output voltage & To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value
in spite of variations in the supply voltage. Voltage regulators are used in computers, power
generators, alternators to control the output of the plant.
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the diode. It is
connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way the reverse-biased can also
work in breakdown conditions. We do not use ordinary junction diode because the low power rating
diode can get damaged when we apply reverse bias above its breakdown voltage. When the
minimuminput voltage and the maximumload current is applied, the Zener diode current should
always be minimum. Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier
to choose a Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage.

Q14) For the Circuit shown in figure determine the Maximumand Minimumvalue of Zener Current.

Ans) Max Zener Current is obtained by taking MaximumValue of Votage.

Voltage across 5 kᾯ is 120-50 = 70 V ; Current I = 70 /5 kᾯ = 14 mA
Load Current IL = 50/10 kᾯ = 5 mA. ; (I ZENER )MAX = 14-5 = 9 mA( Applying KCL I= IL + IZ)

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Min Zener Current is obtained by taking MinimumValue of Votage.
Voltage across 5 kᾯ is 80-50 = 30 V ; Current I = 30 /5 kᾯ = 6 mA
Load Current IL = 50/10 kᾯ = 5 mA. ; (I ZENER )Min = 6-5 = 1mA( Applying KCL I= IL + IZ or I- IL = IZ )
Q15) Explain the operation of Half Wave Rectifier with a neat diagram.
Ans) AHalf Wave Rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half cycle of an AC
voltage waveformto pass while blocking the other half cycle.
AHalf-Wave rectifier circuit consists of three main components
● Diode
● Transformer
● Resistive load

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

Ahigh AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer. The obtained
secondary low voltage is applied to the diode. let us simplify the Half-wave circuit by replacing the
secondary transformer coils with a voltage source as shown below

The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage & acts as a closed
switch and the diode is reverse biased during the negative half cycle and acts as an open switch.
The circuit diagrams are shown below.

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The final output voltage waveformis as shown in the figure below

Determination of Ripple Factor and Efficiency of Half-Wave Rectifier

Ripple Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the AC component of the input voltage to the DC
component of the output voltage. It is denoted as ɣ.

We Know that IRMS = IM/2 and IDC = IM/∏ for Half Wave Rectifier; Substituting the above Values we
get the Value of Ripple factor = 1.21
Efficiency
The efficiency of a rectifier is the ratio of the output DC power to the input AC power. It is
denoted by ᾐ.
2 2
ᾐ= PDC / PAC ; Where PDC = I DC RL ; PAC = I RMS / (RS + RF +RL) ; (here RL >>>RF +RS);
& IRMS = IM/2 and IDC = IM/∏ ;

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Substituting the above Values and Simplifying the expression for efficiency we get
ᾐ.= 40.6 %
Advantages
1. Simple Circuitry: Fewer components required, reducing complexity.
2. Low Cost: Economical due to fewer components.
3. Easy Implementation: Straightforward design and construction.
4. High Voltage Capability: Can handle high voltage inputs.
5. Reduced Power Loss: Lower power loss compared to full-wave rectifiers.
6. Simple Filtering: Easier filtering due to single-polarity output.
7. Compact Size: Smaller size due to fewer components.
Disadvantages
1. Low Efficiency: Utilizes only half of AC input cycle.
2. High Ripple Factor: Output voltage has significant AC component.
3. Low Power Factor: Input power factor is low.

Applications
1. Power supplies for low-power devices.
2. Battery chargers.
3. Simple DC power systems.
4. Audio and radio frequency applications.
5. Medical devices (e.g., ECG monitors).
Q16) Explain the operation of Bridge Rectifier with a neat diagram.
Ans) ABridge rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a bridge
circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct (DC) current. The
main advantage of this configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped transformer.
Therefore, the size and cost are reduced.
Construction
The construction of a bridge rectifier is shown in the figure below. The bridge rectifier circuit is
made of four diodes D1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL. The four diodes are connected in a
closed-loop configuration

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Working
The input signal is applied across terminals Aand B, and the output DC signal is obtained across
the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four diodes are arranged in such a
way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each half cycle. D1and D3 are pairs that
conduct electric current during the positive half cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
electric current during a negative half cycle.
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal Abecomes positive during the
positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes D1and D3 becoming
forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal Abecomes negative.
This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1and D3 to be reverse biased.

