MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL

EDUCATION

D.Y. PATIL POLYTECHNIC

Mobile OS

Academic year: 2024-25

Subject: Advanced Computer Network Subject code: 22520

Course: Computer Engineering Course Code:CO5I

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 MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL
EDUCATION

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Omkar Chandrakant Jamdar Roll No: 54 of 5th Semester diploma
in Computer Engineering of Institute, D.Y. Patil Polytechnic (Instt.Code: 0996) has
completed the Micro-Project in course Advanced Computer Network (22520) for the
academic year 2024-2025 as prescribed in the curriculum.

Place: Ambi Enrollment No: 2209960090

Date: ……………………… Exam Seat No: …………

Subject Teacher Head of the Department Principal

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Sr. Index Page No
No

1
Abstract 4

2
Introduction 5

3
Literature Review 6

4
Technology used 7

5
System Overview 9

6
System Workflow 15

7
Implementation 17

8
Conclusion 24

9
Bibliography 25

10
Weekly Progress Report 27

11
Annexure II 28

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 Abstract

Routing Configuration and Interface of router with millions of PC’s are easiest way to complete
the work of networking. The study of cisco routers, cables gives a way of performing the
experiment successfully. The basic need for this experiment is the software known as “Cisco
Packet Tracer”. This software has an inbuilt configuration and can be compared with Network
Simulators. In this project, the demonstration of whether the router is configured correctly in
port with console as well as cross-over cable.

Assigning of IP addresses and also checking the transmission of packets by associating Packet
Internet Groper (PING) in command prompt. Connecting the PC’s with router for the exchange
of information becomes conventional method as PC’s cannot transmit data of their own. Fast
Ethernet connectivity with the ports between router and the PC’s and enabling the Ethernet
verifies whether the router is receiving information packet or not.

A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an overlay
internetwork. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs
or a LAN and its ISP’s network Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more
networks connect various types of Router such as Broadband router Wireless router Core router
etc are also discussed in this report Along with this it also includes the components of router
such as motherboard, CPU Memory etc. It also describes its various functions, advantages &
disadvantages. Besides this basic concepts of hubs, switches, delivering forwarding & routing
are also discussed.

In this project we will not use Simple Network Message Protocol (SNMP), because we are not
considering the data transfer between the PC and Router. But we are just configuring that the
PC is able to transfer and router is able to receive the correct sequence of data.

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 Introduction

When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination, it always selects one path by preferring
it over others. This selection process is termed as Routing. Routing is done by special network
devices called routers or it can be done by means of software processes. The software based
routers have limited functionality and limited scope. Routing is the process of selecting the best
path for data to travel between nodes in a network. It’s based on predetermined rules and can
apply to any type of network, including telephone networks and public transportation.

Routing is the process of path selection in any network. A computer network is made of many
machines, called nodes, and paths or links that connect those nodes. Communication between
two nodes in an interconnected network can take place through many different paths. Routing
is the process of determining paths through a network for sending data packets. Routing ensures
that data moves effectively from source to destination, making the best use of network
resources and ensuring consistent communication.

A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an overlay
internetwork. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs
or a LAN and its ISP’s network Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more
networks connect various types of Router such as Broadband router Wireless router Core router
etc are also discussed in this report Along with this it also includes the components of router
such as motherboard, CPU Memory etc. It also describes its various functions, advantages &
disadvantages. Besides this basic concepts of hubs, switches, delivering forwarding & routing
are also discussed.

Assigning of IP addresses and also checking the transmission of packets by associating Packet
Internet Groper (PING) in command prompt. Connecting the PC’s with router for the exchange
of information becomes conventional method as PC’s cannot transmit data of their own. Fast
Ethernet connectivity with the ports between router and the PC’s and enabling the Ethernet
verifies whether the router is receiving information packet or not.

5
 Literature Review

Recently Internet of Things (IoT) has gain popularity as the number of smart devices being
used in day to day human life having network lifetime as a constraint. In providing connectivity
between nodes, passing of routing information plays a prominent role. We identified that
maximum energy of smart devices is utilised in routing the data (or) control packets. The
objective of our research is to address the gaps in optimizing the network usage, which in turn
maximize the network lifetime. In these directions, so far the literature review made on
scalability, energy efficiency, Quality of Service (QoS), network lifetime, node deployment
with Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) perspective. In the present work we made a systematic
review addressing the challenges and issues in routing with IoT perspective from the year 2014
to 2017. Additionally, we compare the performance of the routing protocols using measures
like latency, bandwidth, jitter, delay.

