Zener Diode

EE223: Analog Electronic Circuits
UNIT-I
Diode is made up of p and n type of semiconductor.
There are two types of semiconductors i.e. intrinsic type and extrinsic type
semiconductor. The pure semiconductors are known as Intrinsic semiconductor.
Ex: Si or Ge. The pure semiconductor has 4 electrons in their outermost orbit.
They normally require activation energy (Eg) to move or jump in conduction
band.
They are generally doped with some impurity to reduce the Eg so that with small
activation energy they can start conducting. The doped semiconductors are
known as Extrinsic type semiconductor. The doping material may be Antomony
(Sb), Arsenic, phosphorous, boron, gallium and indium.
What is p and n type of semiconductor
If the Si is doped with impurity atoms having three valence electrons (trivalent)
for example Boron, Gallium & Indium. The doped semiconductor are known as
p-type semiconductor. Boron (B) is known as acceptor atom.
In this type of semiconductor holes ( ) are in majority and electrons (e-) are
in minority.
p-type semiconductor material
1
Course: EE223: Analog Electronics Circuit
Faculty: Dr. Md. Rahat Mahboob
If the Si is doped with impurity atoms having five valence electrons (pentavalent)
in their outer most orbit for example Antimony (Sb), Arsenic, phosphorous. The
doped semiconductor are known as n-type semiconductor. Antimony (Sb) is
known as donor atom.
In this type of semiconductor electrons (e-) are in majority and are holes ( )
in minority.
n-type
Q: As the p type material or n type material have charge, then why it is not
considered as electrically +ve charge or -ve charge.
Even though a large number of free carriers have been available in the n or p type
material, still it is considered as electrically neutral since the number of positively
or negatively charged proton in the nuclei is equal to the number of free
negatively charged electrons or positively charged holes.
The joining of these two, n or p type material give rise to semiconductor Diode,
a two terminal device.
When these two materials joined, the electrons and holes in the region of the
junction will combine. The only particles present in this small region (junction)
are +ve and -ve ions as the free carrier are absorbed.
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the Depletion
region due to the depletion of free carriers in the region.
2
The polarity across the diode is defined as +ve across p-type and -ve at n-type as
shown in Figure
There are three ways or situation a diode can face (i) No Bias (ii) Reverse bias
and (iii) Forward Bias
(i) No bias means voltage across diode VD is ZERO, then the current ID will also
be ZERO.
There is the flow of current due to minority carriers, like electrons will try to
move from p to n type material and holes will move from n to p type material.
This movement is due to the establishment of electric field near the junction due
to accumulation of +ve and -ve ions in a particular fashion as shown in above
Figure. In the absence of bias voltage, the net flow of charge in one direction is
zero, so the current (ID) will remain zero.
Whereas the majority charge carriers (electrons) of n-type material has to
overcome the attractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material.
Similar explanation can be given for holes in p-type material.
(ii) Under Reverse biased condition, When VD < 0
The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type
material will increase due to the establishment of electric field emancipating
from n-type to p-type due to application of reverse biased voltage. Similar,
discussion can be done for p-type material. The net effect is the widening of
the depletion region. This widening will establish a large barrier for the
majority carrier to overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to
zero.
3
However, some of the minority carriers still flow as they flow in No bias
condition. The current that exist under reverse bias condition is called as
Reverse saturation current (IS). The magnitude of IS is very low (nA). The
term saturation comes from the fact that it saturates or reaches its maximum
value very quickly and does not change significantly with increase in reverse
voltage.
If we increase the reverse voltage to such a level that result in abrupt change
in the characteristic of diode is known as Breakdown Voltage (VBV)
(iii) Under Forward biased condition, When VD > 0 Volt