Ripple Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the AC component of the input voltage to the DC
component of the output voltage. It is denoted as ɣ.

We Know that IRMS = IM/√2 and IDC = 2IM/∏ for Half Wave Rectifier; Substituting the above Values we

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get the Value of Ripple factor = 0.48.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a rectifier is the ratio of the output DC power to the input AC power. It is
denoted by ᾐ.
2 2
ᾐ= PDC / PAC ; Where PDC = I DC RL ; PAC = I RMS / (RS + 2RF +RL) ; (here RL >>>2RF +RS);
& IRMS = IM/√2 and IDC = 2IM/∏ ;
Substituting the above Values and Simplifying the expression for efficiency we get
ᾐ.= 81.2 %
Advantages
1. Full-wave rectification: Utilizes both half-cycles of AC input.
2. High efficiency: Converts entire AC waveformto DC.
3. Reduced ripple factor: Smoother DC output.
4. No center tap required: Simplifies transformer design.
5. Bidirectional: Can handle AC inputs with either polarity.
Disadvantages
1. Complex circuitry: Requires four diodes.
2. Higher cost: More diodes and complex design.
3. Increased power loss: Four diodes lead to higher voltage drop.
4. Reverse recovery issues: Diodes may not switch off quickly.
Applications
1. Power supplies: Switch-mode power supplies, DC power supplies.
2. Motor control: DC motor speed control, direction control.
3. Audio equipment: Power amplifiers, preamplifiers.
4. Medical devices: Defibrillators, ECG machines.
5. Industrial control: Control circuits for machinery.
6. Automotive systems: Battery chargers, electrical systems.
7. Renewable energy: Solar panels, wind turbines.
8. Consumer electronics: TVs, computers, phone chargers.
Q17) Explain the working of Centre Tapped Full wave Rectifier with a neat Block Diagram.
Determine its Ripple Factor and Efficiency.
Ans) AFull wave rectifier is defined as a Rectifier that converts the complete cycle of alternating
current into pulsating DC. Unlike Half wave Rectifiers that utilize only the half wave of the input
AC cycle, full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower efficiency of the half wave rectifier
can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.
The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first method uses a
centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is known as a centre tapped full wave

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rectifier. The second method uses a standard transformer with four diodes arranged as a bridge.
This is known as a bridge rectifier.

The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down transformer and two diodes that are
connected and centre tapped. The output voltage is obtained across the connected load resistor.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1is forward biased as it is connected to the top of the
secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to the bottomof the
secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1will conduct acting as a short circuit or Closed Switch and
D2 will not conduct acting as an open circuit or open Switch.
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward biased
because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the bottomhalf of the circuit
becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and
negative half cycle.
Ripple Factor
It is defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the AC component of the input voltage to the DC
component of the output voltage. It is denoted as ɣ.

We Know that IRMS = IM/√2 and IDC = 2IM/∏ for Half Wave Rectifier; Substituting the above Values we
get the Value of Ripple factor = 0.48.
Efficiency
The efficiency of a rectifier is the ratio of the output DC power to the input AC power. It is
denoted by ᾐ.
2 2
ᾐ= PDC / PAC ; Where PDC = I DC RL ; PAC = I RMS / (RS + RF +RL) ; (here RL >>>RF +RS);