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consists of densely deployed wire Less sensor nodes which
does the task of sensing the environment in Which they are placed. Due to high density nature
of these nodes There is a need for an efficient routing algorithm for transferring Data from the
source node to the sink by choosing the best possible Path. The nodes in a particular area
transfer data to the Base Station (BS). The base station acts as a gateway for the user to query
The environment in which they are placed. The routing protocols Adapted for wireless sensor
networks are either traditional single Layered MAC protocols or cross-layer protocols which
enable inter- Action between different layers of the OSI model. Some traditional Geographic
routing protocols make use of GPS or other localization techniques to determine their position.
The review is achieved Through research papers based solely on geographic and cross-layer
Routing.

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 Technology used

Routing Protocols:

1. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

2. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
3. Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
4. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
5. Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Routing Algorithms:

1. Distance-Vector Routing (DVR)

2. Link-State Routing (LSR)
3. Path-Vector Routing (PVR)
4. On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (ODV)

Network Routing Technologies:

1. Software-Defined Networking (SDN)

2. Network Functions Virtualization (NFV)
3. Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
4. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
5. Quality of Service (QoS)

Wireless Routing Technologies:

1. Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)

2. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
3. Wireless Mesh Networking (WMN)
4. Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)
5. Wireless Sensor Network (WSN)

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Routing Hardware:

1. Routers (Cisco, Juniper, Huawei)

2. Switches (Ethernet, Gigabit)
3. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
4. Routing Processors (RP)

Routing Software:

1. Quagga
2. Zebra
3. Bird
4. FRRouting
5. OpenOSPFD poo

Cloud Routing:

1. Amazon Web Services (AWS) Routing

2. Microsoft Azure Routing
3. Google Cloud Platform (GCP) Routing
4. Cloudflare Routing
5. IBM Cloud Routing

Security Routing:

1. Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS)

2. Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
3. Secure Shell (SSH)
4. Secure Routing Protocol (SRP)
5. Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems (IDPS)

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 System Overview
Routing System Components

1. Routers:
Forward packets between networks. Network devices are physical devices that
allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with one
another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, Router, and
NIC, etc. A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between
computer networks. One or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be
connected using a router. By sending data packets to their intended IP addresses, it
manages traffic between different networks and permits several devices to share an
Internet connection.

2. Routing Protocols:
Exchange routing information (e.g., OSPF, BGP). A routing protocol specifies how
routers communicate with each other to distribute information that enables them to
select paths between nodes on a computer network. Routers perform the traffic
directing functions on the Internet; data packets are forwarded through the networks
of the internet from router to router until they reach their destination computer.
Routing algorithms determine the specific choice of route. Each router has a prior
knowledge only of networks attached to it directly. A routing protocol shares this
information first among immediate neighbours, and then throughout the network.
This way, routers gain knowledge of the topology of the network. The ability of
routing protocols to dynamically adjust to changing conditions such as disabled
connections and components and route data around obstructions is what gives the
Internet its fault tolerance and high availability.

3. Routing Tables:
Store routing information. A routing table is a database that keeps track of paths,
like a map, and uses these to determine which way to forward traffic. A routing table

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 is a data file in RAM that is used to store route information about directly connected
and remote networks.

4. Network Interfaces:
Connect routers to networks. A network interface is a hardware or software
component that connects a device to a network. It allows data to be sent and received
between the device and other devices on the network. A network interface can be a
network interface card (NIC), but it doesn’t always have to be physical. It can also
be implemented in software.

5. Routing Processors:
Execute routing protocols. The routing process is the method of selecting the best
path for data packets to travel between two points in a network. It takes into account
factors like traffic volume, node density, and Quality of Service (QoS).

Routing Process:

1. Route Discovery:
Routers learn network topology. Route discovery is a process that occurs when:
Route discovery begins by the source node broadcasting a route request (RREQ).
Route discovery is a process that occurs when: The source node does not have a
route to the requested destination. A route fails. This happens when the source node
uses up its network retries without receiving an ACK.

