Data Communication And

Networking
DECAP453

Edited by
Ajay Kumar Bansal
Data Communication And
Networking
Edited By:
Ajay Kumar Bansal
 Title: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Author’s Name: Dr. Rajni Bhalla

Published By : Lovely Professional University

Publisher Address: Lovely Professional University, Jalandhar Delhi GT road, Phagwara - 144411

Printer Detail: Lovely Professional University

Edition Detail: (I)

ISBN: 978-93-94068-27-8

Copyrights@ Lovely Professional University

 CONTENT

Unit 1: Introduction To Data Communication and Computer Networks 1

Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University
Unit 2: Dataand Signals 17
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Unit 3: Digital and Analog Transmission 37

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Unit 4: Network Models 52
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Unit 5: Physical Layer 68
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Unit 6: Data link layer – error control and flow control 85
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Unit 7: Data Link Layer - medium access protocol 102
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Unit 8: Network layer - logical addressing 118
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Unit 9: Transport layer -protocols 132
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Unit 10: Transport layer -protocols 146

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Unit 11: Transport layer - congestion control and QoS 170

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Unit 12: Application layer – services and protocols 184
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Unit 13: Internet and WWW 195
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Unit 14: Network Security 207

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 Notes
Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
Unit 01: Introduction To Data Communication and
Computer Networks
Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 Data Communication
1.2 Defining Network
1.3 Benefits of computer network
1.4 Data Communication and Networking
1.5 Applications Of Computer Networks
1.6 Types of Networks
1.7 Difference Between LAN and WAN
1.8 Network Topologies
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Answers
Further/Suggested Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
 understand the basics of network and analyze the components required for
communication.
 identify the different ways of representing the information and describe the main uses of
computer networks
 learn different types of networks
 identify how one network differs from another network.
 explain the seven main topologies.

Introduction
The merging of computers and communications has a profound influence on the way systems are
organized. The concept of a computer center as a room with a large computer to which the users
bring their work for processing is now obsolete. The old model of a single computer servicing all
the computational needs of an organization has been replaced by the one in which a large system of
separate but interconnected computers does the job. These systems are called computer networks.
The two computers are said to be interconnected if they can exchange information. The connection
between the computers need not be only via a copper wire or fiber optics or microwaves. A
communication satellite can be used for networking the computers.

History of Computer Networks

Following is a brief history of computers, networking, and telecommunication milestones:
1897: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) credited to Braun

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1900–1915: Teletype (telegraph 5 bit) 1915–1020: ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) credited to Van
Duuren.
1915–1020: ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) credited to Van Duuren
1930–1940: ENIAC credited to DOD/MIT 1950s:
The 1950s: SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) MIT 1950s
1960s: Transistorized Computers–2nd Generation 1961: CTSS (Compatible Time-Sharing System)
credited to Cobato/MIT.
1965: Auto Equalization Techniques of Phone lines credited to Lucky et al. 1966: Fiber Glass
credited to Kao & Hockman
1967: Integrated Circuits Computers–3rd Generation
1968: Carterfone–FCC Decision in
1969: A group of DoD researchers linked four computers at UCLA, SRI, University of Utah, and the
UCSB. They created a network to communicate with one another about government projects. The
network was part of the DoD’s Advanced Research Project Agency and was dubbed ARPAnet
1972: More than 50 universities and military agencies were linked together on the network. For a
short period, it was a top-secret defense project, ensuring that computers could talk to each other in
the event of a nuclear attack. The communication system between the sites was called email and
was invented by Ray Tomlinson of Bolt, Berank, and Newman.
1973: The defence project links were extended to Norway and England.
1974: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was published and the military and educational links
diverged. Organizations like NASA began to experiment with computer networks, and the
networks began to interconnect and the name Internet was coined.
1976: The Queen sends an email from RSRE Malvern.
1983: TCP/IP become the protocol standard for ARPAnet. Scott Fahlman invents the smiley to
convey emotions in email.
1984: In the US, the NSF built high-speed, long-distance lines that connected supercomputer sites
across the USA. These eventually replaced the original ARPAnet. In time, NSFnet was joined by
other networks at dozens of universities, research laboratories, and high-tech companies. The
system for assigning names to computers on the network was introduced — DNS. JANET was
launched to connect British Universities.
1986: The NSF established its own faster network NSFnet and Network News Transfer Protocol
(NNTP) was introduced making on-line interactive discussion a reality. The backbone speed was 56
Kbps.
1987: 1000 Notes th RFC and 10,000th host.
1988: Robert Tappan Morris releases the first Internet Worm and CERT was set up in response to
this. Backbone speed upgraded to 1.544 Mbps. IRC developed.
1989: 100,000th host. Cuckoo’s Egg was released by Cliff Stoll telling the true story of East German
crackers accessing US installations.
1990: ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role.
1991: Gopher, a software program for retrieving information from servers on the Internet was made
available by the University of Minnesota. The US Government announced that it no longer
intended to restrict activity on the Internet to research. This policy shift was sufficient for 12
companies to co-operate and produce CIX. Phil Zimmerman released PGP. Backbone speed
upgraded to 44.736 Mbps.
1992: The World Wide Web became a possibility after CERN, in Switzerland, released hypertext.
1,000,000th Host. The author gets his first dial-up email account with Demon Internet (Nov. 1992).
1993: Mosaic, a software program to browse Web sites written by Marc Andreesen, was released
followed by Netscape.
1994: Shopping Malls arrive on the Internet. The UK Treasury goes online and the first cyberbank
opens. The first banner adverts appeared for Zima (a drink) and AT&T.

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
1995: Traditional dialup services (AOL, CompuServe, etc) start to provide dialup services. The
Vatican goes online. Several Internet companies go public. Netscape leads the field with the largest
ever IPO on NASDAQ. DEC launches AltaVista, which claims to index every HTML page there is.
Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com. eBay is launched.
1996: 9,272 organizations find themselves unlisted after the InterNIC drops their name service as a
result of not having paid their domain name fee. Various ISPs suffer extended service outages,
bringing into question whether they will be able to handle the growing number of users. AOL (19
hours), Netcom (13 hours), AT&T WorldNet (28 hours - email only). China requires users of the
Internet to register with the Police. Saudi Arabia restricts use to universities and hospitals. Domain
name tv.com sold to CNET for US$15,000. Backbone speed upgraded to 622 Mbps.
1997: 2000th RFC. 16 Million hosts. 1,000,000th Domain name registered (March 6th for Bonny View
Cottage Furniture Company).
1998: 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow the purchase of postage
stamps online for downloading and printing. Gigabit Ethernet standard ratified. Google is
launched.
1999: First full-service bank opens on the Internet (First Internet Bank of Indiana). The first forged
web page, looking like Bloomberg, raises the shares of a small company by 31% (7th April). Melissa
strikes. 5,000,000th Domain name registered. First Cyberwar starts between Serbia and Kosovo.
Shawn Fanning Launches Napster — record labels are furious.
2000: 10,000,000th Domain name registered. French Courts require that ‘hate’ memorabilia for sale
on Yahoo’s auction site must be removed. Gnutella is launched. ICANN selects new top-level
domains. Backbone is upgraded to IPv6.
2001: Forwarding email becomes illegal in Australia (Digital Agenda Act). Napster was forced to
suspend service after legal action. Taliban bans the Internet in Afghanistan. Nimda was released on
the Internet.
2002: Distributed denial of Service attack hits 13 DNS root servers, causing national security
concerns.
2003: The first official Swiss online election takes place in Anières (7 Jan), SQL Slammer (goes round
the world in 10 minutes and takes out 3 of the 13 DNS Servers). Followed by SoBig.F (19 Aug) and
Blaster (11 Aug).
2004: Lycos Europe releases a screen saver to help fight spam by keeping spam servers busy with
requests (1 Dec). The service is discontinued within a few days after backbone providers block
access to the download site and the service causes some servers to crash.

1.1 Data Communication

What is communication?
When two people communicate with one another that is known as communication as shown in
Figure 1. When the sender is sending a message, They are sharing their ideas that are called
communication.

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Figure 1 Data Communication

What is Data Communication?

When you are electronically transferring data from one place to another place by using a medium
that is called data communication. When you are sharing data with another person that can be in
any location or it can be in a remote location also. Communication always happens through some
medium. If two people are communicating. We can say that medium is air. Similarly, when the
sender wants to send data, the medium will be used to send data. That medium is called a
transmission medium as shown in Figure 2. Medium is the physical path through which sender and
receiver connect. A medium can be wired or wireless. Examples of the wired medium can be
copper wire, twisted pair cable, and fiber optic cable as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2 Transmission Media

Figure 3 Medium for Data Transfer

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
1.2 Defining Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked to share resources (such as printers
and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network
may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams. The
term ‘computer network’ means an interconnected collection of autonomous computers.
(a) Two computers are said to be interconnected if they can exchange information.
(b) The requirement for computers to be autonomous excludes from our definition systems in
which there is a clear master/slave relation.
The key difference between a computer network and a distributed system:
In a distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous computers is transparent to the user.
A distributed system looks like a virtual uni-processor to its users.
With a network, a user must explicitly do the followings:

 log onto one machine (e.g., login),

 submit jobs remotely (e.g., rsh),
 move files around (e.g., rcp, FTP, UUCP),
 and generally handle all the network management personally.
In effect, a distributed system is a special case of a network, one whose software gives it a high
degree of cohesiveness and transparency. The network is everywhere. The best examples of the
network are railways, radio, water taps, and water supply chain systems in ancient Rome as shown
in figure 5.

Figure 5 Best Examples of Network

What type of shared resources can be shared?

When one system sends data to another, it can share resources. Examples of resources are the
internet, printer, and file server as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Examples of Shared Resources

Shared resources can be in the form of hardware or they can in the form of software. Resources
related to hardware are disks, printers, and scanners. Resources related to software are Files,
applications that are also known, and application software as shown in Figure 7. Any type of file
can be shared through the network. It can be in form of text, audio, and video.

Figure 4 Best examples of network

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Figure 7 Shared Resources

For an example of hardware sharing, suppose if you only have one printer in your classroom that
you want to share with several student computers, you can connect that printer to your computer
and then share it so that it is accessible from any computer in the room. One of the major
advantages is the utilization of the resource. Proper utilization of resources like the printer is doing
here. No need to purchase a separate printer for each system. Maintenance costs also reduce when
we share the resource.

1.3 Benefits of computer network

 File-Sharing: We can share a file with a different number of users.
 Hardware Sharing: If you are working in one network and if you share a file Best example is a
printer. If 10 faculties are seated in a single room. Instead of purchasing an individual printer
for each faculty, all can share a single printer. It reduces maintenance costs and increases
resource utilization.
 Application Sharing: By using the internet, we can view and control the application that exists
in a remote location. It means we can use applications that exist in some other system.
 User Communication: Two users can communicate with another. Two users can be connected
using a router or switch or hub or any other device. They can be connected using peer-to-peer
connection also.
 Network Gaming: Nowadays, it is very much important. All students joined in one location to
play the game. They are located in different locations. Just to play a game, they are joining in a
single location.

1.4 Data Communication and Networking

It is changing the way we do business. Day by day, business trending is changing. Today
businesses are not limited to offline. When you want to extend your business, you want to opt
online. The sellers are going to the online website so that they sell their products. Seller also wants
to join their remote customer who is not in the same location. By this approach, users can expand
their business. Due to competition in the market, business decisions have to be made more quickly.
For this reason, decision-makers require immediate access to accurate information.
For example:
Why wait a week for that report from Germany to arrive by mail when it could appear
instantaneously through computer networks. Business today relies on computer networks and
internetwork.

Before we get into details of networking, we need to know: -

1. How does the network operate?
2. What type of technologies are available?
3. Which design best fills which set of needs?

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It means what type of network you wanted to build. Suppose if you wanted to connect the system
to a small institute. You need to decide either you are going to connect all systems either using a
bus topology, ring topology or you want to connect using a hybrid topology. How you are going to
connect all systems. To make connectivity between all systems together, basic knowledge is
required. If you want all systems able to shared resources and data with one another, it means
technology knowledge is very much required. You must know what type of technology is required,
which is the best technology to connect systems.
The development of the personal computer brought tremendous changes for:
 Business
 Industry
 Science
 Education

It has changed the way people are looking. We are looking for online education. Students are
looking for specialized certificate courses. Similarly, revolution is occurring in data communication
and networking. Technology advances are making it possible for communications links to carry
more and faster signals. Services are evolving to allow the use of this expanded capacity.
Example: Telephone services extended to have:
 Conference calling
 Call waiting
 Voice mail and
 Caller ID

4. What is the role they are playing in the research?

Research in data communications and networking has resulted in new technologies. One goal is to
be able to exchange data such as text, audio, and video from all points in the world.

5. Why would we want to access the internet?

We want to access the internet to download and upload information quickly and accurately and at
any time.

6. What is communication
When two people connected through a medium so that they can communicate and share
knowledge. Sharing can be local or remote.
Local Sharing
Local sharing means two users are directly communication with one another. Example face to face
communication as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Local Communication

Remote Sharing
Remote sharing means when we talk about distance. User with whom we want to communicate
that is not located locally. The user is located at a remote location. It means the user is located at
some other place. Example telecommunication means telephony, telegraphy, and television means
communication at a distance as shown in Figure 9.

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Figure 9 Remote Sharing

What is data?
Data refers to information presented in any form and is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form
of transmission medium such as wire cable. For data communication to occur the communicating
devices must be a part of a communicating system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software(programs).
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Delivery The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user. If it's not reaching to correct
destination then security is compromised here.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable. When the sender is sending data, in between
no manipulation of data is allowed.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data promptly. Data delivered late are useless. In the case
of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same
order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called
real-time transmission. Especially in case if you are sending audio and video, data must
deliver in time. For example, if we play a video and audio is coming after few minutes. So, I
cannot enjoy listening to that video. There should not be much delay of data.
 Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is an uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. There should not be many variations in the early packet
and coming packet as shown in Figure 10. Variations in the packet should less. Jitter in
between first and second packet is of 5 minutes and second to third is also 5 minutes and third,
to the fourth packet is taking 15 minutes. It is not at all acceptable. Jitter means variation in the
packet delay should be consistent as shown in Figure 10.

Components of Data Communication

Five components of data communication play a major role as shown in figure 11:

 Sender
 Receiver
 Message
 Transmission medium
 Protocol

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks

Figure 10 Jitter Variation in Packets

Figure 11 Components of Data Communication

Sender: Sender who sends the data. It can be a workstation from where you are sending the data.
Receiver: Receiver who has the capability of receiving the data. It can also be a workstation that is
receiving the data.
Message: The information that users want to send and that can be in the form of text, audio, and
video.
Transmission medium: it can be either wired or wireless medium. Wired media are also known as
guided media and wireless media means without wire. Examples of wireless media can be
microwave, radio wave, Bluetooth, or mobile communication.
Protocol: The sender is going to use some rules and regulations to send a message to the
destination. Communication should happen by following some rules. For example: If the sender
knows only French and the receiver knows only English. They have to follow some rules to
communicate with one another. Otherwise, they won't be able to communicate with one another.
Data Representation
Information can be represented in text, images, numbers, audio, and videos form.
Text is a collection of alphabets. Smaller case and uppercase alphabets are also allowed. These
alphabets will be converted into the form of bits. Information can be represented in the form of
images also that would be converted into bits. Numbers are in the form of digits. Information can
be represented in the form of audio. If you wanted to send recorded sound that can also be sent.
When you want o send a video to your friend that can also be in the form of bits.

1.5 Applications Of Computer Networks

The main uses of computer networks are in business, home, mobile and social issues.

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Business Applications
Most of the companies have a substantial number of computers. There uses are

 Resource Sharing:
The first one is resource sharing that helps to share the resource. Computer networks allow
organizations to have units that are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very
effective manner. Programs and software in any computer can be accessed by other computers
linked to the network. It also allows sharing of hardware equipment, like printers and scanners
among varied users as shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Resource Sharing

 Server Client Model:
A client-server model is shown in Figure 13 which consists of two clients and one server and they
are connected by a network.