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& IRMS = IM/√2 and IDC = 2IM/∏ ;
Substituting the above Values and Simplifying the expression for efficiency we get
ᾐ.= 81.2 %
Advantages
1. High efficiency: Utilizes both half-cycles of AC input.
2. Reduced ripple factor: Smoother DC output.
3. Simple circuitry: Fewer components compared to bridge rectifier.
4. Low cost: Fewer diodes and simple design.
5. Easy to implement: Center-tap transformer simplifies design.
Disadvantages
1. Center-tap transformer required: Adds complexity and cost.
2. Limited voltage output: Restricted by transformer's center-tap.
3. Higher voltage drop: Two diodes in series increase voltage loss.
4. Poor regulation: Output voltage varies with input voltage.
Applications
1. Power supplies: DC power supplies, switch-mode power supplies.
2. Audio equipment: Power amplifiers, preamplifiers.
3. Medical devices: ECG machines, medical imaging equipment.
4. Industrial control: Motor control, lighting control.
5. Automotive systems: Battery chargers, electrical systems.
6. Consumer electronics: TVs, computers, phone chargers.
7. Renewable energy: Solar panels, wind turbines.
8. Communication systems: Radio transmitters, receivers.
Q18) What is TUF ? Determine TUF for Half wave , Full Wave & Bridge Rectifier
Ans) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) measures the efficiency of a transformer in a rectifier
circuit. TUF = (DC power delivered to the load / AC power rating of the transformer) × 100
TUF for Half Wave Rectifier
2
TUF= PDC /PAC ; PDC = I DC RL ; PAC= (VS(RMS) I(RMS))
VS(RMS) = VM /√2 ; I(RMS) = IM /2 ; VM= IM RL ; IDC= IM /∏;
2 2 2
TUF = (IM RL 2 √2) / (∏ IM RL);
TUF= 0.287 or 28.7%
TUF for Full Wave Rectifier
2
TUF= PDC /PAC ; PDC = I DC RL ; PAC= (VS(RMS) I(RMS))
VS(RMS) = VM /√2 ; I(RMS) = IM ; VM= IM RL ; IDC= 2IM /∏;
2 2 2
TUF = (IM RL 4√2) / (∏ IM RL);
TUF= 0.573 or 57.3%

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TUF for Bridge Rectifier
2
TUF= PDC /PAC ; PDC = I DC RL ; PAC= (VS(RMS) I(RMS))
VS(RMS) = VM /√2 ; I(RMS) = IM /√2 ; VM= IM RL ; IDC= 2IM /∏;
2 2 2
TUF = (IM RL 8) / (∏ IM RL);
TUF= 0.812 or 81.2%
Q19) Compare Capacitor Filter and Inductor Filter.
Ans ) Capacitor Filter
● Smooths Voltage Variations by Storing and Releasing Energy
● Charges during High Voltages and discharges during Low Voltages.
● Effective for High frequency Noise and Ripple Removal.
● Simple design and relatively low cost.
● Less effective at lower Frequencies, Voltage Regulation may not be as precise.
● LC Filter : Utilizes both Capacitor and Inductors for better Performance.
● Applications : Based on frequency range of Noise.

Inductor Filter
● Blocks High Frequency Noise and maintains a stable DC Output.
● Resists change in Current , filters out High Frequency Variations.
● Effective at filtering low frequency Noise.
● Provides better Voltage Regulation.
● Larger and Heavier more expensive and complex.
● PI Filter : Configured in a “ pi” shape , combining advantages.
● Applications : Based on Size, weight and Cost.
Q20) Compare Rectifier Parameters.

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Q21) Draw the Block diagramof DC Power Supply and Explain each Block.
Ans) The basic building blocks of a regulated DC power supply are as follows
● AStep Down Transformer
● ARectifier
● ADC filter
● ARegulator
Step Down Transformer
Astep down transformer will step down the voltage fromthe ac mains to the required voltage
level. The turn’s ratio of the transformer is so adjusted such as to obtain the required voltage
value. The output of the transformer is given as an input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectifier
Rectification is the process of converting an alternating voltage or current into corresponding
direct (DC) quantity. The input to a rectifier is ac whereas its output is unidirectional pulsating
DC. Usually a full wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier is used to rectify both the half cycles of the
ac supply (full wave rectification).
DC Filtration
The rectified voltage fromthe rectifier is a pulsating DC voltage having very high ripple content.
But this is not we want, we want a pure ripple free DC. Hence a filter is used. Different types of
filters are used such as capacitor filter, LC filter, Choke input filter, π type filter.
Regulation
The output voltage or current will change or fluctuate when there is change in the input fromac
mains or due to change in load current at the output of the regulated power supply. This problem
can be eliminated by using a regulator. Aregulator will maintain the output constant even when
changes at the input or any other changes occur. Transistor series regulator, Fixed and variable IC

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regulators or a zener diode operated in the zener region can be used depending on their
applications.