2. Route Calculation:
Routers determine best paths. Routing computation refers to the process where each
node independently calculates the shortest path to known destinations using
algorithms like Dijkstra’s algorithm, based on the most recent link state database
available to the node.

3. Route Installation:
Routers update routing tables. Route installation can refer to installing the Route
app in Shopify, installing recursive static routes in Cisco IOS, or installing React
Router.

4. Packet Forwarding:
Routers forward packets. Forwarding packet refers to the process of routing packets
from the source to the destination based on the destination address. It involves
verifying the IP header, extracting the destination address, performing a destination

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 address lookup, and adjusting the time-to-live field in the IP header. The process of
packet forwarding simply implies the forwarding of incoming packets to their
intended destination.

5. Route Maintenance:
Routers update routing information. Route maintenance is a mechanism that helps
a source node detect changes in network topology, such as when a link along a route
stops working. Route maintenance and route discovery operate on demand. Each
node that transmits a packet is responsible for confirming that the next hop along
the source route has received the packet.

Routing Functions:

1. Path Determination:
Choose best path for packets. Path determination is the process of deciding which
output port to send an incoming packet or frame to in a network router or switch.
It’s also the process of selecting the best path to a destination node in routing
protocols. The best path is selected by a routing protocol based on the value or
metric it uses to determine the distance to reach a network. A metric is the
quantitative value used to measure the distance to a given network. The best path to
a network is the path with the lowest metric.

2. Traffic Management:
Control packet flow. Network traffic management (NTM) is the process of
controlling and optimizing how data moves through a network. It involves
analysing and intercepting network traffic, and then directing it to the best resources
based on priorities. NTM helps to ensure that the network operates smoothly and
efficiently, and that critical applications remain available.

3. Network Address Translation (NAT):

Translate IP addresses. Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique that
allows multiple devices to share a single public IP address. It’s commonly used by
internet service providers (ISPs) and organizations to enable devices on a private
network to communicate with devices on a public network. Network Address
Translation (NAT) is a service that enables private IP networks to use the internet
and cloud. NAT translates private IP addresses in an internal network to a public IP
address before packets are sent to an external network.

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 4. Quality of Service (QoS):
Prioritize packet transmission. Quality of Service (QoS) is a network technology
that manages traffic and prioritizes applications to improve performance. QoS is
important for businesses that want to ensure their critical applications are available.
Quality of service (QoS) is the use of mechanisms or technologies that work on a
network to control traffic and ensure the performance of critical applications with
limited network capacity.

5. Security:
Implement access control and encryption. Network security is a broad term that
covers a multitude of technologies, devices and processes. In its simplest term, it is
a set of rules and configurations designed to protect the integrity, confidentiality
and accessibility of computer networks and data using both software and hardware
technologies.

Routing Types:

1. Static Routing:
Manual route configuration. A static route is a manually configured path between
routers that defines where to send traffic to specific networks. Static routing is an
IP-based routing system that relies on manually configured routing tables to
function. Static routers are routers that do not dynamically reroute traffic. Smaller
networks with only several routers, or networks where security is a top priority,
often utilize static routers.

2. Dynamic Routing:
Automatic route adjustment. Dynamic routing is a mechanism through which
routing information is exchanged between routers to determine the optimal path
between network devices. A routing protocol is used to identify and announce
network paths.

3. Distance-Vector Routing:
Use distance metrics. Distance vector routing (DVR) is a network protocol that
determines the best route for data packets by estimating the distance to a destination
network. Distance is usually measured in “hops,” or the number of routers a packet
passes through. Routers using DVR exchange information, like routing tables and
hop counts, to determine the best route.

4. Link-State Routing:
Use network topology. Link state routing is a dynamic routing protocol that uses
network topology details to make routing decisions. It works by sharing link state

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 information with all routers in a network, ensuring each router has an up-to-date
view of the network layout. Link state routing is a technique in which each router
shares the knowledge of its neighborhood with every other router in the
internetwork.

5. Hybrid Routing:
Combine routing methods. Hybrid routing is a network protocol that combines the
best features of distance-vector and link-state routing protocols to find the most
efficient paths for network traffic. Hybrid routing protocols are often used by large
networks, universities, and Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Hybrid Routing
protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active
routing protocols.