Figure 13 Client/Server Model

The client is sending a request and the server is replying because they are connected through a
network. The client-server model describes how a server provides resources and services to one or
more clients. Examples of servers include web servers, mail servers, and file servers. Each of these
servers provides resources to client devices, such as desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and
smartphones.

 Communication medium
A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among employees. Virtually
every company that has two or more computers now has e-mail (electronic mail), which employees
generally use for a great deal of daily communication as shown in.

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks

Figure 14 Communication Medium

 E-commerce
A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing business with consumers
over the Internet.

Figure 15 Examples of E-commerce

Airlines, bookstores, and music vendors have discovered that many customers like the convenience
of shopping from home as shown in Figure 15. This sector is expected to grow quickly in the future.
The most popular forms in E-commerce are listed in
Table 1 Most Popular Forms in E-commerce

The most popular forms are listed

B2C When consumer order shoes online

(Business to Consumer)

B2B Truck manufacturer oredering tires from suppliers

(Business to Business)

C2C An online auction site(ebay)

(Consumer to Consumer)

G2C reduce the average time for fulfilling citizen’s requests for
(government to Citizen) various government services.

P2P Buyer and seller transact directly

(Peer to Peer)

 P2P Communication
Stands for "Peer to Peer." In a P2P network, the "peers" are computer systems that are connected via
the Internet. Files can be shared directly between systems on the network without the need for a
central server. In other words, each computer on a P2P network becomes a file server as well as a
client.

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Figure 16 Peer to Peer Communication

Once connected to the network, P2P software allows you to search for files on other people's
computers. Meanwhile, other users on the network can search for files on your computer, but
typically only within a single folder that you have designated to share. While P2P networking
makes file sharing easy and convenient, it also has led to a lot of software piracy and illegal music
downloads. Therefore, it is best to be on the safe side and only download software and music from
legitimate websites.
Home Applications
Some of the most important uses of the Internet for home users are as follows:

 Access to remote information:

 Person-to-person communication
 Interactive entertainment
 Electronic commerce
Mobile Users

Mobile computers, notebook computers are one of the fastest-growing segments of the entire
computer industry. Since having a wired connection is impossible in cars, boats, airplanes, there is
a lot of interest in wireless networks. Wired connection is not possible in these areas, so wireless
connection comes into the picture. For example, people who usually traveling, they prefer to use
portable devices.

Figure 17 Wireless Hotspots

Wireless hotspots are another kind of wireless network for mobile computers Figure 17.
Smartphones such as the popular iPhone, combine aspects of mobile phones and mobile computers.
Although wireless networking and mobile computing are often related, they are not identical, as
the below Figure 18 shows:

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Wireless Mobile Applications

No No Desktop computer in offices

No Yes A notebook computer used in a hotel room

Yes No Networks in older, unwired buildings

Yes Yes Portable office; PDA for store inventory

Figure 18 Mobile Users

Social Issues
The growth in the availability of affordable computing technology has caused several major shifts
in the way that society operates. The majority of these have been for the better, with home
computers and the internet providing unlimited access to all of the information ever created and
discovered by humanity.

 Communication Breakdown
Socializing within a family unit has always been important, as it strengthens the bonds between us
and ensures cohesion within the group. But with more and more households owning several
computers and numerous portable devices granting access to information and entertainment, some
argue that this is leading to a lack of family communication. If each member is engrossed in their
laptop, smartphone, or tablet each evening, even communal things like watching television are
compromised. Meanwhile, you can see whole families who are out to dinner and still staring into a
touchscreen rather than talking to one another. And if you’re the one driving to that family dinner
and texting while driving, you’re a distracted driver, increasing your risk of crashing, and
potentially causing death and injury. Increase your digital wellbeing by allowing technology to
improve your life and not become a distraction to your life and others. Your life and others are
more important than technology.

 Unauthorized Access
Unauthorized access is when someone gains access to a website, program, server, service, or other
system using someone else's account or other methods. For example, if someone kept guessing a
password or username for an account that was not theirs until they gained access, it is
considered unauthorized access.

 Authentication
Authentication is the process of recognizing a user’s identity. It is the mechanism of associating an
incoming request with a set of identifying credentials. The credentials provided are compared to
those on a file in a database of the authorized user’s information on a local operating system or
within an authentication server.

 Ethical Use of Networks

It is a generally accepted policy to maintain access to the networks as open as possible; it is thus
unavoidable that certain ethical standards be imposed on the activities of individual users. Such
demands differ little from those placed on other members of a modern civilized community.

 dentity Theft
Identity theft, also known as identity fraud, is a crime in which an imposter obtains key pieces
of personally identifiable information (PII), such as Social Security or driver's license numbers, to
impersonate someone else. The taken information can be used to run up debt purchasing credit,
goods, and services in the name of the victim, or to provide the thief with false credentials. In rare

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cases, an imposter might provide false identification to police, creating a criminal record or leaving
outstanding arrest warrants for the person whose identity has been stolen.

 Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying or cyberharassment is a form of bullying or harassment using electronic means.
Cyberbullying and cyberharassment are also known as online bullying. It has become increasingly
common, especially among teenagers, as the digital sphere has expanded and technology has
advanced.

 Gaming Addiction
Video game addiction is the compulsive or uncontrolled use of video games, in a way that causes
problems in other areas of the person's life. Often considered a form of a computer addiction
or internet addiction, video game addiction has been an increasing concern for parents as video
games have become more commonplace and are often targeted at children.

 Health & Fitness

Fitness involves the activity of some sort that stimulates various systems of the body and maintains
a certain condition within the body. Health, on the other hand, involves every system of the body
and is only achieved through a lifestyle that supports health.

1.6 Types of Networks

 Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Local Area Network (LAN)
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network (PAN) is the interconnection of information technology devices within the
range of a person, typically within a range of 10 meters. For example, a person traveling with a
laptop, a personal digital assistant (PDA), and a portable printer could interconnect them without
having to plug anything in, using some form of wireless technology. Typically, this kind of
personal area network could also be interconnected without wires to the Internet or other networks
as shown in Figure 19.
PAN is organized around a person within a single building. This could be inside a small office or
residence. PAN would include one or more computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game
consoles, and other personal entertainment devices. Two or more devices are located on your
person and normally connect via Bluetooth.

Figure 19 Personal Area Network

Types of PAN

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PAN can be of different types. It can be wired PAN or Wireless PAN defined in diagram below:

Figure 20 Types of PAN

Wired PAN
• The data cable is an example of the above PAN.
• This is also a Personal Area Network because that connection is for the user's personal use.
PAN is used for personal use only.
Wireless Personal Area Network
The two kinds of wireless technologies used for WPAN are Bluetooth and Infrared Data
Association. Bluetooth uses short-range radio waves over distances up to approximately 10 meters.
For example, Bluetooth devices such as a keyboard, pointing devices, audio headsets, printers may
connect to personal digital assistants (PDAs), cell phones, or computers wirelessly.

Figure 21 Examples of Bluetooth and Infrared data association

Infrared Data Association (IrDA) uses infrared light, which has a frequency below the human
eye's sensitivity. Infrared, in general, is used, for instance, in TV remotes.
Local Area Network
LAN is normally located inside the same building or structure or residence, school, laboratory, or
office building. A LAN can be as simple as two computers connected to a single switch. A LAN is
very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with
relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables. High speed
and relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs. It is usually privately owned
networks. LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among
themselves but not with the rest of the outside world as shown in Figure 22.

Figure 22 Local Area Network

Two most common transmission technologies in use for local area networks:

 Ethernet over twisted-pair cabling

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Notes Data Communication and Networking
 Wi-Fi

Historical technologies include ARCNET, Token Ring, and AppleTalk as shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23 Historical Technologies of LAN

RELATED TO LAN IS WLAN

Another name for WLAN is wi-fi( Wireless Fidelity).
Classification of LAN
Computer networks can logically be classified into 1) peer-to-peer networks and 2) client-server
networks as shown in Figure 24.

Figure 24 Types of LAN

Peer to Peer Network

Each computer is responsible for making its resources available to other computers on the
network. Responsible for setting and maintaining own security for these resources. Each
computer is responsible for accessing the required resources from peer-to-peer
relationships. Peer to peer network is usually for a small network containing less than 10
computers on a single LAN. Do not have a central control system. There are no servers in
peer networks as shown in Figure 25. Peer to Peer networks is amplified into homegroups.

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks

Figure 25 Peer to Peer Network

Advantages and disadvantages of a peer network

Table 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Peer Network

Advantages Disadvantages

Use less expensive computer hardware Not Very Secure

Easy to administer No central point of storage or file archiving

No NOS required The additional load on the computer because

of resource sharing

More built-in redundancy, easy setup, and low Hard to maintain version control.
cost

Client/Server Network
A computer network in which one centralized, powerful computer (called the server) is a hub to
which many less powerful personal computers or workstations (called clients) are connected. The
clients run programs and access data that are stored on the server.

Figure 26 Client/Server Network

Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Client/Server

Advantages Disadvantages

Very secure Requires professional administration

Better performance More hardware intensive

Centralized backup More software-intensive

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Very reliable Expensive dedicated software

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network larger than a local area
network. MAN knew as municipal area network. consists of a computer network across an
entire city, college campus, or small region. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs
to form a bigger network. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a
single building or site. An example of MAN is shown in Figure 27 below.

Figure 27 Metropolitan Area Network

Networking technologies used in municipal networks

• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
• FDDI,
• and SMDS(Switched Multi-megabit Data Service )
Wide Area Network
A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the
entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The
Internet is the best-known example of a public WAN.

How WAN networks are established?

Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public
networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased
lines or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

1.7 Difference Between LAN and WAN

Table 4 Difference Between LAN and WAN

LAN WAN

Owned by a person=Privately owned Can be private or public

Operate over small area Large distance across countries.

Easy to design and maintain Not Easy

Communication medium is generally Satellite links(because of countries)

coaxiable cables.

Minimum propagation delay( time required Excessive propagation delay

for a digital signal to travel from the input(s)
of a logic gate to the output)

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High data rate(because of small distance) Low data rate

Broadcasting Switching techniques

Table 5 Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Parameters LAN WAN MAN

Ownership of Private Private or Public Private or Public

network

Geographical area Small Very large Moderate

covered

Design and Easy Not easy Not easy

maintenance

Communication Coaxial cable PSTN or satellite links Coaxiable

medium cables,PSTN,optical
fiber cable,wireless

Bandwidth Low High Moderate

Data Speed High Low Moderate

1.8 Network Topologies

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspects of the network. Both logical
and physical topologies could be the same or different in the same network.
• The physical topology is the placement of the various components of a network, including
device location and cable installation,
• while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a network, regardless of its
physical design
Point-to-Point
The simplest topology with a dedicated link between two endpoints. The simplest topology is a
permanent link between two endpoints. A children's tin can telephone is one example of a physical
dedicated channel.
Types of Topologies
There are seven main topologies as shown in Figure 28 below:

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Figure 28 Types of Topologies

Bus Topology
In a bus topology, each node is connected to a single cable, with the help of interface connectors.
This central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as the bus. A signal from the source
travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended
recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address for the data, the machine
ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data matches the machine address, the data is accepted.

Travels in both
Single Cable Backbone
directions

Machine Ignores
Data Accepted
the Data

The benefit over other technology

Because the bus topology consists of only one wire, it is rather inexpensive to implement when
compared to other topologies. because only one cable is utilized, it can be the single point of failure.

Working of Bus Topology

A signal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable.
Although the message is broadcasted only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP
address matches, accepts it. If the MAC /IP address of the machine doesn’t match with the
intended address, the machine discards the signal. A terminator is added at the ends of the central
cable, to prevent the bouncing of signals.

Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology

1) It is easy to set-up and extends the bus network.
2) The cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other networks.
3) Bus topology costs very little.
4) Linear Bus network is mostly used in small networks. Good for LAN.

Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology

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1. There is a limit on central cable length and the number of nodes that can be connected.
2. Dependency on central cable in this topology has its disadvantages. If the main cable (i.e.
bus ) encounters some problem, the whole network breaks down.
3. Proper termination is required to dump signals. The use of terminators is a must.
4. It is difficult to detect and troubleshoot faults at the individual station.
5. Maintenance costs can get higher with time.
6. The efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it increases
7. It is not suitable for networks with heavy traffic.
8. Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source.

Star Topology
In local area networks with a star topology, each network host is connected to a central hub with a
point-to-point connection. So it can be said that every computer is indirectly connected to every
other node with the help of the hub. In Star topology, every node (computer workstation or any
other peripheral) is connected to a central node called a hub, router, or switch. The switch is the
server and the peripherals are the clients. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star
to be classified as a star network, but all of the nodes on the network must be connected to one
central device as shown in Figure 29. All traffic that traverses the network passes through the
central hub. The hub acts as a signal repeater. The star topology is considered the easiest topology
to design and implement. Devices typically connect to the hub with Un-shielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) Ethernet.

Figure 29 Star Topology

Primary Disadvantage Compared to Other

The primary disadvantage of the star topology is that
1. The hub represents a single point of failure.
2. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable.
3. The use of a hub, a router, or a switch as a central device increases the overall cost of the
network.
4. The use of a hub, a router, or a switch as a central device increases the overall cost of the
network.

Advantages of Star Topology

• As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance, signals don’t necessarily
get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches the intended destination after
passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. The performance of the network is
dependent on the capacity of the central hub.
• Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology, new nodes can be added easily without
affecting the rest of the network. Similarly, components can also be removed easily.
• Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of the network. At the same time, it's easy to
detect the failure and troubleshoot it. Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the
network.

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Ring Topology
A network topology is set up circularly in such a way that they make a closed loop. This way data
travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the ring acts as a repeater to keep the
signal strong as it travels. Each device incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and a
transmitter to send the data to the next device in the ring. The network is dependent on the ability
of the signal to travel around the ring. When a device sends data, it must travel through each device
on the ring until it reaches its destination. Every node is a critical link.[4] In a ring topology, there is
no server computer present; all nodes work as a server and repeat the signal. Sending and receiving
of data takes place with the help of TOKEN.

Token passing
The token contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source computer.
This token then passes to the next node, which checks if the signal is intended for it. If yes, it
receives it and passes the empty to into the network, otherwise passes the token along with the data
to the next node. This process continues until the signal reaches its intended destination. The nodes
with token are the ones only allowed to send data. Other nodes have to wait for an empty token to
reach them. This network is usually found in offices, schools, and small buildings. The structure is
shown in Figure 30.

Figure 30 Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it
receives an empty token. This helps to reduce the chances of a collision. Also in a ring
topology, all the traffic flows in only one direction at a very high speed.
2. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus
topology.
3. There is no need for the network server to control the connectivity between workstations.
4. Additional components do not affect the performance of the network.
5. Each computer has equal access to resources.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. The disadvantage of this topology is that if one node stops working, the entire network is
affected or stops working.
2. Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination.
This makes it slower than Star topology
3. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected.
4. The network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components.
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, each of the network nodes, computer, and other devices, are interconnected
with one another as shown in Figure 31. Every node not only sends its signals but also relays data
from other nodes. A true mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other
node in the network. This type of topology is very expensive as there are many redundant
connections, thus it is not mostly used in computer networks. It is commonly used in a wireless
network. Flooding or routing technique is used in a mesh topology.

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Figure 31 Mesh Topology

Full Mesh Topology

In a full mesh topology, each component is connected to every other component. Even after
considering the redundancy factor and cost of this network, its main advantage is that the network
traffic can be redirected to other nodes if one of the nodes goes down. Full mesh topology is used
only for backbone networks.

Partial Mesh Topology

Here, some of the systems are connected similarly as in mesh topology while the rest of the systems
are only connected to 1 or 2 devices. It can be said that in partial mesh, the workstations are
‘indirectly’ connected to other devices. This one is less costly and also reduces redundancy.