Q22) Explain about the Construction of Transistor. List out the types of Transistor.
Ans) ABJT consists of three layers of semiconductor material, typically silicon (Si) or germanium
(Ge), with two junctions.
Base: The middle section of the transistor is known as the base. It is a Thin, lightly doped
semiconductor layer. The base forms two circuits, the input circuit with the emitter and the
output circuit with the collector. The emitter-base is forward-biased and offers low resistance to
the circuit. The collector-base junction is in reverse bias and offers higher resistance to the
circuit. The base of a transistor is lightly doped and very thin due to which it offers the majority
charge carrier to the base.

2. Collector: The section that collects the majority of the charge carrier supplied by the emitter is
called a collector. Heavily doped (Less than Emitter) semiconductor layer. The collector-base
junction is always reverse biased. The collector section of the transistor is moderately doped, but
larger in size so that it can collect most of the charge carrier supplied by the emitter.
3. Emitter: The emitter supplies a large section of majority charge carriers. Heavily doped
semiconductor layer. The emitter is always forward biased with respect to the base so that it
supplies the majority charge carrier to the base. The emitter of a transistor is heavily doped and
moderate in size.
There are two major types of BJT’s. NPNTransistor ( Majority Electrons ; Minority Holes) & PNP
Transistor ( Majority Holes ; Minority Electrons)

Q23) Explain the Working of PNP and NPNTransistor.

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Ans) NPNTransistor
The N-P-Ntransistor consists of two n-type semiconductors that sandwich a p-type
semiconductor. Here, electrons are the majority charge carriers while holes are the minority
charge carriers. So Current Conduction is mainly due to Electrons in NPNTransistor.
Emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. Due to
emitter base junction is forward biased lot of electrons fromemitter entering the base region.
Base is lightly doped with P-type impurity. So the number of holes in the base region is very small.
Due to this, electron- hole recombination is less (i.e,) few electrons(<5%) combine with holes to
constitute base current(IB). The remaining electrons (>95%) crossover into collector region, to
constitute collector current(IC).

PNP Transistor
The P-N-P transistor consists of two p-type semiconductors that sandwich a n-type
semiconductor. Here, Holes are the majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority
charge carriers. So Current Conduction is mainly due to Holes in PNP Transistor.
The positive terminal of the source is connected with the Emitter terminal and the negative
terminal is connected with the Base terminal. Thus, the Emitter-Base junction is connected in
forward bias. Similarly, the positive terminal of the second source is connected with the Base
terminal and the negative terminal is connected with the Collector terminal. Thus, the Collector-
Base junction is connected in reverse bias.
Due to the type of bias the Emitter-Base depletion region is narrow and the collector-base
depletion region is wide. The Emitter-base junction is in the forward bias, thus a very large number
of holes fromthe emitter cross the depletion region and enter the Base but very few electrons
enter in Emitter fromthe base and recombine with the holes. The loss of holes in the emitter
should be equal to the number of electrons present in the Base layer, but the number of electrons
in the Base is very small because it is a very lightly doped and thin region. Thus nearly all the holes
cross the depletion region and enter the Base region. Due to this movement of electrons, current is
generated. This is the Emitter current (IE) and holes are the majority of charge carriers in the

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Emitter current. The remaining holes that do not recombine with electrons in the Base travel to
the Collector. The Collector current (IC) also flows due to the presence of holes.

Q 24) Explain the I/p and O/p Characteristics of CE Configuration.

Ans) The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and base is known
as a common emitter configuration. Since the emitter terminal is grounded in a common emitter
configuration, this design is often referred to as a grounded emitter configuration. The most
popular transistor arrangement is known as a common emitter (CE). When a significant current
gain is required, common emitter amplifiers are utilized. The base and emitter terminals are used
for the input signal, while the collector and emitter terminals are used for the output signal. As a
result, a transistor's emitter terminal serves as both an input and an output terminal, earning the
term" common emitter configuration."