Routing Metrics:

1. Hop Count: Number of hops to destination.

2. Delay: Packet transmission delay.
3. Throughput: Network bandwidth.
4. Reliability: Network fault tolerance.
5. Cost: Administrative routing cost.

Routing Protocols:

1. Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs):

OSPF, EIGRP. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector
routing protocol that routers use to exchange routing data within an autonomous
system (AS) or a single organization’s network. IGRP was developed by Cisco in
the late 1980s to improve upon the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) for large,
complex networks. IGRP calculates a metric by adding together weighted values of
different link characteristics, such as: Bandwidth, Delay, Load, Reliability, and
Maximum transmission unit (MTU).

2. Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs):

BGP. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a routing protocol that allows routers to
exchange information about network paths and reachability between different
networks. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a Routing Protocol which is used to
find network path information between different networks. It is commonly used in

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 the Internet to exchange routing table information between two neighbor gateway
hosts (each with its own router) in a network of autonomous systems.

3. Routing Information Protocols (RIP).

RIP is a dynamic routing protocol that uses hop count as a routing metric to find the
best path between the source and the destination network. Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) is a distance-vector routing protocol. Routers running the distance-
vector protocol send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update
messages to their neighbors. You can use RIP to configure the hosts as part of a RIP
network.

4. Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS).

5. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Open Shortest Path First is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol networks. It uses
a link state routing algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols,
operating within a single autonomous system.

Routing Table Structure:

1. Destination Network
2. Next Hop
3. Metric
4. Interface
5. Routing Protocol

Routing System Requirements:

1. Scalability
2. Reliability
3. Security
4. Performance
5. Manageability

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 System Workflow

The workflow of routing protocols involves a number of processes, including:

Static routing

A system that uses fixed paths to describe routes through a network. This means that changes,
such as a lost node or connection, are not compensated for. A static route is a manually
configured path between routers that defines where to send traffic to specific networks. Static
routing is an IP-based routing system that relies on manually configured routing tables to
function. Static routers are routers that do not dynamically reroute traffic. Smaller networks
with only several routers, or networks where security is a top priority, often utilize static routers.

Dynamic routing

A fast-growing routing protocol that offers high throughput, flexibility, low overhead,
scalability, and easy configuration. Dynamic routing is a mechanism through which routing
information is exchanged between routers to determine the optimal path between network
devices. A routing protocol is used to identify and announce network paths.

Hybrid routing

A combination of distance vector and link state routing protocols that aims to balance simplicity
and efficiency. Hybrid routing is a network protocol that combines the best features of distance-
vector and link-state routing protocols to find the most efficient paths for network traffic.
Hybrid routing protocols are often used by large networks, universities, and Internet Service
Providers (ISPs). Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both,
reactive and pro-active routing protocols.

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

An advanced distance-vector routing protocol that minimizes routing instability and the use of
bandwidth and processing power. Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance
vector routing protocol that routers use to exchange routing data within an autonomous system
(AS) or a single organization’s network. IGRP was developed by Cisco in the late 1980s to
improve upon the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) for large, complex networks. IGRP
calculates a metric by adding together weighted values of different link characteristics, such
as: Bandwidth, Delay, Load, Reliability, and Maximum transmission unit (MTU).

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

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A protocol that involves each node sending topology information to other nodes. Open Shortest
Path First is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol networks. It uses a link state routing
algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols, operating within a single
autonomous system.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

A protocol that counts the distance to a network based on the number of neighbor routers on
the path. RIP is a dynamic routing protocol that uses hop count as a routing metric to find the
best path between the source and the destination network. Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
is a distance-vector routing protocol. Routers running the distance-vector protocol send all or
a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages to their neighbors. You can use RIP
to configure the hosts as part of a RIP network.

Route redistribution
The process of converting routes from one routing protocol to another. Route redistribution is
a process that allows a network to use a routing protocol to dynamically route traffic based on
information learned from a different routing protocol. Route redistribution helps increase
accessibility within networks.

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

A routing protocol that exchanges routing information between autonomous systems. Exterior
Gateway Protocol (EGP) is a routing protocol that allows routers to exchange information
about network paths and reachability between different networks. Exterior Gateway Protocol
(EGP) is a Routing Protocol which is used to find network path information between different
networks. It is commonly used in the Internet to exchange routing table information between
two neighbor gateway hosts (each with its own router) in a network of autonomous systems.