Advantages of Mesh topology

1. Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can
withstand high traffic.
2. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer
doesn’t get affected.
3. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections.
2. The overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology are very difficult. Even administration of the
network is tough.
Tree Topology
Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw how in
Physical Star network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other through a central
hub. And we also saw in Bus Topology, work station devices are connected by the common cable
called Bus. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus. This main
cable seems like the main stem of a tree and other star networks as the branches as shown in Figure
32. It is also called Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of
topology.

Figure 32 Tree Topology

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Advantages of Tree Topology

1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't
be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best
alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily
managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction are easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it
breaks the whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, maintenance becomes difficult.
3. The scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid, as the name suggests, is a mixture of two different things. Similarly in this type of
topology, we integrate two or more different topologies to form a resultant topology that has good
points(as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather than having
characteristics of one specific topology. This combination of topologies is done according to the
requirements of the organization.

For example:- if there exists a ring topology in one office department while a bus topology in
another department, connecting these two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting
two similar topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are
the most common examples of the hybrid network as shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33 Hybrid Topology

Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology

1. Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting are easy in this type
of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of the network
and required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of the
rest of the network.
2. Scalable: It's easy to increase the size of the network by adding new components, without
disturbing existing architecture.
3. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes
where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high.
4. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can
design it in such a way that the strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while
their weaknesses are neutralized. For example, we saw Ring Topology has good data

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
reliability (achieved by the use of tokens) and Star topology has high tolerance capability
(as each node is not directly connected to the other but through a central device), so these
two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. The complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its
design. It's not easy to design this type of architecture and it's a tough job for designers.
The configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient.
2. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks are very expensive. These
hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with
different architectures and should be functional even if a part of the network is down.
3. Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a
lot of cables, cooling systems, sophisticated network devices, etc.

Summary
 A network consists of two or more computers that are linked to share resources (such as
printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on
a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared
light beams.
 The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources. The main goal of
networking is Resource sharing. A second goal is to provide high reliability by having
alternative sources of supply. Another goal is saving money. Another closely related goal is to
increase the performance of the system as the workload increases by just adding more
processors. With central mainframes, when the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger
one, usually at great expense and with even greater disruption to the users. Computer
networks provide a powerful communication medium.
 There are two important dimensions for classifying networks — transmission technology and
scale.
 Transmission technology can be classified into two types:
o Broadcast networks.
o Point-to-point networks
 Broadcast networks: These networks have a single communication channel shared by all the
machines on the network.
 Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines.
Multiple routes and intermediate machines may exist between a pair of machines, so routing
algorithms play an important role here.
 A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just Internet. The Internet
refers to a specific worldwide Internet that is widely used to connect universities, government
offices, companies, and private individuals.
 A network topology is the basic design of a computer network. It details how key network
components such as nodes and links are interconnected.
 There are three primary types of network topologies that refer to the physical and logical
layout of the network cabling. They are a star, ring, and bus topology.

Keywords
Archive: A computer site advertises and stores a large amount of public domain, shareware
software and documentation.

Broadcast Networks: They have a single communication channel, which is shared by all the

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Notes Data Communication and Networking
computers on the network and therefore, any message transmitted by a computer on the network
is received by all the computers connected to the channel.

Error Control: The receiving end after the completion of receiving the information must also be
capable of dealing with and recognizing corruption.
Local Area Network: A LAN is a form of local (limited distance), shared packet network for
computer communications.
Metropolitan Area Network: In MAN, different LANs are connected through a local telephone
exchange using one or two cables but not switching elements.
Service Primitives: The primitives enable the service provider to perform some action or report
on an action taken by a peer entity.
Wide Area Network: A WAN may be defined as a data communications network that covers a
the relatively broad geographic area to connect LANs between different cities with the help of
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.

Review Questions
Q1: Physical or logical arrangement of a network is

a) Topology
b) Routing
c) Networking
d) Control
Q2: _____________ topology requires a multipoint connection.

a) Star
b) Mesh
c) Ring
d) Bus
Q3: The types of transmission channel or media used for LAN or WAN are

a) Twisted Pair Cables

b) Coaxial Cables
c) Fibre-Optic Cables and Radio Waves
d) All of above
Q4: The _________________ is the physical path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.

a) Protocol
b) Message
c) Transmission medium
d) Sender
Q5: A _____________ is a set of rules governing data communication between two devices

a) Protocol
b) Message
c) Medium
d) Sender
Q6: The ____________ is the device that sends the message

a) Protocol
b) Sender
c) Network
d) Medium
Q7: In a ____________ connection, two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link.

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Unit 1: Introduction to Data Communication and Computer Networks
a) Multipoint
b) Point-to-point
c) (a) and (b)
d) None of the above
Q8: An unauthorized user is a network _____________ issue.

a) Performance
b) Reliability
c) Security
d) All the above
Q9: Which topology requires a centraller controller or a hub?

a) Mesh
b) Star
c) Bus
d) Ring
Q10: Which type of network would use phone lines?

a) Wireless
b) WAN
c) LAN
d) WWAN

Q11: Explain five effective characteristics of data communication.

Q12: Write down applications of computer networks.

Q13: How are computer networks classified? Mention some of the important reasons for the
classification of computer networks.

Q14: Diagramtically explain bus topology and ring topology

Q15: Explain the difference between Star, Bus, and Mesh topology.

Q16: Write down the difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN.

Answers
1. a 2. d 3. d 4. c 5. a

6. b 7. b 8. c 9. b 10. b

Further/Suggested Readings

 Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

 Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Companies.
 Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, McGraw-Hill
Osborne Media.
 Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet, Vikas
Publication

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-network-tutorials/

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 2: Data and Signals Notes

Unit 02: Data and Signals

CONTENTS
Introduction
2.1 What are major functions of Physical Layer
2.2 Signal Classifications
2.3 Transmission Mode
2.4 Transmission Impairments
2.5 Protocols
2.6 Network Standards
Summary
Self-Assessment
Answers for Self Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings

Objectives
After this lecture, you would be able to:

 understand analog and digital signals

 learn what are the various transmission modes.
 understand what is performance metrics.
 learn the various essential network metrics to monitor.
 Understand the various reasons for transmission impairments
 Understand the concept of protocols.
 Learn the components and functions of protocols

Introduction
One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in the form of electromagnetic
signals across a transmission medium. Whether you are collecting numericalstatistics from another
computer, sending animated pictures from a design workstation,or causing a bell to ring at a
distant control center, you are working with the transmissionofdata across network
connections.Generally, the data usable to a person or application are not in a form that can
betransmitted over a network. For example, a photograph must first be changed to a formthat
transmission media can accept. Transmission media work by conducting energyalong a physical
path.

2.1 What are major functions of Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for electromagnetic compatibility including electromagnetic
spectrum frequency allocation and specification of signal strength, analog bandwidth, etc. The
transmission medium may be electrical or optical over optical fiber or a wireless IR communication
link.For example, a photograph must first be changed to a form that transmission media can accept.

Analog and Digital Data

Signals can be classified based on different parameters like the time intervals between which it is
being created, or the type of the signal.Both data and the signals that represent them can be either
analog or digital in form as shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 Analog and Digital Data

Analog Data Digital Data

The term analog data

Digital data take on
refers to information
discrete values.
that is continuous.

2.2 Signal Classifications

a) Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

Periodic Signals Non-Periodic Signals

Completes a pattern and repeats that pattern Changes without exhibiting a pattern
over subsequent identical periods.

The completion of one full pattern is called a Any continuous-time signal which is not
cycle. periodic is called a non-periodic signal.

b) Analog and Digital Data

Examples of Analog data are shown below.

The example of digital data are shown below:

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i Analog Signal
• Many levels of intensity

• An infinite number of values.

Figure 1 Analog Signal

ii Digital Signal
• Limited number of defined values.

• Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.

Figure 2 Digital Signal

Information can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case,
we can as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send
more than 1 bit for each level. The following figure shows two signals, one with two levels and the
other with four. In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log2L bits.

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Figure 3 Digital Signal with two levels

Figure 4 Digital Signal with four levels

Bit Rate:
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in Is, expressed in bits per second (bps).

Figure 5 Bit rate and bit interval

The Bit Rate for the above diagram is 8bps and 16bps.

Bit Length:
The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.

Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration

Baud Rate
Baud Rate is the number of signal unit transmitted per second.
Thus Baud Rate is always less than or equal to bit rate. Baud rate is number of symbols per second.

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DifferenceBetweenBit Rate and Baud Rate

Bit Rate Baud Rate

Bit rate is also defined as per second travel Baud rate is also defined as per second
number of bits. number of changes in signal.

Bit rate emphasized on computer While baud rate emphasized on data

efficiency. transmission.

Bit rate is not used to decide the While baud rate is used to decide the
requirement of bandwidth for transmission requirement of bandwidth for transmission
of signal. of signal.

Bit Length

The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.
Bit length =propagation speed x bit duration

Bit Interval
Data can be represented by a digital signal. For Example a 1 can be encoded as a positivevoltage
and a 0 can be encoded as a zero voltage.

2.3 Transmission Mode

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected
over a network.It is also called Communication Mode.These modes direct the direction of flow of
information.

Modes of Transmission
Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur between
individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission mode:-

Transmission Mode

Half- Duplex
Simplex Mode Full-Duplex Mode
Mode

Figure 6 Transmission Modes

These are explained as following below.

a) Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire
capacity of the channel to send data in one direction. Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors.
The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

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TV Station Home
OneDirection
Transmitter Television

Figure 7 Simplex Mode

b) Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Example: Walkie- talkie in which message
is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both the directions.

Channel capacity=Bandwidth * Propagation Delay

Direction of data 1

Direction of data 2

Figure 8 Half Duplex Transmission

c) Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In fullduplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in other direction,
this sharing can occur in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and other
for receiving.
Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a
telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.
Channel Capacity=2* Bandwidth*propagation Delay

Figure 9 Full Duplex Transmission

Performance Metrics
Network performance can be affected by a number of different factors.It’s important for companies
to know which network performance metrics are important to examine.However, depending on the
specific issues that plague your network, not every metric is going to be important for you to look
at.Despite this, there are some metrics that are essential for any businesses to consider.

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 Unit 2: Data and Signals Notes

Bandwidth usage

Throughput

Latency

Packet loss

Retransmission

Availability

Connectivity

Figure 10: Seven Essential Network Performance Metrics

Bandwidth usage
Bandwidth is the maximum data transmission rate possible on a network. For optimal network
operations, you want to get as close to your maximum bandwidth as possible without reaching
critical levels. This indicates that your network is sending as much data as it can within a period of
time but isn’t being overloaded. An NPM can monitor how much bandwidth is currently being
used on a network, as well as how much bandwidth is typically used during daily operations. The
solution can also alert you when your network is using too much bandwidth.

Throughput
Throughput measures your network’s actual data transmission rate, which can vary wildly through
different areas of your network. While your network’s bandwidth measures the theoretical limit of
data transfer, throughput tells you how much data is actually being sent. Specifically, throughput
measures the percentage of data packets that are successfully being sent; a low throughput means
there are a lot of failed or dropped packets that need to be sent again.

Latency
Latency is the delay that happens between a node or device requesting data and when that data is
finished being delivered. This delay can happen for a variety of reasons, but whatever the cause,
your NPM solution can track any delays and log them. Consistent delays or odd spikes in delay
time indicate a major performance issue; however, because delays can often be undetectable to the
human eye, you need a monitoring tool to keep an eye on any delays that happen.

Packet loss
Packet loss examines how many data packets are dropped during data transmissions on your
network. The more data packets that are lost, the longer it takes for a data request to be fulfilled.
Your IT team should know how many packets are being dropped on average across your
infrastructure. A network’s Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) interprets when packets are
dropped and takes steps to ensure that data packets can still be transmitted; your network team
should monitor this system to make sure it’s working.

Retransmission
When packets are lost, the network needs to retransmit it to complete a data request. This
retransmission rate lets your enterprise know how often packets are being dropped, which is an
indication of congestion on your network. You can analyze retransmission delay, or the time it
takes for a dropped packet to be retransmitted, to understand how long it takes your network to
recover from packet loss.

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Availability
Network availability, also known as uptime, simply measures whether or not the network is
currently operational. You can never guarantee 100% availability, but you want to be aware of any
downtime that happens on your network that you weren’t expecting. It’s important to be alerted
when the network goes down, which network monitoring tools will provide for you. However, you
should also be able to discover your actual uptime percentage and how often your network goes
down.

Connectivity
Connectivity refers to whether the connections between the nodes on your network are working
properly. If there is an improper or malfunctioning connection on your network, it can be a major
hurdle for your company. Ideally, every connection should always be operating at peak levels.
However, performance issues like malware can target specific nodes or connections to affect
performance in that specific area of the network.

2.4 Transmission Impairments

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.

Reasons for Impairments

Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Figure 11 Causes of Impairments

a) Attenuation
It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes loss
of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known as attenuated signal. Amplifiers
are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back and compensate for
this loss.

Figure 12 Attenuation

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Attenuation is measured in decibels(dB). It measures the relative strengths of two signals or one
signal at two different point.

How is Attenuation Measured

To show the loss or gain of energy the unit “decibel” is used.
Attenuation dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

Figure 13 Attenuated Signal

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to
one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power)
can be calculated as

10 log10 P2/P1 = 10log10 0.5 P1 = 10 log10 0.5 = 10(-0.3)= -3 dB

P1 P1
A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power

A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times. This means
that P2 = 10P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as

10 log10 P2 = 10 log1010P1
P1 P1

= 10 log 10 10 = 10(1) = 10 dB

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes in the strength of
a signal is that decibel numbers can be added (or subtracted) when we are
measuring several points (cascading) instead of just two. In Figure 3.27 a signal
travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel value can be calculated as
dB = -3 + 7 – 3 = +1

Figure 14 Attenuated Signal over Four Points

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

b) Distortion
It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite signals
made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation speed
travelling through a medium. And thats why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every
component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they have different phases
at receiver end from what they had at senders end.
Example

Figure 15 Distortion

c) Noise
The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise. There are
several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and impulse noise
which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as sending
antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is movement of
electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other
wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines.

Figure 16 Noise

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

To measure the quality of a system the SNR is often used. It indicates the strength of the signal wrt
the noise power in the system.

It is usually given in dB and referred to as SNRdB.

A high SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.

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Figure 17 High SNR Signal

• A low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.

Figure 18 Low SNR Signal

2.5 Protocols
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted between
different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to communicate with
each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes, structure or design.Cooperative
action is necessary. It should be noted that computer networking is not only to exchange bytes. It is
a huge system with several utilities and functions. For exampleerror detection, encryption, routing
etc.For proper communication, entities in different systems must speak the same language. There
must be mutually acceptable conventions and rules about the content, timing and underlying
mechanisms. Those conventions and associated rules are referred as “PROTOCOLS”.

Protocol Architecture
The task of data transfer is broken up into some modules. It is important to understand as to why it
is done and how do these modules interact?For example, file transfer could use three modules: File
transfer application, communication service module and network access module. Let us see a real-
worldexample of the Protocol Architecture.

Figure 19Philosopher-Translator-Secretary Architecture

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

Let us focus on some of the issues: like the peer-to-peer protocols are independent of each otherfor
example, secretaries may change the comm. medium to emailor the translators may agree on using
another common language. Note that each layer adds a header

2.6 Network Standards

Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for
interoperability of networking technologies and processes.Standards help in creating and
maintaining open markets and allow different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of
their products while being compatible with existing market products.

Types of Standards
Standards are of two typesi.e.De facto and De jure.
De facto standardsare the standards that are followed without any formal plan or approval by any
organization. They have come into existence due to traditions or facts. For example, the HTTP had
started as a de facto standard.
De jure standardsare the standards which have been adopted through legislation by any officially
recognized standards organization. Most of the communication standards that are used today are
de jure standards.

Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standards organizations are
1. International Standards Organization (ISO)

2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

3. Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)

4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

5. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)

6. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

7. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

1. International Standards Organization (ISO)- The International Organization for

standardization widely known as ISO, is an international standard-setting body composed of
representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on February 23, 1947,
the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary industrial and commercial standards. It
has it’s headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. While ISO defines itself as a non-governmental
organization, its ability to set standards that often-become law, either through treaties or
national standards, makes it more powerful than most non-governmental organizations. In
practice, ISO acts as a consortium with strong links to governments. ISO is an international
standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards
organizations the organization promulgates worldwide proprietary industrial and commercial
standards.ISO's main products are the International Standards. ISO also publishes Technical
Reports, Technical Specifications, Publicly Available Specifications, Technical Corrigenda, and
Guides.

2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) - The International Telecommunication

Union is the specialized agency of the United Nations which is responsible for information and
communication technologies. ITU coordinates the shared global use of the radio spectrum,
promotes international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, works to improve
telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world and establishes worldwide
standards.ITU also organizes worldwide and regional exhibitions and forums, such as ITU
TELECOM WORLD, bringing together representatives of government and the
telecommunications and ICT industry to exchange ideas, knowledge and technology.
3. Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) -IEEE's Constitution defines the
purposes of the organization as "scientific and educational, directed toward the advancement

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of the theory and practice of Electrical, Electronics, Communications and Computer

Engineering, as well as Computer Science, the allied branches of engineering and the related
arts and sciences." The IEEE is Not-for-Profit Corporation. It was formed in 1963 by the merger
of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, founded 1912) and the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers (AIEE, founded 1884). It has more than 400,000 members in more than 160 countries,
45% outside the United States.It is also a leading developer of industrial standards having
developed over 900 active industry standards in a broad range of disciplines, including electric
power and energy, biomedical technology and health care, information technology,
information assurance, telecommunications, consumer electronics, transportation, aerospace,
and nanotechnology. IEEE develops and participates in educational activities such as
accreditation of electrical engineering programs in institutes of higher learning. IEEE serves as
a major publisher of scientific journals and a conference organizer. IEEE is one of the leading
standards-making organizations in the world. IEEE performs its standards making and
maintaining functions through the IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA). One of the more
notable IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking standard.

4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) -Though ANSI itself does not develop
standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the
procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the
procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute's requirements for
openness, balance, consensus, and due process.ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five
engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering
Standards Committee (AESC).In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association
(ASA). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became the United States of America Standards
Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969.ANSI also designates specific
standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the
standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the
requirements of various stakeholders.The American National Standards process involves:
• consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties
• broad-based public review and comment on draft standards
• consideration of and response to comments
• incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a
draft standard
• availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not
respected during the standards-development process.

5. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) -The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) promotes
research of importance to the evolution of the Internet by creating focused, long-term Research
Groups working on topics related to Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and
technology.The IRTF is a composed of several focused and long-term Research
Groups.Research Groups have the stable long-term membership needed to promote the
development of research collaboration and teamwork in exploring research issues.
Participation is by individual contributors, rather than by representatives of organizations.The
IRTF is managed by the IRTF Chair in consultation with the Internet Research Steering
Group (IRSG). The IRSG membership includes the IRTF Chair, the chairs of the various
Research Groups, and other individuals (“members at large”) from the research community
selected by the IRTF Chair.The IRTF is managed by the IRTF Chair in consultation with
the Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). The IRSG membership includes the IRTF Chair,
the chairs of the various Research Groups, and other individuals (“members at large”) from the
research community selected by the IRTF Chair.

6. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) -The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main
international standards organization for World Wide Web (abbreviated WWW or
W3).Founded and headed by Tim Berners-Lee, the consortium is made up of member
organizations which maintain full-time staff for the purpose of working together in the
development of standards for the World Wide Web. W3C also engages in education and
outreach, develops software and serves as an open forum for discussion about the Web.W3C
was created to ensure compatibility and agreement among industry members in the adoption
of new standards. Prior to its creation, incompatible versions of HTML were offered by
different vendors, increasing the potential for inconsistency between web pages. The

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

consortium was created to get all those vendors to agree on a set of core principles and
components which would be supported by everyone.

Summary
Having discussed the various transmission medias and the different type of signals that they deal
with, a proper transmission mode has to be chosen for the type of communication we are
undergoing. To ensure the effective and error-free transmission different essential network
performance metrics must be considered to make necessary changes in the network. The different
transmission impairments need to be understood by an organisation and should be effectively
managed to ensure effective data communication

Keywords
Archive: A computer site advertises and stores a large amount of public domain, shareware
software and documentation.
Broadcast Networks: They have a single communication channel, which is shared by all the
computers on the network and therefore, any message transmitted by a computer on the network is
received by all the computers connected to the channel.
Bit Length: It is the distance one bit occupies on the transmission medium.
Baud Rate is the number of signal unit transmitted per second. It is always less than or equal to bit
rate.
Distortion: It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in composite
signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed travelling through a medium. And that’s why it delays in arriving at the final destination

Self-Assessment
1. Telegraph Signals are the examples of
a. Digital Signals
b. Analog Signals
c. Impulse Signals
d. Pulse Train
2. The example of an analog to analog conversion is
a. Radio
b. Video
c. Television
d. Internet
3. Analog to Analog conversion can be accomplished in
a. One way
b. Two ways
c. Three ways
d. Four ways
4. In the ____________ transmission mode, communication is unidirectional
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. Full-duplex
d. Hybrid
5. The _________ is an example of simplex device.
a. Repeater
b. Tap
c. Walkie-talkie

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 Unit 2: Data and Signals Notes

d. Keyboard
6. In the _________ transmission mode, each station can transmit , but not at the same time
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. Full-duplex
d. B and c
7. In the ___________ transmission mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same
time.
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. Full-duplex
d. B and c
8. _______ refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices
a. Line configuration
b. Topology
c. Transmission mode
d. Line discipline.
9. The term that refres to loss of strength of a signal is called
a. Attenuation
b. Distortion
c. Noise
d. Impairments
10. A transmission media can have signal impairment because of
a. Noise
b. Attenuation
c. Distortion
d. All of above
11. _______ is a type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses strength due to the
different propagation speeds of each frequency that makes up the signal.
a. Attenuation
b. Noise
c. Distortion
d. Decibel
12. ________ is a type of transmission impairment in which an outside source such as
crosstalk corrupts a signal.
a. Attenuation
b. Noise
c. Distortion
d. Decibel

Answers for Self Assessment

1. A 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. D

6. B 7. B 8. C 9. A 10. D

11. C 12. B

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Review Questions
Q1: Difference between bit rate and baud rate.
Q2: Explain difference types of modes of communication.
Q3: Explain difference between full duplex, half duplex and simplex along with examples.
Q4: Write down the standards of organization.
Q5: What do you understand by signals. Explain types of signals also.
Q6: There are always three causes of impairment. Explain them in detail.
Q7: Difference between periodic and non-periodic signals.
Q8: Write note on

a) Bit rate
b) Baud rate
c) Bit length
d) Bit Interval.
Q9: What do you understand by Defacto and DeJure.
Q10: What do you understand by protocol. Explain protocol architecture.

Further Readings

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall

Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and

Networking, McGraw-Hill Companies

Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media
McGraw-Hill Osborne Media

Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet,
Vikas Publication

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 03: Digital and Analog Transmssion Notes

UNIT 03: Digital and Analog Transmission

CONTENTS
Objectives
Digital Transmission
3.1 Digital-to Digital Transmission
3.2 Line Coding Schemes
Data Communication System
3.3 Circuits, Channels and Multichanneling
3.4 Modulation of Digital Signal
Analog to Analog Conversion
3.5 Amplitude Modulation
3.6 Frequency Modulation
3.7 Phase Modulation
3.8 Self Assessment

Objectives
• represent digital data by using digital signals.
• learning schemes to transmit data digitally.
• learn the digital to analog conversions.
• understand the various modulation techniques.

Digital Transmission
A computer network is designed to send information from one point to another. This information
needs to be converted to either a digital signal or an analog signal for transmission. In this chapter,
we discuss the first choice, conversion to digital signals. First, we discuss digital-to-digital conversion
techniques, methods which convert digital data to digital signals. Second, we discuss analog-to-
digital conversion techniques, methods which change an analog signal to a digital signaL Finally, we
discuss transmission modes

3.1 Digital-to Digital Transmission

We said that data can be either digital or analog. We also said that signals that represent data can also
be digital or analog. In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by using digital signals.
The conversion involves three techniques:
• Line coding,
• Block coding,
• Scrambling. Line coding is always needed~ block coding and scrambling mayor may not be
needed.

Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals. We assume that data, in the
form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as
sequences of bits . Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal. At the sender, digital
data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the
digital signal. Figure 1 shows the process.

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Figure 1 Digital to Digital Transmission

Characteristics
Before discussing different line coding schemes, we address their common characteristics.

Signal Element Versus Data Element

Let us distinguish between a data element and a signal element. In data communications, our goal is
to send data elements. A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of information:
this is the bit. In digital data communications, a signal element carries data elements. A signal element
is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal. In other words, data elements are what we need to
send; signal elements are what we can send. Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the
carriers.
We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried by each signal element. Figure 2
shows several situations with different values of r.

a) One data element per b) One data element per two signals
one signal element (r = 1) element

c) Two data elements per one d) Four data elements per three
signal element (r = 2) signal elements (r = 4/3)
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 2 Signal element vs Data element

In part a of the figure, one data element is carried by one signal element (r = 1). In part b of the figure,
we need two signal elements (two transitions) to carry each data element (r = 1). We will see later
that the extra signal element is needed to guarantee synchronization. In part c of the figure, a signal
element carries two data elements (r = 2). Finally, in part d, a group of 4 bits is being carried by a
group of three signal elements (r = 4/3). For every line coding scheme we discuss, we will give the
value of r.
An analogy may help here. Suppose each data element is a person who needs to be carried from one
place to another. We can think of a signal element as a vehicle that can carry people. When r =1, it

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 Unit 03: Digital and Analog Transmssion Notes

means each person is driving a vehicle. When r > 1, it means more than one person is travelling in a
vehicle (a carpool, for example). We can also have the case where one person is driving a car and a
trailer (r = 1/2).

Data Rate V/s Signal Rate

The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in Is. The unit is bits per second (bps).
The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in Is. The unit is the baud. There are several
common terminologies used in the literature. The data rate is sometimes called the bit rate; the signal
rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
One goal in data communications is to increase the data rate while decreasing the signal rate.
Increasing the data rate increases the speed of transmission; decreasing the signal rate decreases the
bandwidth requirement. In our vehicle-people analogy, we need to carry more people in fewer
vehicles to prevent traffic jams. We have a limited bandwidth in our transportation system. The
difference between datarate and signal rate is shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Data rate V/s Signal rate

Data rate Signal rate

The number of data elements The number of signal elements

(bits) sent in 1s. sent in 1s.

The unit is bits per second (bps). The unit is the baud.

Also known as bit rate. Also known as pulse rate.

Baseline Wandering
In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the received signal power.
This average is called the baseline. The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to
determine the value of the data element. A long string of Os or 1s can cause a drift in the baseline
(baseline wandering) and make it difficult for the receiver to decode correctly. A good line coding
scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.

DC Components
When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very low
frequencies (results of Fourier analysis). These frequencies around zero, called DC (direct-current)
components, present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies or a system that uses
electrical coupling (via a transformer). For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below
200 Hz. Also a long-distance link may use one or more transformers to isolate different parts of the
line electrically. For these systems, we need a scheme with no DC component.
Self-synchronization
To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit intervals must
correspond exactly to the sender's bit intervals. If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals
are not matched and the receiver might misinterpret the signals. A self-synchronizing digital signal
includes timing information in the data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions
in the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the pulse. If the receiver's clock
is out of synchronization, these points can reset the clock.

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Built-in Error Detection

It is desirable to have a built-in error-detecting capability in the generated code to detect some of or
all the errors that occurred during transmission. Some encoding schemes that we will discuss have
this capability to some extent. Immunity to Noise and Interference Another desirable code
characteristic is a code that is immune to noise and other interferences. Some encoding schemes that
we will discuss have this capability.
Complexity
A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one. For example, a scheme that uses
four signal levels is more difficult to interpret than one that uses only two levels.

3.2 Line Coding Schemes

Line Coding schemes are divided into three categories as shown in Figure 3.

Unipolar NRZ

Line
Coding Polar NRZ, RZ and bi-phase
(Manchester and differential
Manchester)

Bipolar

Figure3 Line
Figure LineCoding
CodingSchemes
Schemes

Unipolar
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.
NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) scheme in which the
positive voltage defines bit I and the zero voltage defines bit O. It is called NRZ because the signal
does not return to zero at the middle of the bit. Figure 4 shows a unipolar NRZ scheme.

Figure 4 Unipolar NRZ Scheme

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NRZ-L and NRZ-I – These are somewhat similar to unipolar NRZ scheme but here we use two levels
of amplitude (voltages). For NRZ-L(NRZ-Level), the level of the voltage determines the value of the
bit, typically binary 1 maps to logic-level high, and binary 0 maps to logic-level low, and for NRZ-
I(NRZ-Invert), two-level signal has a transition at a boundary if the next bit that we are going to
transmit is a logical 1, and does not have a transition if the next bit that we are going to transmit is a
logical 0.
Note – For NRZ-I we are assuming in the example that previous signal before starting of data set
“01001110” was positive. Therefore, there is no transition at the beginning and first bit “0” in current
data set “01001110” is starting from +V. Example: Data = 01001110 is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 NRZ-L and NRZ-I

Comparison between NRZ-L and NRZ-I: Baseline wandering is a problem for both of them, but for
NRZ-L it is twice as bad as compared to NRZ-I. This is because of transition at the boundary for NRZ-
I (if the next bit that we are going to transmit is a logical 1). Similarly self-synchronization problem
is similar in both for long sequence of 0’s, but for long sequence of 1’s it is more severe in NRZ-L.
Return to zero (RZ)
One solution to NRZ problem is the RZ scheme, which uses three values positive, negative, and zero.
In this scheme signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit.
Note – The logic we are using here to represent data is that for bit 1 half of the signal is represented
by +V and half by zero voltage and for bit 0 half of the signal is represented by -V and half by zero
voltage. Example: Data = 01001 as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Return to Zero

Main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires greater bandwidth. Another problem is the
complexity as it uses three levels of voltage. As a result of all these deficiencies, this scheme is not

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

used today. Instead, it has been replaced by the better-performing Manchester and differential
Manchester schemes.
Biphase (Manchester and Differential Manchester )
● Manchester encoding is somewhat combination of the RZ (transition at the middle of the bit)
and NRZ-L schemes. The duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains at
one level during the first half and moves to the other level in the second half. The transition at
the middle of the bit provides synchronization.
● Differential Manchester is somewhat combination of the RZ and NRZ-I schemes. There is
always a transition at the middle of the bit but the bit values are determined at the beginning of
the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition, if the next bit is 1, there is no transition.

The logic we are using here to represent data using Manchester is that for bit 1 there
is transition form -V to +V volts in the middle of the bit and for bit 0 there is transition
from +V to -V volts in the middle of the bit. For differential Manchester we are
assuming in the example that previous signal before starting of data set “010011”
was positive. Therefore there is transition at the beginning and first bit “0” in current
data set “010011” is starting from -V. Example: Data = 010011.
The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-L, and differential
Manchester overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I as there is no baseline wandering
and no DC component because each bit has a positive and negative voltage contribution.
Only limitation is that the minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is twice
that of NRZ.
Bipolar schemes
In this scheme there are three voltage levels positive, negative, and zero as shown in Figure 7. The
voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element alternates
between positive and negative.

● Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive
and negative voltages.

● Pseudoternary
Bit 1 is encoded as a zero voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating positive and negative
voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme. Example: Data = 010010.