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I/P Characteristics
The curve plotted between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VEB is called Input
characteristics curve. For drawing the input characteristic the reading of base currents is taken
through the ammeter and emitter voltage VBE through the Voltmeter at constant collector-emitter
Voltage. The curve for common emitter configuration is similar to a forward diode characteristic.
The base current IB increases with the increases in the emitter-base voltage VBE. O/P
Characteristics
In CE configuration the curve draws between collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage
VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristic. The characteristic curve for the
typical NPNtransistor in CE configuration is shown in the figure below.
In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as collector-emitter VCE current
increases. The value of the collector current IC increases with the increase in VCE at constant
current IB, the value β of also increases. In the saturation region, the collector current becomes
independent and free fromthe input current IB .

I/P Characteristics O/P Characteristics

Advantages
High current gain, High voltage gain, High power gain.
Disadvantages
Low input impedance, High output impedance.
Applications
Amplifiers, Switches, Logic gates, Power management, Audio equipment.

Q 25) Explain the I/P and O/P Characteristics of CB Configuration

Ans) The configuration in which the base is connected between the collector and emitter is known
as a common base configuration. Since the base terminal is grounded in a common base
configuration, this design is often referred to as a grounded base configuration. The base and

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emitter terminals are used for the input signal, while the collector and base terminals are used for
the output signal. As a result, a transistor's base terminal serves as both an input and an output
terminal, earning the term" common base configuration."

I/P Characteristics
The curve plotted between emitter current IE and the emitter-base voltage VEB at constant
collector base voltage VCB is called input characteristic curve. The input characteristic curve is
shown in the figure below.
The following points are taken into consideration fromthe characteristic curve.
When the value of the voltage base current increases the value of emitter current increases
slightly. The junction behaves like a better diode. The emitter and collector current is independent
of the collector base voltage VCB.
The emitter current IE increases with the small increase in emitter-base voltage VEB. It shows
that input resistance is small.
The value of collector base voltage VCB increases with the increases in the collector-base current.
The value of input resistance is very low, and their value may vary froma few ohms to 10 ohms.
O/P Characteristics
In common base configuration, the curve plotted between the collector current and collector base
voltage VCB at constant emitter current IE is called output characteristic. The following points
fromthe characteristic curve are taken into consideration.
The active region of the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the collector current IC is
almost equal to the emitter current IE. The transistor is always operated in this region.
The curve of the active regions is almost flat. The large charges in VCB produce only a tiny change
in IC The circuit has very high output resistance ro.
When VCB is positive, the collector-base junction is forward bias and the collector current
decrease suddenly. This is the saturation state in which the collector current does not depend on

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the emitter current.
When the emitter current is zero, the collector current is not zero. The current which flows
through the circuit is the reverse leakage current, i.e., ICBO. The current is temperature depends
and its value range from0.1to 1.0 μAfor silicon transistor and 2 to 5 μAfor germaniumtransistor.
The output resistance is very high of the order of several kilo ohms.

I/P Characteristics O/P Characteristics

Advantages
High voltage gain ,High output impedance , Suitable for high-speed switching , Low noise
susceptibility ,High current gain at high frequencies, Good thermal stability
Disadvantages
Low current gain at low frequencies , High output resistance, Difficulty in impedance matching,
Limited power handling capability , Not suitable for low-frequency applications
Applications
High-frequency amplifiers (RF, microwave) , Switches (high-speed digital logic) Oscillators Audio
equipment , Video amplifiers , Current mirrors ,Active filters, Impedance matching High-speed
counters and timers , Radar and communication systems
Q 26) Explain the I/P and O/P Characteristics of CC Configuration
Ans) The configuration in which the Collector is connected between the Base and emitter is known
as a common Collector configuration. Since the Collector terminal is grounded in a common
Collector configuration, this design is often referred to as a grounded collector configuration. The
base and collector terminals are used for the input signal, while the collector and emitter
terminals are used for the output signal. As a result, a transistor's collector terminal serves as
both an input and an output terminal, earning the term" common Collector configuration."

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I/P Characteristics
The input characteristic of the common collector configuration is drawn between collector base
voltage VCB and base current IB at constant emitter current voltage VCE. The value of the output
voltage VCE changes with respect to the input voltage VBC and IB With the help of these values,
input characteristic curve is drawn.
O/P Characteristics
The output characteristic of the common emitter circuit is drawn between the emitter-collector
voltage VEC and output current IE at constant input current IB. If the input current IB is zero, then
the collector current also becomes zero, and no current flows through the transistor.