Link state routing

A routing protocol where every node constructs a map of the network’s connectivity. Link state
routing is a dynamic routing protocol that uses network topology details to make routing
decisions. It works by sharing link state information with all routers in a network, ensuring
each router has an up-to-date view of the network layout. Link state routing is a technique in
which each router shares the knowledge of its neighborhood with every other router in the
internetwork.

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 Implementation

What is Routing?

When a device has multiple paths to reach a destination, it always selects one path by preferring
it over others. This selection process is termed as Routing. Routing is done by special network
devices called routers or it can be done by means of software processes. The software based
routers have limited functionality and limited scope.
A router is always configured with some default route. A default route tells the router where to
forward a packet if there is no route found for specific destination. In case there are multiple
path existing to reach the same destination, router can make decision based on the following
information:
➢ Hop Count
➢ Bandwidth
➢ Metric
➢ Prefix-length
➢ Delay

Routes can be statically configured or dynamically learnt. One route can be configured to be
preferred over others.

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What is Unicast routing?

Most of the traffic on the internet and intranets known as unicast data or unicast traffic is sent
with specified destination. Routing unicast data over the internet is called unicast routing. It is
the simplest form of routing because the destination is already known. Hence the router just
has to look up the routing table and forward the packet to next hop.

Intra- and Inter-domain Routing

An internet can be so large that one routing protocol cannot handle the task of updating the
routing tables of all routers. For this reason, an internet is divided into autonomous systems.
An autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and routers under the authority of a single
administration. Routing inside an autonomous system is referred to as intra domain routing.
Routing between autonomous systems is referred to as inter domain routing.

Several intradomain and interdomain routing protocols are in use.

Two intradomain routing protocols: Distance vector and link state.

One interdomain routing protocol: path vector.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an implementation of the distance vector protocol. Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an implementation of the link state protocol. Border Gateway
Protocol (BGP) is an implementation of the path vector protocol.

Intra-domain Routing is different from Inter-domain Routing.

Intra domain is any protocol in which Routing algorithm works only within domains on the
other hand Inter domain is any protocol in which Routing algorithm works within and between
domains. Let us see the differences between Intradomain and Interdomain:

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 Sr.no Intradomain Routing Interdomain Routing

1 Routing algorithm works only Routing algorithm works within and

within domains. between domains.

2 It need to know only about other It need to know only about other
routers within their domain. routers within and between their
domain.

3 Protocols used in intradomain Protocols used in interdomain routing

routing are known as Interior- are known as Exterior-gateway
gateway protocols. protocols.

4 In this Routing, routing takes place In this Routing, routing takes place
within an autonomous network. between the autonomous networks.

5 Intradomain routing protocols Interdomain routing protocol

ignores the internet outside the assumes that the internet contains the
AS(autonomous system). collection of interconnected
AS(autonomous systems).

6 Some Popular Protocols of this Popular Protocols of this routing is

routing are RIP(routing information BGP(Border Gateway Protocol) used
protocol) and OSPF(open shortest to connect two or more
path first). AS(autonomous system).

Routing Algorithms

1. Distance Vector Routing

2. Link State Routing
3. Path Vector Routing

Distance Vector Routing

In distance vector routing, the least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with
minimum distance. In this protocol, as the name implies, each node maintains a vector (table)
of minimum distances to every node. The table at each node also guides the packets to the
desired node by showing the next stop in the route (next-hop routing).

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The table for node A shows how we can reach any node from this node. For example, our least
cost to reach node E is 6. The route passes through C.

❖ Initialization
The tables in Figure 3.45 are stable; each node knows how to reach any other node and
the cost. At the beginning, however, this is not the case. Each node can know only the
distance between itself and its immediate neighbors, those directly connected to it. So
for the moment, we assume that each node can send a message to the immediate
neighbors and find the distance between itself and these neighbors. The distance for any
entry that is not a neighbor is marked as infinite (unreachable).