Figure 7: AMI and Pseudoternary

The bipolar scheme is an alternative to NRZ. This scheme has the same signal rate as NRZ, but there
is no DC component as one bit is represented by voltage zero and other alternates every time .

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Data Communication System

In data communication system, digital and analog communication together plays a very important
and integrated role irrespective of many advantages of digital communications over analog. Figure 8
and Figure 9 shows the integrated role of digital and analog communication to complete data
communication system. Figure 9 shows that the link between modems is modulated analog signal
created by the modem. The communication from PC to modem is consisted of binary signal

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 8: Digital and

Analog Signal
where as the communication between Central Telephone Office (CTO) and modem takes place in
modulated analog signal. The communication between CTO to another CTO is by digital signal using
time division multiplexers. Thereafter CTO feeds modulated analog signal to modem and modem
converts it into binary signal for the PC. We may now say that different types of signals emerging on
the communication link and reaching to CTO on their way across a city. These can be multiplexed to
share the same communication link for transmitting to destination.

Figure 9: Data Communication System

3.3 Circuits, Channels and Multichanneling

A circuit is a path between two or more points along which an electrical current flows. In data
communication, a circuit is considered as a specific path between two or more points along which
signals is carried. The signals may be analog, binary or digital. This has been shown in the Figures 9
and 10.

3.4 Modulation of Digital Signal

A digital transmission uses low pass channel with high bandwidth. Similarly, analog transmission is
also possible on band pass channels that require converting of binary data or a low pass analog signal
into a band pass analog signal. This technique is called modulation. Thus, modulation of binary data
or digital to analog modulation is carried over by changing one of the characteristics of the analog
signal in accordance with the information in the digital signal. The information in the digital signal
is always in the form of 0 and 1. The characteristics of analog signal that are altered are amplitude,
frequency and phase of the analog waveform. Based on the change in one of the characteristics, the
digital to analog modulation may be of amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK)

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

and phase shift keying (PSK) types. Quadrature amplitude modulation is the fourth category that
combines changes in both amplitude and phase to provide better efficiency.

Amplitude
Shift keying

Digital
to
Analog

Phase Shift Frequency

keying Shift keying

Figure 10: Techniques used for Digital to Analog Conversion

Data Rate
Bit rate is the number of bits (0 or 1) transmitted during 1 second of time. The number of signal
changes per unit of time to represent the bits is called the data rate of the modem. That rate is usually
expressed in terms of a unit known as a baud. A signal unit may have 1 or more than 1 bits. Therefore,
the baud is the number of times per second the line condition can switch from “1” to “0”. Baud rate
and bit rate, which are expressed in bits per second, usually are not the same, as several bits may be
transmitted through the channel by the modem in each signal change (a few bits can be transmitted
as one symbol). The relation between bit rate and baud is expressed that bit rate equals the baud rate
times the number of bits represented by each signal unit. Bit rate is always more or equal than baud
rate. The reason for baud rate is that it determines the bandwidth required to transmit the signal. The
signal may be in the form of pieces or block that may contain bits. A fewer bandwidth required to
move these signal unit with large bits for an efficient system. To understand the relation between bit
and baud rate, we consider an analogy of car, passengers and highway with signal units, bits and
bandwidth respectively. A car has capacity of carrying 5 passengers maximum at a time. Suppose a
highway may support only 1000 cars per unit time without congestion. When each car on the
highway carries 5 passengers, it is considered that the highway is capable of providing services
without congestion. Thus highways services are treated efficient. Consider another case, when all
these 5000 passengers wish to go in separate cars, they require 5000 cars and highway can only
support 1000 cars at a time. The services offered get deteriorated because highway’s capacity is meant
only for 1000 cars. It does not bother as to whether these 1000 cars are carrying 1000 passengers or
5000 passengers or more. To support more cars, the highway needs to widen. Similarly, the number
of bauds determines the bandwidth.

Carrier Signal
The carrier signal that is a high frequency signal plays a significant role in the modulation and data
transmission. It is the base signal generated by the sending device whose one of the characteristics is
altered in accordance with the digital signal to be modulated. The modulating signal or digital signal
riding over the carrier signal is transmitted to the receiving device. The receiving device is tuned to
the frequency of the carrier signal. Other advantages of the carrier signal are that it provides efficient

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transmission between sending device and receiving device and needs smaller sizes of antenna
because of higher frequency of transmission.

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK describes the technique how the carrier wave is multiplied by the digital signal f (t) so that the
strength of the carrier wave is varied to represent binary 0 and 1. In ASK, both the frequency and
phase of an analog waveform are kept uniform while amplitude is changed in accordance with the
digital signal.

Mathematically, the modulated carrier signal y(t) is:

y(t) = f(t) × sin(2pfct + j) where fc is a carrier frequency and t is instantaneous time.

The following Figure 11 represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input

Figure 11 Binary ASK or ON-OFF Keying

The main advantage of ASK is that it is easy to produce and detect. The disadvantages of ASK are
that it is highly susceptible to noise interference that changes the amplitude of the signal. A 0 can be
changed to 1 and vice versa. Other drawbacks are that the speed of the changing amplitude is limited
by the bandwidth of the line and the small amplitude changes suffer from unreliable detection.
Telephone lines limit amplitude changes to some 3000 changes per second. The disadvantages of
amplitude modulation causes this technique to no longer be used by modems, however, it is used in
conjunction with other techniques.

The bandwidth for an ASK signal is mathematically given by:

Bandwidth (BW) = (1 + d) × Nbaud
Where Nbaud is the baud rate and d is the modulating index and may have minimum
value as 0.

Frequency Shift Keying

Frequency of analog carrier signal is modified in accordance with the message signal. FSK describes
the modulation of a carrier (or two carriers) by using a different frequency for a 1 or 0. In this
technique the frequency of the carrier signal is changed according to the data while keeping the
amplitude and phase constant. The transmitter sends different frequencies for a 1 than for a 0 as
shown in Figure 12. The resultant modulated signal may be regarded as the sum of two amplitude
modulated signals of different carrier frequency.
Mathematically, the modulated wave y(t) can be shown as y(t) = f1(t) sin(2pfc1t + j) + f2(t) sin(2pfc2t
+ j) where fc1 and fc2 are different carrier frequencies of two different signals. FSK is classified as
wide band if the separation between the two carrier frequencies is larger than the bandwidth of the
spectrums. Narrow-band FSK is the term used to describe an FSK signal whose carrier frequencies
are separated by less than the width of the spectrum than ASK for the same modulation.

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

Figure 12 Frequency Shift Keying

The advantage of FSK is that it provides better immunity from noise because the receiving device
looks for specific frequency changes over given number of periods and frequency is almost
unaffected from noise. The disadvantages of this technique are that again as it was with amplitude
modulation. The rate of frequency changes is limited by the bandwidth of the line, and that distortion
caused by the lines makes the detection even harder than amplitude modulation. Today this
technique is used in low rate asynchronous modems up to 1200 baud only. The bandwidth for FSK
signal is the sum of the baud rate of the signal and the frequency shift. The frequency shift is the
difference between the two carrier frequencies.
Phase Shift Keying
In this modulation method a sine wave is transmitted and the phase of the sine wave carries the
digital data or the phase of sine wave is varied to represent binary 1 or 0 and both the amplitude and
frequency of the analog waveform are kept constant. For a 0, a 0 degrees phase sine wave is
transmitted. For a 1, a 180 degrees sine wave is transmitted. As this method involves two states of
phase changes, it is called binary PSK or 2-PSK. This technique, in order to detect the phase of each
symbol, requires phase synchronization between the receiver’s and transmitter’s phase. This
complicates the receiver’s design. The advantages of PSK are that it is immune to noise and is not
band limited.
Differential Phase Modulation A sub method of the phase modulation is differential phase
modulation. In this method, the modem shifts the phase of each succeeding signal in a certain number
of degrees for example, a 0 for 90 degrees and 1 for 270 degrees as illustrated in Figure 13.

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Figure 13: Phase Shift Keying

PSK is a technique, which shifts the period of a wave. The wave shown in Figure 13 (a) has a period
of p starting from 0. The wave shown in Figure 13 (b) is the same wave as shown in Figure 13 (c), but
its phase has been shifted. Notice that the period starts at the wave’s highest point 1 on the vertical
axis. It just so happens that we have shifted this wave by one quarter of the wave’s full period. We
can shift it another quarter, if we want to, so the original wave would be shifted by half of its period.
And we could do it one more time, so that it would be shifted three quarters of its original period.
This means there exist 4 separate waves and therefore each wave is provided for some binary value.
Since there are 4, 2 bits are provided to each wave which is represented below Table 2.
Table 2 Bit Value and Amount of Shift

Bit Value Amount of Shift

00 None

01 ¼

10 ½

11 ¾

This technique of letting each shift of a wave represent some bit value is phase shift keying. But the
real key is to shift each wave relative to the wave that came before it. PSK describes the modulation
technique that alters the phase of the carrier. Mathematically, it can be represented as y(t) = f(t)
sin(2pfct + j(t)) where jc is phase shift. This method is easier to detect than the previous one. The
receiver has to detect the phase shifts between symbols and not the absolute phase.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): In the case of two possible phases shift the modulation will
be called BPSK - binary PSK. In the case of 4 different phase shifts possibilities for each symbol which
means that each symbol represents 2 bits the modulation will be called quadrature PSK (QPSK), and
in case of 8 different phase shifts the modulation technique will be called 8-PSK. A single data channel
modulates the carrier. A single bit transition, 1 to 0 or 0 to 1, causes a 180-degree phase shift in the
carrier. Thus, the carrier is said to be modulated by the data. As this has only two phases, 0 and 1 as
shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15. It is therefore a type of ASK with taking the values -1 or 1 and its
bandwidth is the same as that of ASK. Phase shift keying offers a simple way of increasing the
number of levels in the transmission without increasing the bandwidth by introducing smaller phase
shifts. Quadrature phase-shift-keying (QPSK) has four phases such as 0, p/2, p, 3p/2. Consequently,
M-ary PSK has M phases given by 2pm/M; m = 0,1…M-1. For a given bit-rate, QPSK requires half
the bandwidth of PSK and is widely used for this reason.

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

The number of times the signal parameter (amplitude, frequency, and phase) is
changed per second is called the signaling rate. It is measured in baud. 1 baud = 1
change per second. With binary modulations such as ASK, FSK and BPSK, the
signaling rate equals the bit-rate. With QPSK and M-ary PSK, the bit-rate may
exceed the baud rate.

Figure 14 Binary Phase Shift Keying

Figure 15: Output Modulated Signal

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

Two data channels modulate the carrier. Transitions in the data cause the carrier to shift by either 90
or 180 degrees. This allows transmission of two discrete data streams, identified as I channel (In
phase) and Q channel (Quadrature) data. In this method four different phase angles are used.
In QPSK, the four angles are usually out of phase by 90°.

QPSK Modulator
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) is a form of Phase Shift Keying in which two bits
are modulated at once, selecting one of four possible carrier phase shifts (0, 90, 180, or 270
degrees). QPSK allows the signal to carry twice as much information as ordinary PSK using the same
bandwidth

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Analog to Analog Conversion

Analog-to-analog conversion, or analog modulation, is the representation of analog information by
an analog signal. An example is radio. Analog to analog can be represented in three ways: Amplitude
Modulation, Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation.

3.5 Amplitude Modulation

This describes the technique in which the carrier wave is multiplied by the digital signal f(t).
Mathematically, the modulated carrier signal y(t) is: y(t) = f(t) sin(2p¦ct+j) where fc is a carrier
frequency and t is instantaneous time. Figure 16 shows the technique of amplitude modulation. The
main advantage of this technique is that it is easy to produce such signals and also to detect them.
This technique has two major disadvantages. The first is that the speed of the changing amplitude is
limited by the bandwidth of the line. The second is that the small amplitude changes suffer from
unreliable detection. Telephone lines limit amplitude changes to some 3000 changes per second. The
disadvantages of amplitude modulation causes this technique to no longer be used by modems,
however, it is used in conjunction with other techniques.

QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation)

This technique is based on the basic amplitude modulation. This technique improves the
performance of the basic amplitude modulation. In this technique two carrier signals are transmitted
simultaneously. The two carrier signals are at the same frequency with a 90 degrees phase shift.

Figure 16: Amplitude Modulation

Advantages and Disadvantages of Amplitude modulation

In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for two-way
radio communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way.
Advantages and disadvantages of amplitude modulation are shown below in Table 3.
Table 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation

Advantages Disadvantages
It is simple to implement It is not efficient in terms of its power usage
It can be demodulated using a circuit It is not efficient in terms of its use of
consisting of very few components bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to
twice that of the highest audio frequency.

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized It is prone to high levels of noise because most
components are needed. noise is amplitude based and obviously AM
detectors are sensitive to it.

3.6 Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation involves the modulation of the frequency of the analog sine wave where the
instantaneous frequency of the carrier is deviated in proportion of the deviation of the modulated
carrier with respect to the frequency of the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. It may
be said in a simple word that it occurs when the frequency of a carrier is changed based upon the
amplitude of input signal. Unlike AM, the amplitude of carrier signal is unchanged. This makes FM
modulation more immune to noise than AM and improves the overall signal-to noise ratio of the
communications system. Power output is also constant, differing from the varying AM power output.
The amount of analog bandwidth necessary to transmit FM signal is greater than the mount necessary
for AM, a limiting constraint for some systems. The modulating index for FM is given as below :

β = fp/fm,
where
β = Modulation index, fm = frequency of the modulating signal and fp = peak frequency deviation.

Figure 17: Frequency Modulation

From the Figure 17, it is inferred that the amplitude of the modulated signal always remains constant,
irrespective of frequency and amplitude of modulating signal. It means that the modulating signal
adds no power to the carrier in frequency modulation unlike to amplitude modulation. FM produces
an infinite number of side bands spaced by the modulation frequency, fm that is not in case of AM.
Therefore, AM considered a linear process whereas FM as a nonlinear process. It is necessary to
transmit all side bands to reproduce a distortion free signal. Ideally, the bandwidth of the modulated
signal is infinite in this case. In general the determination of the frequency content of an FM waveform
is complicated, but when b is small, the bandwidth of the FM signal is 2fm. On the other hand, when
b is large, the bandwidth is determined (empirically) as 2 fm (1 + b).
The difference between amplitude modulation and frequency modulation are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Difference between Amplitude Modulation and Frequency Modulation

AMPLITUDE MODULATION FREQUENCY MODULATION

In amplitude modulation, the frequency and In frequency modulation amplitude and

phase remain the same. phase remain the same.

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Its modulation index is always greater than

Its modulation index varies from 0 to 1.
one.

It has only two sidebands. It has an infinite number of sidebands.

It has simple circuit. It has complex circuit.

The amplitude of the carrier wave is The frequency of the carrier wave is
modified in order to send the data or modified in order to send the data or
information. information.

The amplitude of the carrier wave is The frequency of the carrier wave is
modified in order to send the data or modified in order to send the data or
information. information.

It requires low bandwidth in the range of 10 It requires high bandwidth in the range of
kHz. 200 kHz.

It works in a frequency range of 535 to 1705 It works in a frequency range of 88 to 108

Kilohertz (KHz). Megahertz (MHz).

It operates in the medium frequency (MF)

It operates in the very high frequency.
and high frequency (HF).

It has poor sound quality. It has better sound quality.

Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation (PM) is similar to frequency modulation. Instead of the frequency of the carrier
wave changing, the phase of the carrier wave changes. In PM the phase of the carrier is made
proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. Modulating index for PM is
given as b = Dj, where Dj is the peak phase deviation in radians. As in the case of angular modulation
argument of sinusoidal is varied and therefore we will have the same resultant signal properties for
frequency and phase modulation. A distinction in this case can be made only by direct comparison
of the signal with the modulating signal wave, as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Phase Modulation

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

Caution Phase modulation and frequency modulation are interchangeable by selecting the frequency
response of the modulator so that its output voltage will be proportional to integration of the
modulating signal and differentiation of the modulating signal respectively. Bandwidth and power
issues are same as that of the frequency modulation.