The forward biased condition is also known as ON condition. This condition
reduces the width of depletion region, the majority carrier will start flowing
across the junction. Because the electron in n-type material now ‘sees’ a
reduced potential barrier at the junction and though the holes from p-type. As
the biased voltage increases, the depletion region continues to decrease in
width resulting in flood of electron pass through the junction, resulting in
exponential rise in current.
It is to noted here that the minority carriers (holes in n-type and electrons in
p-type) flow is remain same as the conduction level is primarily controlled by
impurities in the material.
The general characteristic of the diode is defined as
𝐼 =𝐼 𝑒 −1 (1)
This equation is known as Shockley’s equation for the forward and reverse
bias region.
n is the ideality factor, function of operating condition, construction
VT is the Thermal Voltage
The Eq(1) need to be analyzed/understood or interpreted when V D is +ve

(forward biased) and VD is -ve (reverse biased)
4
The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the
breakdown region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or the peak reverse
voltage (PRV)
Temperature Effects: The semiconductor devices have marked

effect/sensitivity toward temperature. In the reverse-bias region the reverse
current of a Si diodes doubles for every 10 C rise in temperature. The reverse
breakdown voltage will also increase or decrease with temperature.
I-V characteristics of a Diode
The plot of Eq(1) will yield the I-V characteristic of diode.
For +ve value of VD the first term grows quickly and totally overpower the
effect of second term.
𝐼 ≅𝐼 ∗𝑒 (2)
For -ve value of VD the exponential term drops very quickly, and the resulting
equation will be.
𝐼 ≅ −𝐼 (3)
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The reverse biased voltage that result in dramatic change in characteristic is called
the Breakdown Voltage (VBV)
Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes
The Knee Voltage (VK) is the voltage at which the diode starts conduction.
The Knee Voltage (VK) of Ge is 0.3 V, Si 0.7 V and GaAs is 1.2 V.
Reverse Recovery Time (trr). It is also known as diode Switching OFF time.
It is the time taken by a diode to change state from ON to OFF or to change from
Forward Biased to Reverse Biased condition.
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At instant t1 the diode should go to OFF state as shown by red dotted line ideally.
But in practical diode, it is not so. This means that the diode will not change its
state from On to Off immediately.
This is because of the charge accumulation during the forward state or forward
biased condition. A large number of electrons that move from n-type material to
the p-type material and large number of holes from p-type to n-type region.
Therefore, at steady state a large number of minority carrier will be present in
both the region. Thus when we applied voltages reversed, because of the large
number of minority carrier present in both the region and thus the diode current
will reverses as shown in above Fig and stays in that level for the time period ts.
The ts is known as storage time. This is the time taken by the minority carrier to
move to their respective majority side that is holes move to p-type and electrons
to n-side. This means that the diode will be short circuits say with current Ireverse,
which is determine by network parameter.
After the storage phase the reverse current will decrease to attain the non-
conducting state. This period is denoted as tt i.e transition time, so we can say
that reverse recovery time (trr) is the sum of ts & tt. Most practical diode has trr
in nS to uS.
Equivalent Circuit of Diode
7
Load Line Analysis:
It is a graphical analysis done in non-linear electronic circuits. Circuits having
non-linear V-I characteristic are non-linear electronic circuit (means do not
follow Ohm’s Law). Ex Diode, Transistor.
For smooth operation the Diode and the Circuit have to agree at one point (i.e.
particular voltage and current) to work and that point is known as operating point.
This can be understood by analogy of solution of simultaneous straight-line
equation.
The intersection point of the two curves will give the operating point. The two
curves are diode characteristic curve and the circuit characteristic (excluding
diode) curve.
The load line analysis is done to find the Operating Point (Quiescent point or Q-
point or still point) of the Diode. The concept of load line can be better understood
by a simple problem.
Problem: Determine Q-point of the diode and thus the voltage across the diode.
8
The straight line is called as load line because the intersection or slope of the line
depends upon the applied load (R) of the network. It means that the Q-point or
operating point of the diode will change if the load (R) changes or the slope of
the line changes.
𝐸= 𝑉 + 𝑉
𝐸= 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑅 (4)
As VD and ID are variable assume VD as ‘x’ and ID as ‘y’, then rearranging Eq(4)
𝑥 𝑦
(−𝐸) + 𝐸 =1 (5)
( )
𝑅
The load line is determined solely by the applied network, whereas the
characteristics curve of diode is defined by the chosen device.
Solving the circuit is all about finding the current and voltage levels that will
satisfy the characteristic of the diode and the chosen network parameter at the
same time. The DC resistance obtained through full characteristic and
approximate equivalent characteristic is nearly same.
Solve the above Problem (i) considering approximate Equivalent
Model/simplified Model of Si Semiconductor diode.
(ii) Using the Ideal Diode Model.
Points to Remember:
 In general, the diode may be considered as switch. It may be in ON
(Forward Biased) condition or OFF (Reverse Biased).
 If the diode is in Forward Biased condition, it may be replaced by a simple
wire (in case of Ideal Diode) or by a Cell with voltage magnitude equal to
the Diode Knee Voltage (VK) in case of Si/Ge/GaAs Diode.
 If the diode is in Reverse Biased condition, it is just like an open circuit
situation for Ideal Diode as well as for Silicon Diode.
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Practice Problem
Determine VD , VR , and ID (i) FB and (ii) Reversed Determine VD , VR , and ID
Ans: 0.7V, 7.3V, 3.32 mA