❖ Sharing
The whole idea of distance vector routing is the sharing of information between
neighbors. Although node A does not know about node E, node C does. So if node C
shares its routing table with A, node A can also know how to reach node E. On the other
hand, node C does not know how to reach node D, but node A does. If node A shares
its routing table with node C, Node C also knows how to reach node D. In other words,
nodes A and C, as immediate neighbors, can improve their routing tables if they help
each other.

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❖ Updating
When a node receives a two-column table from a neighbor, it needs to update its routing
table. Updating takes three steps:

✓ The receiving node needs to add the cost between itself and the sending node to
each value in the second column. The logic is clear. If node C claims that its
distance to a destination is x mi, and the distance between A and C is y mi, then
the distance between A and that destination, via C, is x + y mi.
✓ The receiving node needs to add the name of the sending node to each row as
the third column if the receiving node uses information from any row. The
sending node is the next node in the route.
✓ The receiving node needs to compare each row of its old table with the
corresponding row of the modified version of the received table.

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Link State Routing
Link state routing has a different philosophy from that of distance vector routing. In link state
Routing, if each node in the domain has the entire topology of the domain the list of nodes and
Links, how they are connected including the type, cost (metric), and condition of the links (up
Or down)-the node can use Dijkstra’s algorithm to build a routing table.
A routing protocol where every node constructs a map of the network’s connectivity. Link state
routing is a dynamic routing protocol that uses network topology details to make routing
decisions. It works by sharing link state information with all routers in a network, ensuring
each router has an up-to-date view of the network layout. Link state routing is a technique in
which each router shares the knowledge of its neighborhood with every other router in the
internetwork.

The figure shows a simple domain with five nodes. Each node uses the same topology to create
a routing table, but the routing table for each node is unique because the calculations are based
on different interpretations of the topology. This is analogous to a city map. While each person
may have the same map, each needs to take a different route to reach her specific destination.

Path Vector Routing

Distance vector and link state routing are both intradomain routing protocols. They can be used
inside an autonomous system, but not between autonomous systems. These two protocols are
not suitable for interdomain routing mostly because of scalability. Both of these routing
protocols become intractable when the domain of operation becomes large. Distance vector

22
routing is subject to instability if there are more than a few hops in the domain of operation.
Link state routing needs a huge amount of resources to calculate routing tables. It also creates
heavy traffic because of flooding. There is a need for a third routing protocol which we call
Path vector routing.

Path vector routing proved to be useful for interdomain routing. The principle of path vector
routing is similar to that of distance vector routing. In path vector routing, we assume that there
is one node in each autonomous system that acts on behalf of the entire autonomous system.

❖ Initialization

At the beginning, each speaker node can know only the reach ability of nodes inside its
autonomous system

Node Al is the speaker node for AS1, B1 for AS2, C1 for AS3, and Dl for AS4. Node Al creates
an initial table that shows Al to A5 are located in ASI and can be reached through it.Node B1
advertises that B1 to B4 are located in AS2 and can be reached through Bl. And so on.

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 Conclusion
Routing protocols are a crucial component of computer networks, facilitating efficient and
reliable communication by enabling routers to exchange routing information, calculate optimal
paths, and forward packets. Key findings highlight the suitability of various protocols for
different network scenarios, including Distance-Vector Routing Protocols (RIP, EIGRP) for
small to medium-sized networks, Link-State Routing Protocols (OSPF, IS-IS) for large and
complex networks, and Path-Vector Routing Protocols (BGP) for inter-domain routing and
policy-based decision-making.

Best practices for implementing routing protocols include choosing protocols suitable for
network size and complexity, implementing hierarchical routing for scalability, configuring
protocols for optimal performance, ensuring robust security measures such as authentication
and encryption, and continuously monitoring and analyzing routing protocol performance.

Effective routing protocol implementation ensures network reliability, scalability, and security,
while also supporting emerging technologies such as Software-Defined Networking (SDN),
Network Functions Virtualization (NFV), Internet of Things (IoT), and Edge Computing.
Furthermore, integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) optimizes
routing decisions, improves network resilience, and enhances overall network efficiency. As
networks continue to evolve, understanding routing protocol characteristics, advantages, and
limitations is essential for designing and implementing optimal routing solutions that meet the
demands of modern network infrastructure.