3.8 Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:
1. The modulation is the act of translating some high-frequency (base band signal) such as voice, data,
etc. to a lower frequency.
2. Amplitude Modulation (AM) involves the modulation of the amplitude of the carrier as analog
sine wave.
3. FM considered a linear process whereas AM as a nonlinear process.
4. In PM the phase of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
5. Analog to analog signal conversion involves amplitude modulation and frequency modulation
techniques only.
6. The process of changing one of the characteristics of a carrier analog signal based on the
information in a digital signal is called ___________ conversion
a. analog-to-analog
b. analog-to-digital
c. digital-to-analog
d. digital-to-digital

7. In ______________ the frequency of the carrier signal is varied based on the information in a digital
signal.
a. ASK
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. QAM

8. In _____________ the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied based on the information in a digital
signal.
a. ASK
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. QAM

9. In ___________ the phase of the carrier signal is varied based on the information in a digital signal.
a. ASK
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. QAM

10. Most modern modems use ___________ for digital to analog modulation.
a. ASK
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. QAM

11. ________ rate is the number of bits per second; ____________ rate is the number of signals unit
per second.
a. Baud; bit

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b. Bit; baud
c. Baud; base
d. Base; baud

12. For ___________, the minimum bandwidth required for transmission is equal to the baud rate.
a. ASK
b. PSK
c. FSK
d. a and b

13. In which type of modulation can the bit rate be four times the baud rate ?
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. None of the above

14. In which type of modulation can the bit rate be three times the baud rate?
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. none of the above

15. In which type of modulation can the bit rate be half the baud rate.
a. ASK
b. FSK
c. PSK
d. None of the above.

16. ASK,PSK, FSK and QAM are examples of ______________ conversion.

a. digital-to-digital
b. digital-to-analog
c. analog-to-analog
d. analog-to-digital

17. ___________ conversion is the process of changing one of the characteristics of an analog signal
based on the information in the digital data.
a. Digital–to-analog
b. Analog-to-analog
c. Analog-to-digital
d. Digital-to-digital

Answers:

1. False 2. True 3. False

4. True 5. False 6. digital-to-analog
7. FSK 8. PSK 9. PSK
10. QAM 11. Bit; baud 12. a and b
13. PSK 14. None of the above 15. None of the above
16. digital-to-analog 17. Digital-to-analog

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

Summary
● A circuit is a path between two or more points along which signals is carried. The circuit may be
a physical path consisting of wires or it may be wireless. A network, which is wired or wireless
involves a number of circuits consisting of a number of intermediate switches.
● A virtual circuit is a logical path selected out of many possible physical paths available between
two or more points.
● Multiplexing is the process in which multiple channels are combined for transmission over a
common transmission path.
● The digital transmission requires a low pass channel with high bandwidth. The analog
transmission can be carried on band pass channels. The different methods that convert binary
data or a low pass analog signal into a band pass analog signal is called modulation.
● The digital to analog conversion includes ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying), FSK (Frequency Shift
Keying), PSK (Phase Shift Keying), QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying), QAM (Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation) and have been explained under the section Modem Modulation
Techniques.
● Analog to analog signal conversion involves amplitude modulation, frequency modulation and
phase modulation techniques.

Keywords
Amplitude Modulation: It involves the modulation of the amplitude of the carrier as analog
sine wave.
Amplitude Shift Keying: ASK refers to technique how the carrier wave is multiplied by the
digital signal f(t) so that the strength of the carrier wave is varied to represent binary 0 and 1.
Baud Rate: It is the number of times per second the line condition can switch from “1” to “0”.
Binary Phase Shift Keying: BPSK involves two possible phases shift for the modulation.
Carrier Signal: It is the base signal generated by the sending device whose one of the
characteristics is altered in accordance with the digital signal to be modulated.
Differential Phase Shift Keying: In this method, the modem shifts the phase of each succeeding signal
in a certain number of degrees.
FDM: In frequency division multiplexing, multiple channels are combined together for
transmission over a single channel.
FDMA: This divides the frequency band into various channels based on the FDM techniques.
Each of these can carry a voice conversation or, with digital service, carry digital data.
Frequency Modulation: Frequency Modulation involves the modulation of the frequency of the
analog sine wave.
Frequency Shifted Keying: FSK describes the modulation of a carrier (or two carriers) by using a
different frequency for a 1 or 0.
Inter modulation: It involves two (or more) sinusoids effect one another to produce undesired
products, that is, unwanted frequencies (noise).
Modems: Refers to the modulator and demodulator that converts analog signal to digital signal and
vice versa.
Modulation: It is the act of translating some low-frequency (base band signal) such as voice, data,
etc. to a higher frequency.
Multiplexing: Refers to the process in which multiple channels are combined for transmission over a
common transmission path.

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Phase Modulation: Phase Modulation (PM) is similar to frequency modulation. Instead of the
frequency of the carrier wave changing, the phase of the carrier wave changes.
Phase Shift Keying: In this modulation method a sine wave is transmitted and the phase of the sine
wave carries the digital data or the phase of sine wave is varied to represent binary 1 or 0 and both
the amplitude and frequency of the analog waveform are kept constant.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation: This technique is based on the amplitude modulation and phase
modulation to improve the performance of the amplitude modulation.
Quadrature Phase Shifted Keying: In the case of 4 different phase shifts possibilities for each symbol
which means that each symbol represents 2 bits the modulation will be called quadrature PSK
(QPSK).
Space Division Switching: Refers to the kind of switch developed for analog environment. Crossbar
switch is the simplest possible space division switch where each packet takes a different path through
the switch depending on its destination. Time division switching is based on multiplexing for digital
transmission.
TDM: Refers to the process to merge data from several sources into a single channel for
communication over transmission media like telephone lines, microwave system or satellite system.
TDMA: This is a digital transmission technology that allows a number of channels to access a single
radio frequency (RF) channel without interference by allocating unique time slots to each channel.
Virtual circuit: This is a logical path selected out of many possible physical paths available between
two or more points.
WDM: This is defined as the fibre-optic transmission technique that employs two or more optical
signals having different wavelengths to transmit data simultaneously in the same direction over one
fibre, and later on is separated by wavelength at the distant end.

Further/Suggested Readings
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.
• Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and
Networking, McGraw-Hill Companies.
• Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media,
McGraw-Hill Osborne Media.
• Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet,
Vikas Publication

• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-network-tutorials/

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 04: Network Models Notes

Unit- 04: Network Models

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Layered Tasks
4.2 The OSI Model
4.3 Layers in the OSI Model
4.4 TCP/IP
4.5 Similarities and Difference between OSI and TCP/IP
Summary
Keywords
Self-Assessment
Answers for Self Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• Discuss concept of process network software and the significance of layering the
communication process and related design issues for the layers
• Describe different technologies involved in defining the network hardware
• Explain what are the reference models for computer networks and how they are related
with the OSI reference model

Introduction
A network is a combination of hardware and software that sends data from one location to another.
The hardware consists of the physical equipment that carries signals from one point of the network
to another. The software consists of instruction sets that make possible the services that we expect
from a network.We can compare the task of networking to the task of solving a mathematics
problem with a computer. The fundamental job of solving the problem with a computer is done by
computer hardware. However, this is a very tedious task if only hardware is involved. We would
need switches for every memory location to store and manipulate data. The task is much easier if
software is available. At the highest level, a program can direct the problem-solving process; the
details of how this is done by the actual hardware can be left to the layers of software that are called
by the higher levels. Compare this to a service provided by a computer network. For example, the
task of sending an e-mail from one point in the world to another can be broken into several tasks,
each performed by a separate software package. Each software package uses the services of another
software package. At the lowest layer, a signal, or a set of signals, is sent from the source computer
to the destination computer. In this chapter, we give a general idea of the layers of a network and
discuss the functions of each.

4.1 Layered Tasks

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal maiL The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if
there were no services available from the post office. Figure 1shows the steps in this task.

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Figure 1 Tasks Involve in Sending a Letter

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier

In Figure 1 we have a sender, a receiver, and a carrier that transports the letter. There
is a hierarchy of tasks.
At the Sender Site
Let us first describe, in order, the activities that take place at the sender site.
o Higher layer. The sender writes the letter, inserts the letter in an envelope, writes
the sender and receiver addresses, and drops the letter in a mailbox.
o Middle layer. The letter is picked up by a letter carrier and delivered to the post
office.
o Lower layer. The letter is sorted at the post office; a carrier transports the letter.
On the Way
The letter is then on its way to the recipient. On the way to the recipient's local post
office, the letter may actually go through a central office. In addition, it may be transported
by truck, train, airplane, boat, or a combination of these.

At the Receiver Site

• Lower layer. The carrier transports the letter to the post office.
• Middle layer. The letter is sorted and delivered to the recipient's mailbox.
• Higher layer. The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope, and reads it.

Hierarchy
According to our analysis, there are three different activities at the sender site and another three
activities at the receiver site. The task of transporting the letter between the sender and the receiver
is done by the carrier. Something that is not obvious immediately is that the tasks must be done in
the order given in the hierarchy. At the sender site, the letter must be written and dropped in the
mailbox before being picked up by the letter carrier and delivered to the post office. At the receiver
site, the letter must be dropped in the recipient mailbox before being picked up and read by the
recipient.

Services
Each layer at the sending site uses the services of the layer immediately below it. The sender at the
higher layer uses the services of the middle layer. The middle layer uses the services of the lower
layer. The lower layer uses the services of the carrier. The layered model that dominated data
communications and networking literature before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection

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 Unit 04: Network Models Notes
(OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the ultimate standard for data
communications, but this did not happen. The TCPIIP protocol suite became the dominant
commercial architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the Internet; the OSI model
was never fully implemented.

4.2 The OSI Model

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body
dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all
aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first
introduced in the late 1970s. An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different
systems to communicate regardless of their underlying architecture. The purpose of the OSI model
is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems without requiring changes to
the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model
for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related
layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network
(seeFigure 2). An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a solid basis for
exploring data communications.

1
Application

2 Presentation

3 Session

4 Transport

5 Network

6 Data link

7 Physical

Figure 2 Seven Layers of OSI Model

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Layered Architecture
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers: physical (layer 1), data link (layer 2), network
(layer 3), transport (layer 4), session (layer 5), presentation (layer 6), and application (layer 7).
Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the
message travels from A to B, it may pass through many intermediate nodes. These intermediate
nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.
In developing the model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data to its most
fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related uses and collected
those functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a family of functions
distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and localizing functionality in this fashion, the
designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible. Most importantly, the
OSI model allows complete interoperability between otherwise incompatible systems. Within a
single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example,
uses the services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machines, layer x
on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed
by an agreed-upon series of rules and conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine
thatcommunicate ata given layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication between
machines istherefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.

Peer-to-Peer Processes
At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure 2.3, device A sends a stream of bits to
device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, however, communication must move
down through the layers on device A, over to device B, and thenback up through the layers.

Figure 3 The interaction between layers in OSI Model

Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer
just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. At layer I the entire package is
converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device. At the receiving machine, the
message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for
it. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then passes the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 then
removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.

Interfaces Between Layers

The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending device
and back up through the layers of the receiving device is made possible by an interface between
each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines the information and services a layer must
provide for the layer above it. Well-defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a

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network. As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific
implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the
surrounding layers.

Organization of the Layers

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers I, 2, and 3-physical,
data link, and network-are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device to another (such as electrical specifications, physical connections,
physical addressing, and transport timing and reliability). Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation,
and application-can be thought of as the user support layers; they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems. Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and ensures that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI
layers are almost always implemented in software; lower layers are a combination of hardware and
software, except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware. In Figure 4, which gives an
overall view of the OSI layers, D7 means the data unit at layer 7, D6 means the data unit at layer 6,
and so on. The process starts at layer 7 (theapplication layer), then moves from layer to layer in
descending, sequential order. At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added to the data
unit. Commonly, the trailer is added only at layer 2. When the formatted data unit passes through
the physical layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic signal and transported along a
physical link.

Figure 4 An exchange using the OSI model

Upon reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer 1 and is transformed back into digital
form. The data units then move back up through the OSI layers. As each block of data reaches the
next higher layer, the headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding sending layer are
removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken. By the time it reaches layer 7, the message
is again in a form appropriate to the application and is made available to the recipient.

Encapsulation
Figure 2.3 reveals another aspect of data communication in the OSI model: encapsulation. A packet
(header and data) at level 7 is encapsulated in a packet at level 6. The whole packet at level 6 is
encapsulated in a packet at level 5, and so on. In other words, the data portion of a packet at level N
- 1 carries the whole packet (data and header and maybe trailer) from level N. The concept is called
encapsulation; level N - 1 is not aware of which part of the encapsulated packet is data and which
part is the header or trailer. For level N - 1, the whole packet coming from level N is treated as one
integral unit.

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4.3 Layers in the OSI Model
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each layer in the OSI model.

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to Occur. Figure 5 shows the position of the physical layer with respect to the
transmission medium and the data link layer.

Figure 5 Physical Layer

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:

Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium. The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the
type of transmission medium.
Representation of bits. The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s)
with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed to signals).
Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it
lasts.
Synchronization of bits. The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also
must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be
synchronized.
Line configuration. The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media.
In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a
multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other
device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each
device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link),
or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
Transmission mode. The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other
can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two
devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode,
two devices can send and receive at the same time.

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Data Link Layer
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It
makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer). Figure 6shows the
relationship of the data link layer to the network and physical layers.

Figure 6 Data Link Layer

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,
the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.
• Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to
the end of the frame.
• Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.

Addressing: It can be of two types as shown in .Networks operate in exactly the same way. The
physical address of a computer on a LAN, fixed in the network interface card by the manufacturer,
works like physical knowledge of where a house is. Messages sent on the same LAN segment,
corresponding to a house's neighborhood, can get to a specific physical LAN address. If you want
to send a message across the country or around the world, though, you need the equivalent of a
country, state, city, and street address. In network terms, the address that you need is called a
logical address. The key difference between physical addresses and logical addresses is that,
although physical addresses are scattered randomly around the world, logical addresses follow a
pattern determined by network administrators and stored in routing tables. Routing tables (used by
routers) are the equivalent of street maps, guiding messages to their destination.

Figure 7 Types of Addressing

Note The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop to the next.

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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across
multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between
two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its
point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually
no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links)
with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to
accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Figure 8 shows the relationship of the network layer to
transport layers.

Figure 8 Network Layer

Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:

Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to
the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of
the sender and receiver.
Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routersor switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism. Figure 9 illustrates end-to-end delivery by the network layer.

Figure 9 Source to destination delivery

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is
an application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those
packets. Ittreats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message,
whether or not it does. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message
arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control at the source-to-
destination level. Figure 10shows the relationship of the transport layer to the network and session
layers.

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Figure 10 Transport Layer

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:

• Service-point addressing. Computers often run several programs at the same time. For
this reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to
the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific
process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include
a type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets
each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into transmittable segments, with
each segment containing a sequence number as shown in Figure 11. These numbers enable
the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination
and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.

Figure 11 Segmentation

• Connection control. The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-

oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet
and delivers it to the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection-oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination machine
first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
• Flow control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.
• Error control. Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than across a
single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the

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receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is
usually achieved through retransmission.

Protocols of Transport Layer

The protocols of transport layer along with difference is explained below Table 1.
Table 1 Protocols of Transport Layer

TCP UDP

Connection Oriented transmission Connectionless transmission

TCP is slower UDP is faster

Acknowledgment No Acknowledgment

Does not matter whether we gave received all

Used where full data delivery is must
data of Transport Layer.

Note: The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.