: 8V, 0V, 0A
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Determine ID, & Vo for the circuit. Assume Vk,LED = Determine ID, VD2, & Vo for the circuit.
1.8V.
Ans: 9.5 V, 13.97 mA Ans: 0A, 20V, 0 V

Determine I, V1 , V2 , and V o for the circuit Determine the currents I1 , I2 , and ID2
for the network
Ans: 2.07mA, 9.73V, 4.55V, -0.45V

Ans: 0.212mA, 3.32mA, 3.11mA
Determine Vo , I1 , ID1, and ID2 for the circuit.
Ans: 0.7V, 28.18mA, 14.07mA
Till now we have discussed the application of diode with DC input which is
constant and not time varying. So, the analysis was little easy.
But in this section, we will discuss or analyse the diode application in varying
input voltage or sinusoidal input/Square Waveform/Triangular Waveform.
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RECTIFIERS:
An electronic device or circuit which converts pure AC into pulsating DC, or
which converts bidirectional waveform into unidirectional waveform is known as
rectifier.
A Regulated power supply is an interconnection of (Rectifier + Filter +
Regulator)
1) Half wave Rectifier or rectification:

Initially we are going to consider or use the ideal model of diode for analysis
purpose.
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The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish a dc level is
called halfwave rectification. The output V0 now has a net positive value as the
area under the curve for a complete period is non-zero and positive.
𝑉 = 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 & 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇
2𝜋
1 𝑉 −𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑇
𝑡
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑉 = = 𝜋
𝑇 2𝜋
𝑇
Using Approximate Model
As the diode is of Si, it will not allow the current to flow till the applied voltage
reaches (vi) to its Knee voltage level (Vk = 0.7 V)
(𝑉 − 𝑉 )
𝑉 = 𝑉 = 𝜋
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Peak Inverse Voltage or Peak Reverse Voltage:
In order select the diode for half wave rectifier, the diode PIV must be greater
or atleast equal to the voltage developed across diode in non-conduction mode.
For half wave rectifier, 𝑷𝑰𝑽𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 ≥ 𝑽𝒎
2) Full Wave Rectification

The most familiar network for performing full wave rectification is with its
four diodes, in a bridge configuration. Consider Ideal Diode
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Consider silicon diode (approximate model) rather than ideal diodes are
employed in full bridge rectifier, the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around the conduction path results in
𝑣 −𝑉 −𝑉 −𝑉 =0
as the bridge will look like this, after replacing Ideal Diode with Silicon diode
𝑉 = 𝑣 − 2𝑉
The peak value of the output voltage V0 is therefore 𝑉 , = 𝑉 − 2𝑉
𝑉 ≅ 0.636(𝑉 − 2𝑉 ) if 𝑉 ≫ 𝑉
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PIV for full wave bridge rectifier is PIV ≫ 𝑉 as can be obtained from given
figure
Ans: Vdc = 3.18 V, 5V