Recently Internet of Things (IoT) has gain popularity as the number of smart devices being
used in day to day human life having network lifetime as a constraint. In providing connectivity
between nodes, passing of routing information plays a prominent role. We identified that
maximum energy of smart devices is utilised in routing the data (or) control packets. The
objective of our research is to address the gaps in optimizing the network usage, which in turn
maximize the network lifetime. In these directions, so far the literature review made on
scalability, energy efficiency, Quality of Service (QoS), network lifetime, node deployment
with Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) perspective. In the present work we made a systematic
review addressing the challenges and issues in routing with IoT perspective from the year 2014
to 2017. Additionally, we compare the performance of the routing protocols using measures
like latency, bandwidth, jitter, delay.

24
 Bibliography

Books:
1. “Routing TCP/IP” by Jeff Doyle
2. “Routing Protocols and Concepts” by Rick Gallaher
3. “CCNA Routing and Switching” by Wendell Odom
4. “Routing, Switching, and Network Fundamentals” by Andre Kindred
5. “Network Routing: Fundamentals, Applications, and Emerging Technologies” by
Deep Medhi.

Research Papers:

1. “A Survey of Routing Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks” (IJCSIS, 2019)

2. “Performance Comparison of Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”
(IEEE, 2020)
3. “A Study on Routing Protocols for Software-Defined Networking” (Journal of
Network and Computer Applications, 2020)
4. “Routing Protocols for Internet of Things (IoT): A Survey” (Wireless
Communications and Mobile Computing, 2020)
5. “Enhancing Routing Protocol Security using Artificial Intelligence” (Journal of
Cybersecurity, 2020)

Journals:

1. Journal of Network and Computer Applications

2. IEEE Transactions on Networking
3. ACM Transactions on Networking
4. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing
5. Journal of Cybersecurity

Conferences:

1. IEEE International Conference on Networking (ICN)

2. ACM International Conference on Networking (ACM ICN)
3. International Conference on Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing
(IWCMC)
4. International Conference on Network Protocols (ICNP)
5. International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems (ICDCS)

25
Online Resources:
1. Cisco Routing Protocol Guide
2. Juniper Routing Protocol Guide
3. Routing Protocol Tutorial (Tutorials Point)
4. Routing Protocol Documentation (Microsoft Docs)
5. Routing Protocol Overview (GeeksforGeeks)

Thesis:
1. “Design and Implementation of a Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks”
(Ph.D. thesis, 2020)
2. “Performance Evaluation of Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks”
(Master’s thesis, 2019)
3. “A Comparative Study of Routing Protocols for Software-Defined Networking”
(Bachelor’s thesis, 2018)

Websites:

1. Routing Protocol Page Cisco

2. Juniper Routing Protocol Page
3. Routing Protocol Overview (Techopedia)
4. Routing Protocol Tutorial (RouterFreak)
5. Routing Protocol Documentation (RFC Editor)

26
 Weekly Progress Report

Sr.no Week Activity Performed Sign of Date

guide
1 1st Discussion and finalization of
topic

2 2nd Preparation and submission of

abstract

3 3rd Literature Review

4 4th Collection of Data

5 5th Collection of Data

6 6th Discussion and outline of Content

7 7th Formulation os Content

8 8th Editing and proof reading os

content

9 9th Compilation of Report and

Presentation

10 10th Seminar

11 11th Viva voce

12 12th Final submission of Micro

Project

Sign of teacher Sign of student

27
 ANNEXURE II

Evaluation Sheet for the Micro Project

Academic Year: 2024-2025 Name of Faculty: Prof. Himanshi Shelke

Course : Computer Engineering Course code: CO-5-I Semester: Fifth

Title of the project: Routing Protocols

CO’s addressed by Micro Project: Need of routing protocols in daily life

Major learning outcomes achieved by students by doing the project

✓ Practical outcome: We learnt the need and understanding of routing protocols and
its connectivity.
✓ Unit outcomes in Cognitive domain: Understanding the needs of routing protocols.

Outcomes in Affective domain:

• Function as team member

• Follow Ethics

Comments/suggestions about team work /leadership/inter-personal communication (if any)

Roll Name Marks out of 6 Marks out of 4 Total

No for for Out of 10
Performance in Performance in
Group activity oral/
Presentation
54 Omkar
Chandrakant
Jamdar

Name and signature of faculty

28