Session Layer
The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not sufficient
for some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

• Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way at a
time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
• Authentication and Authorization: Authentication means confirming your own identity,
while authorization means granting access to the system. In simple terms, authentication
is the process of verifying who you are, while authorization is the process of verifying
what you have access to.

Authentication

Who are
you?

V What
permissions

S do you have?

Authorization
Figure 12 Authentication and Authorization

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• Session management
• Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of
2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each
100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent. Figure 2.12
illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport and presentation layers.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer performs functions related to the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted that include formatting and displaying of received data by terminals and printers. It is
concerned with differences in the data syntax used by communicating applications. This layer is
responsible for remedying those differences by resorting to mechanisms that transform the local
syntax (specific to the platform in question) to a common one for the purpose of data exchange. For
example, it performs encoding of data in a standard agreed upon way to facilitate information
exchange among heterogeneous systems using different codes for strings, for example, conversion
between ASCII and EBCDIC character codes. It facilitates data compression for reducing the
number of bits to be transmitted and encrypts data for privacy and authentication, if necessary.
Translation.The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed
to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding
methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent
format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.

Encryption. To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information toanother form and sends the resulting
message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message
back to its original form.
Compression. Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio,
and video.

Application Layer
The application layer provides support services for user and application tasks. It determineshow
the user will use the data network. It allows the user to use the network. For example, itprovides
network-based services to the end user.Examples of network services are distributed databases,
electronic mail, resource sharing, filetransfers, remote file access and network management. This
layer defines the nature of the task to be performed.

4.4 TCP/IP
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe the
functions of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into smaller and
simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed and developed by
Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. The layers in the
TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to- network, internet, transport, and application.
However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of
five layers: physical, data link, network, transport, and application. TCP/IP Model shown inFigure
13.

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Figure 13 TCP/IP Model (b)

Internet Layer
The packet format and protocol at this layer is called Internet Protocol (IP). IP is a connectionless
type service that introduces IP packets into any network. The packets travel independently to the
destination. Prior to transmission of data, no logical connection is needed. The TCP/IP Internet
layer corresponds to the network layer of the OSI reference model in functionality, as shown in
Figure 13.

Transport Layer Notes

The transport layer of TCP/IP model corresponds to the transport layer of the OSI reference model.
It is represented by two end-to-end protocols namely, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol). TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol and UDP is an
unreliable connectionless protocol.

Application Layer
The TCP/IP model was the first of its kind model and therefore did not contain session or
presentation layers because of its little use to most of the applications. This layer has all the higher-
level protocols, as shown in Figure 13.

Network Access Layer

The layer below the Internet layer is not defined and varies from host and network to network. The
TCP/IP model suggests that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can
send IP packets over it.

4.5 Similarities and Difference between OSI and TCP/IP

It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model.

Similarities between OSI and TCP/IP

• They share similar architecture.
• They share a common application layer.
• Knowledge by networking professionals.
• Both models assume that packets are switched.

OSI VS TCP/IP

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP appears to be a more simpler

OSI appears to complex because of 7
model and this is mainly due to the fact
layers
that it has fewer layers.

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 Unit 04: Network Models Notes
TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible
model- This is mainly due to the fact
Networks are not usually built around
because TCP/IP protocols are the standards
the OSI model as it is merely used as a
around which the internet was developed
guidance tool.
therefore it mainly gains creditability due
to this reason

The OSI model is bottom to up process TCP/IP is the top to bottom process
of network connection. structure for internet purpose.

TCP/IP makes no assumptions about what

OSI defines several more layers of
happens above the level of a network
standardized functions
session

OSI model is a reference model. TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model.

TCP/IP model is more based on protocols

OSI provides layer functioning and also
and protocols are not flexible with other
defines functions of all the layers.
layers.

In OSI model the transport layer In TCP/IP model the transport layer does
guarantees the delivery of packets not guarantees delivery of packets

Follows horizontal approach Follows vertical approach.

OSI model defines services, interfaces

In TCP/IP it is not clearly separated its
and protocols very clearly and makes
services, interfaces and protocols
clear distinction between them

OSI is a general model TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other

application.

Network layer of OSI model provide

The Network layer in TCP/IP model
both connection oriented and
provides connectionless service.
connectionless service.

It has 7 layers It has 4 layers

Transport layer guarantees delivery of Transport layer does not guarantees

packets delivery of packets

The protocol are better hidden and can

be easily replaced as the technology It is not easy to replace the protocols
changes.

OSI truly is a general model TCP/IP can not be used for any other

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

OSI model represents an idea application

TCP/IP network model represents reality
in the world

Summary
• To set up a computer network, you'll need three fundamental components: hardware,
protocols (software), and applications (useful software). The importance of the idea of
layers in networking is also discussed.
• Each two-layer layer serves as an interface for the top layer, allowing each layer to alter
with minimal influence on the above levels. This security can be so effective that a
programme may be unaware that it is operating on separate hardware.
• There are seven levels in the OSI network paradigm.
• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the acronym for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It was created with the goal of defining
a set of protocols capable of enabling transparent communications interoperability
between computers of any size, independent of the hardware or operating system
platforms that support them.
• TCP/IP has grown in popularity over time to become the most widely used protocol
today. The public availability of TCP/protocol IP's specifications is one of the reasons for
its popularity. TCP/IP may legitimately be called an open system in this regard. TCP/IP is
used by most users for file transfers, electronic mail (e-mail), and remote login services.

Keywords
• The Internet protocol suite is a collection of communication protocols that are used on the
Internet and other comparable networks.
• Reference Model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI): The OSI model of data
transmission was created by the International Standardization Organization (ISO) in 1984.
OSI defines a seven-layer model for defining protocol architectures and functional
features, which is utilised by the industry as a frame of reference.
• TCP/IP: Technically, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are
two separate network protocols. TCP and IP, on the other hand, are so widely used
together that TCP/IP has become standard nomenclature to refer to any or both protocols.

Self-Assessment
1. OSI stands for __________
A. open system interconnection
B. operating system interface
C. optical service implementation
D. open service Internet

2. TCP/IP model does not have ______ layer but OSI model have this layer.
A. session layer
B. transport layer
C. application layer

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 Unit 04: Network Models Notes
D. network layer

3. Which layer is used to link the network support layers and user support layers?
A. session layer
B. data link layer
C. transport layer
D. network layer

4. TCP/IP model was developed _____ the OSI model.

A. prior to
B. after
C. simultaneous to
D. with no link to
5. Which layer is responsible for process to process delivery in a general network model?
A. network layer
B. transport layer
C. session layer
D. data link layer

6. Which address is used to identify a process on a host by the transport layer?

A. physical address
B. logical address
C. port address
D. specific address

7. Transmission data rate is decided by ____________

A. network layer
B. physical layer
C. data link layer
D. transport layer

8. A layer of the OSI model on one system communicates with the ___ layer of its peer
system.
A. above
B. below
C. same
D. None

9. TCP/IP model does not have ______ layer but OSI model have this layer.
A. session layer
B. presentation layer
C. application layer
D. both (a) and (b)
10. Which layer provides the services to user?
A. application layer
B. session layer
C. presentation layer

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Notes Data Communication and Networking

D. none of the mentioned

11. The number of layers in Internet protocol stack

A. 5
B. 7
C. 6
D. None of the mentioned

12. Transport layer is implemented in

A. End system
B. NIC
C. Ethernet
D. None of the mentioned

Answers for Self Assessment

1. A 2. A 3. C 4. A 5. B

6. C 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. A

11. A 12. A

Review Questions
1. What are the most significant design considerations for computer-to-computer communication?
2. In the ISO-OSI paradigm, what are the main roles of the network layer? What distinguishes the
network layer's packet delivery role from that of the data link layer?
3. In the OSI reference model, what is the objective of layer isolation?
4. Why is the OSI Reference Model so extensively used? What good did it do to establish itself as a
data transmission standard?
5. Compare and contrast the OSI reference model with the TCP/IP model.

Further Readings
Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall
Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Companies
Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media McGraw-
Hill Osborne Media
Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet, Vikas

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 5: Physical Layer Notes

Unit 05 – Physical Layer

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
5.1 Classes of transmission media
Guided Media
Unguided Media: Wireless
Switching techniques
5.2 Classification of Switching Techniques
5.3 Difference between Datagram switching and virtual circuit switching
5.4 Types of Networking Devices
Keywords
Review Questions
Self Assessment
Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• learn what is transmission media.
• differentiate between wired and wireless media.
• learn different types of switching techniques along with their advantages and dis-
advantages.
• learn about the various networking devices.

Introduction
As you can see in the Figure 1, whatever medium you use to transfer data from source to destination
is important. As a result, this is referred to as a transmission medium. When two people communicate
with one another, a medium may be either wired or wireless. In that case, the air serves as a contact or
transmitting medium. So, the transmission medium is known as air, but in this case, it is the
transmission medium that is transmitting a packet from source to destination via the transmission
medium, which can be wired or wireless.

Figure 1 Transmission medium

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Notes
As a result, the transmission medium is the means by which data is transmitted from one location to
another. As a result, any message can be sent as data that can be translated into binary digits. As a
result, the signal is encoded with these digits. The OSI model was discussed in the previous lecture. So,
data is sent to a network, the network divides into packets, and the packets are formed by the network.
A mail carrier truck or an aero plane could be the delivery medium for a written letter. Similarly, when
2332333

5.1 Classes of transmission media

So, there are two forms of transmission media: guided media and unguided media as shown in Figure
2. Under guided media, we have twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fibre optic cables.

Figure 2 Classes of transmission media

Factors affecting for selecting a transmission media

So, it may be a transmission rate, cost, or ease of installation, which means that all communication
media must be installed with care. The installation should be carried out by professional and
experienced technicians and supervisors, and it should be resistant to the elements. Distances have an
effect on the transmission medium that must be chosen, as well as the form of transmission media that
must be chosen.

Guided Media
The guided media refers to a method of directing you through the process of sending data from one location to a
nother through a wired link. Wired media is another term for guided media. As a result, those that are tangible or
have a physical presence are those. We have a broad range of boundary transmission media. The term "boundary
transmission media" refers to the use of cables or wires to link the source and destination.
Bounded transmission media are
a. Twisted-pair cable
b. Coaxial cable
c. Fiber-optic cable

Twisted-pair cable
So, let's look at why we twist the wires. As you can see in the picture, if we don't twist the wires, the
two wires are parallel, which means the effect of these unwanted signals isn't the same in both wires.
For example, one is here and the other is here, the two parallel wires are here, some noise sources are
there, which means my upper wire is closer to the noise source than the lower wire.

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Figure 3 Effect of wire on parallel wires

that if two wires are connected in a parallel manner. As a result, my upper wire would be more affect
ed than my other wires, owing to their different positions in relation to noise or crosstalk. As a conseq
uence, there is a disparity at the receiver.
Similarly, we should twist the wire base to minimise crosstalk or noise because my upper wire will be
close to the noise source half of the time, and my lower wire will be close to the noise source half of th
e time, which is why we twist the wire. So, in this case, one wire is used to transmit data and the other
wire is used to receive data. As a result of the twisting, both wires are likely to be similarly influenced
by external forces. Since both wires will be affected equally when we twist the wire, since half of the
time this wire is closer to the noise source than half of the time this wire is closer to the noise source. As
a result, the receiver that determines the difference between the two does not pick up any unnecessary
signals. As a result, the undesirable signals are largely suppressed. As a result, it's obvious that the
number of twists per unit of length has an effect on the cable's consistency. The higher the twist, the
higher the cable's efficiency. As a result, twists often have an effect on the cable's consistency.

UTP and STP cables

Twisted pair cable comes in two varieties. Unshielded twisted pair cable is one kind, while shielded
twisted pair cable is another. The most popular form of networking cable is unshielded twisted pair
cable. STP is a shielded twisted pair cable that is mostly used in large organisations due to its high cost
and bulkiness. It is bulkier because it has an additional metal covering.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

As a result, it is bulkier, and handling this form of cable is difficult. As a result, we mostly use a UTP
cable. It's not only for networking; it's also for standard telephone UTP cat 1 connections. There are
various types of UTP cables available, but UTP cat five, E is the most common UTP cable, which was
developed to replace the old coaxial cable, which was unable to keep up with the ever-increasing
demand for faster and more reliable networks. So, we have a variety of different cable categories, and
depending on which category you want to achieve, you'll need the required cable. A metal foil or
braided mesh covering encases each pair of insulated conductors in shielded twisted pair cable. Both
of the metal cases boost the cable's quality, and because the cable's length increases, it has an additional
covering. As a result, my cable has a longer length than a UTP cable. It also has the extra covering that
prevents noise or crosstalk from penetrating, as well as being bulkier and more costly. As a result, the
most common twisted pair cable in communication is known as a UTP cable, which stands for
unshielded twisted pair cables.

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Table 1 Category of cables

CAT3: Rarely used today, CAT3 is usually deployed in phone lines. It supports 10 Mbps for
up to 100 meters.

CAT4 : Typically used in token ring networks, CAT4 supports 16 Mbps for up to 100 meters

CAT5: Used in Ethernet-based LANs, CAT5 contains two twisted pairs. It supports 100 Mbps
for up to 100 meters.

CAT5e: Used in Ethernet-based LANs, CAT5e contains four twisted pairs. It supports
1 Gbps for 100 meters.

CAT6: Used in Ethernet-based LANs and data center networks, CAT6 contains four tightly
wound twisted pairs. It supports 1 Gbps for up to 100 meters and 10 Gbps for up to
50 meters.

Category of cables
The EIA (Electronic Industry Association) has created a set of 12 standards that divide UTP cable into
seven groups. So there are categories that decide cable quality from one to seven, with one being the
lowest and seven being the best, such as cat three cat 4, cat 5, cat 5 e and, cat six as shown in Table 1.
So, as I previously said, cat 5e is used in Ethernet-based LANs, and we also have a cat Three that is
rarely used today. Cat six is a twisted pair network that uses Ethernet. It supports one gigabit per
second, up to 100 metres, and 10 Gbps for up to 50 metres.

UTP Connector
RJ 45 female and RJ 45 mail connector, also known as registered jack, are the most common connectors
in the UTP.

Figure 4 UTP Connector

Advantages of Twisting
It eliminates crosstalk, or the flow of information from one buyer to another. It also protects against
external signal interference. It's simple, versatile, and attached, which means that if you want to extend
the cable's length, you can do so easily. It's also simple to install and maintain; the steps are
straightforward, and there's no need to learn any complicated formulas. It's also lightweight and
inexpensive. It is available for purchase by everyone.

Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable

A signal with a high attenuation has been lost. Carrying a signal over a long distance without a repeater
is a challenge because when the signal loses energy and becomes weaker and weaker, it becomes a

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problem. So, in that case, I'll need a repeater, and the role of a repeater is to improve the signal. So, low
bandwidth, maximum data range from one megabit per second to ten megabits per second, without
any additional equipment repeater is also hardware and incurs costs, so this is one of the disadvantages.

5.2.2 Coaxial Cable

Since the two media are built so differently, coaxial cable can carry signals with higher frequency ranges
than twisted pair cable. Coax has a solid or regular wire centre core that is surrounded by an insulated
layer, as seen in the Figure 5.

Figure 5 Coaxial Cable

As a result, cable TV connectors companies are the most popular users of coaxial cable. So, there are
various types of coaxial cables, and they are classified as coaxial cables based on their radio government
ratings.

Connectors
The most popular coaxial cable connectors are Bayonet Neill connectors, which are used to attach
coaxial cable to the devices that require coaxial connectors. Now, as you can see in the diagram, the
most popular connectors are BNC, BNC T connector, and BNC Terminator as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6 BNC Connector

There are three different types of connectors. As a result, BNC connectors are used to link the end of a
cable to a system such as a television set. To avoid signal reflection, a BNC Terminator is used at the
cable's end. While coaxial cable has a far higher bandwidth than twisted pair cable, attenuation is far
higher in this case, and the signal weakens quickly, necessitating the use of repeaters on a regular basis.