3) Center-Tapped Transformer type Rectifier
A second popular full-wave rectifier is with only two diodes but requires a
center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across each
section of the secondary of the transformer as shown in Figure.
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CLIPPERS & CLAMPERS
Clipper or Limiting Circuit
Diode and capacitor are used to shape the waveforms. If we want to clip (cut
but without disturbing other part) some portion of the waveform we use Clipper
circuit.
This section on Clippers and Clampers (Shifting) will expand on the wave-
shaping abilities of diodes. The previous section on rectification gives clear
evidence that diodes can be used to change the appearance of an applied
waveform.
Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
Clippers Classification
(i) Series Type: Diode is connected in Series with output resistance
(ii) Parallel Type: Diode is connected in Parallel with output resistance
Series Type (Unbiased type) Parallel Type (Unbiased type)
Biased type
Steps to Solve:
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1) Assume or identify the output voltage terminal.
2) Identification Stage: Identify whether the supply voltage alone trying to
turn the Diode ON or OFF. Then, Identify the biased voltage nature:
opposing or assisting the supply voltage. Now, try to develop an overall
sense of the response by each supply and the effect it will have on the
conventional current direction through the diode.
3) Transition Stage: Determine the applied voltage (transition voltage) that
will result in a change of state for the diode from the “OFF” to the “ON”
state or vice versa. For this you have to draw the circuit model by
considering Diode is just getting ON (Short Circuiting diode) but the diode
current (ID) is still zero in circuit.
4) Draw the output waveform directly below the applied voltage using the
same scales for the horizontal axis and the vertical axis.
Ex: Determine the output waveform for the sinusoidal input
Step 1: The output is again directly across the resistor R.

Step 2: The positive region of Vi and the dc supply are both trying to turn ON the
diode. The result is that we can safely assume the diode is in the “on” state for
the entire range of positive voltages for Vi . Once the supply goes negative, it
would have to exceed the dc supply voltage of 5V before it could turn the diode
OFF.
Step 3: Draw the circuit model by considering Diode is just getting ON (Short
Circuiting diode) but the diode current (ID) is still Zero in the circuit.
𝑉 =𝑉 +5
𝑉 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑉 = −5 𝑉
Step 4: In the above Figure a horizontal line is drawn through the applied voltage
at the transition level. For voltages less than -5 V the diode is in the open-circuit
state and the output is 0 V, as shown in the sketch of V0 . Using above voltage
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wave form , we can find the conditions when the diode is ON and the diode
current is established the output voltage using Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Ex: Determine the output waveform for the Square input
Ex: Determine the output waveform for the triangular input.
Ex: Determine the output waveform for the triangular input considering Si Diode.
19
20
Clamper (Shifter)
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a capacitor that
shifts a waveform to a different dc level without changing the appearance of
the applied signal.
The clamper shifts the applied voltage/signal to a different level whereas clipper
only cut/clip some portion of the signal keeping the other part of the waveform
undistorted.
Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the location and