Advantages
High input impedance, Low output impedance, Unity voltage gain , High current gain , Good thermal
stability, Low noise susceptibility, Simple biasing, High stability
Disadvantages
Unity voltage gain (no amplification) , Limited power handling capability , Not suitable for high-
frequency applications, Difficulty in impedance matching, Limited current sourcing capability
Applications
Impedance matching , Voltage followers, Buffer amplifiers, Audio equipment (pre-amplifiers, line
drivers), Power management (voltage regulators), Current sources, Active filters, Audio effects
processors, Instrumentation amplifiers, Medical equipment (ECG, EEG)
Q 27) Compare CB, CE & CC Configurations of a Transistor.

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Q 28) Define ᾳ, ß, ɣ of a transistor. State the relation between them.
Ans) Current Amplification Factors
Alpha represents the ratio of collector current to emitter current.
α = IC / IE ; where IC is collector current IE is emitter current ; Range 0.9-0.99;
Beta represents the ratio of collector current to base current.
β = IC / IB where IC is collector current IB is base current ; Range 50-500;
Gamma represents the ratio of base current to emitter current.
ɣ= IB / IE ; where IB is base current IE is emitter current.
α In terms of β α = β / (β + 1) ;
α In terms of ɣ α = 1–γ ;
β in terms of α β = α / (1- α) ;
β in terms of ɣ β = γ / (1- γ) ;
ɣ in terms of α γ = α / (1- α) ;
ɣ in terms of β γ = β / (β + 1) ;
Q 29) Explain the Operation of CE Amplifier. Explain its Gain Plot.
Ans) Transistor amplifier’s amplify an AC input signals that alternates between some positive
value and a corresponding negative value. Then some way of “ presetting” a common emitter
amplifier circuit configuration is required so that the transistor can operate between these two
maximumor peak values. This can be achieved using a process known as Biasing.
Biasing is very important in amplifier design as it establishes the correct operating point of the
transistor amplifier ready to receive signals, thereby reducing any distortion to the output signal.
Also, the use of a static or DC load line drawn onto the output characteristics curves of an
amplifier allows us to see all the possible operating points of the transistor fromfully “ ON” to

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fully “ OFF”, and to which the quiescent operating point or Q-point of the amplifier can be found.
The aimof any small signal amplifier is to amplify all of the input signal with the minimumamount
of distortion possible to the output signal, in other words, the output signal must be an exact
reproduction of the input signal but only bigger (amplified).
The Common Emitter Amplifier circuit has a resistor in its Collector circuit. The current flowing
through this resistor produces the voltage output of the amplifier. The value of this resistor is
chosen so that at the amplifier’s quiescent operating point, Q-point this output voltage lies half
way along the its load line.
The Base of the transistor used in a common emitter amplifier is biased using two resistors as a
potential divider network. This type of biasing arrangement is commonly used in the design of
bipolar transistor amplifier circuits and greatly reduces the effects of varying Beta, ( β ) by
holding the Base bias at a constant steady voltage. This type of biasing produces the greatest
stability. Aresistor can be included in the emitter leg in which case the voltage gain becomes -RL/
RE. If there is no external Emitter resistance, the voltage gain of the amplifier is not infinite as
there is a very small internal resistance, r’e in the Emitter leg.

Gain Plot
The gain plot for a common emitter (CE) amplifier is a frequency response curve that shows the
gain in decibels (dB) plotted against frequency. The ideal gain of an amplifier should remain the
same for any input signal frequency, resulting in a straight line parallel to the frequency axis.
However, in practice, the gain is reduced at lower and higher frequencies due to various factors
Lower frequencies: Coupling capacitors and the emitter bypass capacitor reduce the gain. Higher
frequencies: The capacitance internal to the transistor and stray capacitance due to the wiring
reduce the gain. The voltage gain of a CE amplifier can be calculated using the formula (gain
=Vout/ Vin), where (Vin) is the input AC voltage and (Vout) is the output AC voltage . The gain of a
CE amplifier can be increased by adding an emitter resistor bypass capacitor.