defined polarity for V0 to ensure that the proper levels are obtained.
Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response of the portion of the
input signal that will forward bias the diode.
Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the “ON” state.
Assume that the capacitor will charge up instantaneously and voltage remain
constant. In order to maintain the capacitor at a certain voltage, the times
that it takes to charge should be a lot shorter than time it takes to discharge
(Td >> Tc). The capacitor charges through diode (as diode has certain
resistance, RD) and discharges through the load resistor (RL). i.e. (CRL >>
CRD)
Step 3: Assume that during the “OFF” period, the capacitor do not
discharges quickly or voltage across capacitor remain constant.
VERIFICATION STEP: Check that the total Variation/Swing of the output
matches that of the input.
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Positive Clamper Circuit:
During the positive half cycle the diode is RB, so the current will start flowing
through C and RL, but the resistor RL is relatively large, so the charging time
constant of the capacitor will be large and the capacitor will not get charge during
first positive half cycle. So, the output wave form remains the same as the positive
half cycle.
In negative half cycle the, the diode will get FB, the diode D will act as short
circuit and capacitor charges quickly (as resistor of diode is very low), the voltage
across RL will be the voltage across diode (0 or 0.7 V). If we consider the Ideal
Diode the output would be zero upto the point ‘b’. One has to assume that the
capacitor get fully charged i.e. upto maximum supply voltage during this period
from a to b. After the point ‘b’ the voltage across the diode get decreases as the
input voltage get decreases (from maximum -Vm to some lower value), whereas
the n-terminal of the diode is at Vm (say +10 V) due to the charged capacitor. The
voltage across the RL become positive after the point ‘b’ and current reverses its
direction. At point ‘c’, the input voltage become zero but the output having a
voltage of +Vm due to charged capacitor. After point ‘c’, the positive half of the
input again come and make the Diode RB, so the output voltage will be the
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combination of input voltage plus voltage across the capacitor. So the input
voltage varies along the charged voltage (V m) as shown in Figure.
Similarly, we do have Negative Clamper circuit.
Positive Clamper Circuit with Biasing

Ex: Determine the voltage V0
23
Diode is ON (t1→t2)
Diode is OFF/OPEN (t2→t3)
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Zener Diodes:
The analysis of networks employing Zener diodes is quite similar to the analysis
of semiconductor diodes in previous sections.
Zener diode is mostly for voltage regulation.
It will give a constant voltage across its terminal.
Approximate equivalent circuits for the Zener diode in the three possible regions of application
Q1: Find the Power dissipated (Pz) and Zener diode Current (Iz)
Q2: Find the Power dissipated (Pz) and Zener diode Current (Iz) when RL =3 kΩ
25
Ans: 26.7mW, 26.7mA
STEP1: Find out the state of Zener Diode using Thevenin’s Theorem
STEP2: Substitute the relevant Equivalent circuit of Zener diode and solve the problem.
STEP: Analyze the operating condition of Zener diode.
26
The i-v Characteristic of the diode in the
circuit is given below
𝑣 − 0.5
𝑖 = 500 A , 𝑣 ≥ 0.7 𝑉
0 A, 𝑣 < 0.7 𝑉
Find the current in Diode D1 The dc level of output waveform is
27

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EE223: Analog Electronic Circuits

p-type semiconductor material

(iii) Under Forward biased condition, When VD > 0 Volt

The Eq(1) need to be analyzed/understood or interpreted when V D is +ve

Temperature Effects: The semiconductor devices have marked

I-V characteristics of a Diode

The plot of Eq(1) will yield the I-V characteristic of diode.

Comparison of Ge, Si, and GaAs commercial diodes

Ans: 0.7V, 7.3V, 3.32 mA

Ans: 9.5 V, 13.97 mA Ans: 0A, 20V, 0 V

Ans: 2.07mA, 9.73V, 4.55V, -0.45V

Ans: 0.7V, 28.18mA, 14.07mA

1) Half wave Rectifier or rectification:

𝑉 = 𝑉 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 & 𝜔 = 2𝜋/𝑇

Using Approximate Model

For half wave rectifier, 𝑷𝑰𝑽𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 ≥ 𝑽𝒎

2) Full Wave Rectification

Ans: Vdc = 3.18 V, 5V

Step 1: The output is again directly across the resistor R.

Ex: Determine the output waveform for the triangular input.

Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the location and

Similarly, we do have Negative Clamper circuit.

Positive Clamper Circuit with Biasing

Zener diode is mostly for voltage regulation.

It will give a constant voltage across its terminal.

STEP: Analyze the operating condition of Zener diode.

Find the current in Diode D1 The dc level of output waveform is

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