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Significance of 3db Line
The 3dB line represents the frequency at which the power of the signal is reduced by half, or the
voltage is reduced by 1/√2 (approximately 0.707).
Significance:
1. Cutoff Frequency: The 3dB line marks the beginning of the cutoff region, where the signal starts
to attenuate.
2. Bandwidth: The 3dB bandwidth defines the range of frequencies over which the amplifier or filter
operates within 3dB of its maximumgain.
3. Frequency Response: The 3dB line helps visualize the frequency response of an amplifier or
filter, indicating the frequencies at which the gain starts to decrease.
4. Signal Attenuation: A3dB reduction in signal power corresponds to a 50% reduction in signal
amplitude.
5. Noise and Distortion: Signals below the 3dB line may be susceptible to noise and distortion.
Q 30) Explain in detail about Public Addressing Systemwith a neat Block Diagram.
Ans) Apublic Address Systemor PAsystemis an electronic systemthat includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. APAsystemhas microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the sound
decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by the other
sound if the level or volume of the sound is the same. So, if we want to deliver sound energy over a
long distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd or gathering then we need a
PAsystem. The range of amplification is required for the sound is to be delivered to the distance,
size of the gathering or gathering, etc. Sound quality is also a very important factor with
amplification because it improves the listening experience. The PAsystemhelps to amplify as well
as record the voice of any human being or the sound of any musical instrument.

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Components of PASystem
There are so many devices or components that are used in PAsystemthat depends upon their
applications and other factors.
Microphone
The microphone is a very important part or component of a PAsystem. The microphone basically
is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy. It
continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the sound
energy applied to it.
Amplifier
The amplifier is the second part of a PAsystem. The main function of the amplifier is to amplify
or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The requirement or
size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker. If the size of the
loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected then a very powerful
amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or kilowatts.
Loud Speakers
Loudspeakers play a very important role in the PAsystem. It converts electrical energy into
acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the amplifier and it
generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier.
Mixer
Amixer is not a necessary part of a PAsystem. But if there are multiple audio sources or multiple
microphones used in the PAsystemthen a mixer is must required. The mixer is an electronic device
that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the sound sources together
and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So the mixer is generally
connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many amplifiers are available in the
market that already have an inbuilt mixer. So there is no need for an external additional mixer.
Q31) Explain in detail about Electronic Instrumentation Systemwith a neat Block Diagram.

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Primary Sensing Element
The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically transducers are used as a primary
sensing element. Here, the physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are sensed and
then converted into analogues signal.
Types of Primary Sensing Elements
1. Mechanical (e.g., strain gauges, piezoelectric sensors).
2. Electrical (e.g., thermocouples, Thermistors).
3. Optical (e.g., photodiodes, phototransistors).
4. Magnetic (e.g., Hall effect sensors).
5. Chemical (e.g., gas sensors).
Variable Conversion Element
It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable formwithout changing
information. Basically these are secondary transducers.
Types of Variable Conversion Elements
1. Electrical Conversion Elements
Amplifiers , Filters, Rectifiers, Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)
2. Mechanical Conversion Elements
Gears, Levers, Linkages, Hydraulic/Pneumatic systems
3. Optical Conversion Elements
Optical fibers, LEDs
4. Thermal Conversion Elements
Heat sinks, Thermal interfaces
Variable Manipulation Element
The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or other electrical
parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical value of signal. This element is used to
convert the signal into suitable range.
Data Transmission Element
Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a particular place . In such a
case, the data should transfer fromone place to another place through channel which is known as
data transmission element. Typically transmission path are electrical cable and radio links. When

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radio link is used, the electronic instrumentation systemis called as telemetry system.
Types of Data Transmission Elements
1. Wired Transmission: Twisted pair cables, Coaxial cables, Fiber optic cables
2. Wireless Transmission: Radio Frequency(RF), Infrared (IR), Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Cellular networks
Data presentation or controlling element
Data Presentation or Controlling Elements (DPCEs) are components that display, interpret, or
control data froma measurement or sensor system. Finally the output is recorded or given to the
controller to performaction.
Types of DPCEs
Display Elements
LCD, LED, OLED, GUIs , Analog meters.
Controlling Elements
Switches , Relays, Actuators , PLCs, Microcontrollers, Alarmsystems
Interfacing Elements
Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) , Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs), Touch-screens, Keypads
Voice recognition systems.

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