Performance of coaxial cable

While coaxial cable has a far higher bandwidth than twisted pair cable , attenuation is far higher in this
case, and the signal weakens quickly, necessitating the use of repeaters on a regular basis. The
responsibilities of coaxial cables and how they are used in television signals. It's used to link computers
in local area networks, and shorter lengths of this cable are used to connect machines to test equipment
including signal generators. It is also used to transmit radio signals.

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Figure 7 Performance of coaxial cable

Categories of Coaxial Cables

There are two types of coaxial cable available: thin net and thick net Figure 8. In reality, thick net is still
used for backbone wiring, and twisted pair cable is an alternative to thinnet on an Ethernet network.
Thicknet was the initial Ethernet wiring, but thinnet is less expensive and easier to install. In the case
of thick net, the maximum length is 500 metres; in the case of thin net, the maximum length is 500
metres. It can reach a maximum length of 185 metres. Its names, thicknet and thin net, are self-evident.
The term "thick net" refers to a cable that is thicker than the term "thin net," and the term "thin net"
refers to a cable that is thinner. Table 1 shows the disparity between thicknet and thinnet.

Figure 8 Categories of coaxial cable

Table 2 Difference between thicknet and thinnet

Thicknet Thinnet

Thicker than thinnet Thinner

Max length 500 meters Max length 185 meters

Advantages of Coaxial cable

Now consider the benefits of coaxial cable transmission rate over twisted pair cable. It can be used in a
mutual cable network and is mostly used for broadband transmission. Both channels are sent to the
same wire at the same time. It has a high bandwidth of 400 megabits per second.

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Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

It's pricey, and it's not compatible with twisted pair cable if you want to extend the cable's duration.
Since coaxial and twisted pair cables are incompatible, they cannot be linked. As a result, this is one of
the most significant disadvantages of a coaxial cable.

Fibre Optic Cables

I believe it is also obvious from the name. And everyone knows that when transmitting data, the speed
is extremely high, particularly when compared to twisted and coaxial cables. Fiber optic cables are also
used in medical equipment. It is made up of 1000s of strong fibres. As a result, this single strand of fibre
is as fine as a human hair. As a result, it transmits data in the form of light shown in Figure 9. This is
why it's called fibre optic cable. So, it's made up of an inner glass core surrounded by a glass-like
substance with a low refractive index, and the fibre optic cable's core cladding and protective coating.

Figure 9 Fibre Optic Cables

To comprehend the workings of a fibre optic cable, we must first comprehend the fundamental
behaviour of light. As light travels through a medium, such as a medium or a container, the speed of
the light changes. The refractive index is determined by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the
speed of light in a medium Figure 10. So while this shift in pace is a fascinating phenomenon, it also
brings with it a slew of new words to learn, one of which is refraction.

Figure 10 Medium Glass

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As light travels through a prism, it bends instead of going straight, as seen in the Figure 11. When light
travels from a medium with a high reflective index to one with a lower reflective index, it bends towards
the interface, which is known as refraction.

Figure 11 Refraction

Refraction is the explanation why a pencil appears bent in a glass of water, as an example. As a result,
the fibre optic cable employs this basic strategy. So, as we raise the refractive index of the glass in real
time, the light will bend more and more to the surface; as you increase the refractive index, the light
will bend more and more to the surface; as you increase the refractive index, the light will suddenly
come to the first medium as a pure reflection; as you increase the refractive index, the light will bend
more and more to the surface; as you increase the refractive index, the light will suddenly come to the
first medium as a pure reflection. A complete internal reflection is what it's called. So, rather than raising
the refractive index, we should increase the incident angle in this situation, resulting in a critical angle.

Figure 12 Pencil appear bent in a glass of water

Figure 13 Bending of light ray

When the angle of incidence approaches the critical angle, the ray reflects and moves closer to the
surface; as the angle approaches the critical angle, the light bends around the interface. If the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects and passes through the denser material again
as seen in Figure 13.
Let's look at propagation modes now.

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Figure 14 Propagation Modes

So, there are two modes available. One is multimode, while the other is single mode. Multimode is
further subdivided into step and graded indexes. So, let's take a look at each one individually. So, what
is a multimode name? It refers to the fact that multiple light beams from a single light source pass
through the heart in different directions. However, the movement of these beams inside the cable is
dependent on the structure; in many cases, the core density remains constant from the centre to the
edges. A beam of light travels in a straight line through this constant density until it reaches the interface
of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there are unexpected changes due to a lower density. As
a result, the angles of a beam motion are alternated. Let's talk about this step index mode now.
In the case of step index, the suddenness of the transition means that there is an abrupt change in the
signal, which leads to signal distortion as it travels through the fibre as seen in Figure 15.

Figure 15 Multimode, Step Index

As you can see in the Figure 16, multimode graded index fibre reduces signal distortion as it travels
through the cable. The term index here refers to a reflection index.

Figure 16 Multimode, Graded Index

Let's talk about single mode now. Single mode now employs a phase index fibre and a highly oriented
light source to confine beings to a narrow range of angles, all of which are similar to the horizontal. As
you can see Figure 17, since the diameter in single mode is so small, my light is only going in one
direction, and there is only one straight line. Since the diameter is so small, it can't go up and down;
instead, it can only move in one direction: up and down. As a result, single mode uses a phase index
fibre and a highly oriented light source to confine a beam to a narrow range of angles all close to the
horizontal.

Figure 17 Single Mode

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Figure 18 Fibre optic cable connectors

So, there are fibre optic cable connectors. There are SC connectors and ST connectors. These are the
names of the connectors used in the five most popular scenarios.

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable

• It is immune to electrical/mechanical interface.
• Highly suitable for harsh environment
• Secure transmission
• Used for broadband transmission.

Disadvantages
• Installation is difficult(glass is very fragile)
• Connecting two fibers is difficult.
• Connection loss
• Most expensive

Unguided Media: Wireless

Now let's talk about the unguided media that carry electromagnetic waves without the use of any
physical conductor. Unguided means that we're not using cables to relay signals; instead, we're using
waves that may be electromagnetic waves.

Types of unguided media: -

• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
Unguided media, as seen in the diagram, transport electromagnetic waves without the use of a physical
conductor. As a result, signals are typically transmitted over an open space and are thus accessible to
anyone with a platform capable of receiving them. As a result, unguided media will move from point
A to point B in a variety of ways.

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Figure 19 Electromagnetic Spectrum for Wireless Communication

Propagation Methods
Ground, sky, and line of sight propagation are seen in Figure 20 . As a result, in ground propagation,
the antenna flies to the lowest part of the atmosphere, hugging the ground. As a result, the lowest
frequency signals emitted from the transmitting antenna obey the curvature of the earth in all
directions.

Figure 20 Propagation Methods

The amount of power in the signal determines the distance it can cover; the greater the power, the
greater the distance it can cover. What about higher frequency radio waves that propagate upward
through the ionosphere? They mirrored back to Earth there. As a result, this method of transmission
allows for longer distances while using less fuel. As a result, very high frequency signals are transmitted
in straight lines via line of sight propagation. As a result, antenna to antenna is what it means. The
signal is transmitted antenna to antenna, whether they are tall apart or wherever they are.

Wireless Transmission Waves

As seen in the Figure 21 below, there are three forms of wireless communication.

Wireless
Transmission

Radio wave Microwave Infrared

Figure 21 Types of Wireless Transmission

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Radio waves
It's a method of data transmission that uses radio waves rather than copper or glass, so energy flows
through the air. Radio, television, cellular phones, and other devices use radio communication in some
way. Radio waves can pass through walls and even an entire structure. They can travel long or short
distances depending on the frequency. Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as
radio and television, and paging systems. They can penetrate through walls. Highly regulated. Omni
directional or directional antennas are used to broadcast radio waves depending upon band Figure 22.
The transceiver unit, which is consisted of transmitter and receiver along with the antenna, determines
the power of RF signal. Other characteristics of radio waves is that in vacuum all electromagnetic waves
or radio waves travel at the same speed i.e., at the speed of light which is equal to 3 × 108 meter per
seconds. In any medium this speed gets reduced and also becomes frequency dependent. In case of
copper the speed of light becomes approximately two thirds of the speed of light.
• The basic features of the radio waves are that:
• They are easy to generate
• They have same velocity in vacuum
• They may traverse long distances
• They are omni directional
• They can penetrate building easily so they find extensive use in communication both
indoor and outdoor
• They are frequency dependent. At low frequency they can pass through obstacles well but
the power falls off sharply with distance from the source, as power is inversely proportional
to cube of the distance from the source. At HF they travel in straight lines and bounce off
obstacles.

Figure 22 Omnidirectional Antenna

Advantages of Radio Wave

• Inexpensive mode of information exchange.
• No land needs to be acquired for laying cables.
• Installation and maintenance of devices is cheap.

Disadvantages of Radio Wave

• Insecure communication medium
• Prone to weather changes like rain, thunderstorms, etc.

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MicroWave
Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs. Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls. Use directional antennas - point
to point line of sight communications. Microwave radio, a form of radio transmission that uses ultra-
high frequencies, developed out of experiments with radar (radio detecting and ranging) during the
period preceding World War II. There are several frequency ranges assigned to microwave systems, all
of which are in the Giga Hertz (GHz) range and the wavelength in the millimeter range. This very short
wavelength gives rise to the term microwave. Such high frequency signals are especially susceptible to
attenuation and, therefore must be amplified or repeated after a particular distance. In order to
maximize the strength of such a high frequency signal and, therefore, to increase the distance of
transmission at acceptable levels, the radio beams are highly focused. The transmit antenna is centered
in a concave, reflective metal dish which serves to focus the radio beam with maximum effect on the
receiving antenna. The receiving antenna, similarly, is centered in a concave metal dish, which serves
to collect the maximum amount of incoming signal.

Unidirectional Antennas
Unidirectional antennas, which send signals in only one direction, are needed for microwaves. For
microwave communications, two types of antennas are used: the parabolic dish and the horn antenna,
as shown in Figure 23. The geometry of a parabola is used to build a parabolic dish antenna: Any line
parallel to the line of symmetry (line of sight) reflects off the curve at different angles, resulting in a
point called the focus where all the lines converge. The parabolic dish acts as a funnel, collecting a
variety of waves and funnelling them to a single point.
A horn directed at the dish is used to broadcast outgoing transmissions. The microwaves collide with
the dish and deflect outward, reversing the receipt route. A horn antenna resembles a massive scoop.
Outgoing signals are broadcast up a stem (which resembles a handle) and deflected outward by the
curved head in a series of narrow parallel beams. The scooped form of the horn collects received signals,
analogous to a parabolic dish, and deflects them down into the stem. Microwaves are very useful when
unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed between the sender and the receiver due to their
unidirectional properties. They're used in mobile phones.

Figure 23 Unidirectional Antennas

Drawbacks
• They cannot pass through microwave buildings.
• Bad weather influences signal transmission.
• They are frequency dependent.

Infrared Signals
For short-range communication, infrared waves with frequencies ranging from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths ranging from 1 mm to 770 nm) may be used. Because of their high frequency, infrared
waves are unable to penetrate walls. This beneficial feature avoids interference between systems; a
short-range communication device in one room will not be affected by a system in the next room. When

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we use our infrared remote control, it does not interfere with our neighbours' use of the remote. This
same property, however, renders infrared signals useless for long-range communication. Furthermore,
we are unable to use infrared waves outside of a building because the sun's rays produce infrared waves
that can disrupt contact.
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation.
• Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays will interfere
with the infrared waves.
• Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls.
When we use our infrared remote control, it does not interfere with our neighbours' use of the remote.
This same property, however, renders infrared signals useless for long-range communication.
Furthermore, we are unable to use infrared waves outside of a building because the sun's rays produce
infrared waves that can disrupt contact.

Switching techniques
We have several paths to transfer data from source to destination, and the switching technique will
choose the best path. So, what is the best path for them to take to send data from source to destination?
To make a one-to-one connection, a switching technique is used to link the systems. This is why we're
going to look at switching strategies. As we want to transfer my packet from source to destination,
which is the best path to take so that I can send my data or packet from source to destination, which is
the best path to take so that I can send my data or packet from source to destination, which is the best
path to take so that I can send my data or packet from source to destination, which is the best path to
take so that I can send my data or packet from source to destination, which is the best path.

Switching Methods
The two broad level switching methods are seen in Figure 24.
So, switching approaches can be link based or connectionless.

• Connection oriented switching means that you must reserve resources before sending data.
• Connectionless switching means that you do not need to reserve resources and can begin
sending data as soon as it becomes available.

Figure 24 Switching Methods

5.2 Classification of Switching Techniques

So, let's look at the different types of switching. There are three types of switching: circuit switching,
packet switching as shown in Figure 25.

Circuit Switching
The first is circuit switching, which is a switching strategy that creates a dedicated path between the
sender and the receiver. A dedicated path ensures that no one else can use that resource for that period
of time.

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Figure 25 Switching Techniques

When you go to a restaurant and notice that the tables are already reserved, it is written on the wall.
What does this mean? It means that no one else can use that table at that time because it has been
reserved for a certain person, and only that person can use it. So that is what the word "dedicated"
means. If the link is made, a dedicated route will remain in place until the teardown process. Circuit
switching in a network functions in the same manner as it does in telephone networks. Circuit switching
can be permanent or temporary. When a user tries to transmit data, voice, or video and a request, a
signal is transmitted back to the receiver.

Figure 26 A trivial Circuit Switched network

The receiver then sends back an acknowledgment to ensure that the dedicated route is accessible. In
public telephone networks, the data circuit switch is used after receiving the acknowledgment
dedicated route transfers. It is the best example of voice communication transfer. As illustrated in the
Figure 26. Each link is divided into three channels using the FdM, or TDM, and each link has three
connections that operate in three phases.
Applications that use circuit switching may have to go through three phases :-
• Establishing a circuit.
• Transferring the data.

• Disconnecting the circuit

What do the terms "establishing a circuit" and "establishing a process" mean? Creating the circuit
entails create a phase Set up a phase means that if you want to submit data, you must first reserve the
resources. Channels and turn buffers are examples of resources. switch processing time switch input
outputs that must be committed during the data transmission. As you can see in Figure 26, A wishes to
give information to m. So, first, A will notify switch four that a dedicated path exists between switch
one and switch four, then switch four will create a dedicated path between switch four and switch three,
and switch four will inform node m of A's purpose, and node m will agree that it is ready to receive the
data.
The data transfer process will only function after that. Data transfer refers to a continuous flow of
data from a source station to a destination station; continuous flow implies that the data will not be
split into packets because my resources have been allocated. My data does not need to be divided into
packets. As a result, data will flow continuously. And the first is the setup step, in which we reserve
resources such as CPU bandwidth, CPU buffer, switch processing time, and switch input output ports,
which are the resources I need. Then, once the acknowledgment is received, the source station will
begin sending the data, which will be sent in a continuous flow from the source station to the
destinations.
Disconnecting the process is the third choice. After the data has been successfully transferred, the
circuit will be disconnected.

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Important points

• circuit switching, are designed for the voice applications.

• The best suitable example of circuit switching is telephone.
• The connection is established using Dedicated path.
• Circuit switching takes place at the physical layer.

Efficency and Delay

Circuit switching has a lower performance than the other two forms of networks because it requires
you to reserve resources. So keep in mind that whenever I mention reserving resources, I'm referring
to a cost. To send data, I must first create a link. The total delay is due to the time required to create the
link, move the connection, and disconnect the circuit; however, the delay in this type of network is very
negligible because there is no waiting time because there is no connection; I have already formed a
connection, so there will be no delay; the total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection,
transfer the connection, and disconnect the circuit; however, the total delay is due to the time needed
to create the connection, transfer the connection, and disconnect the circuit.. Otherwise, there is no
delay.

Figure 27 Delay in Circuit Switched Network

And I'm assuming that when you go to the restaurant, you won't have to wait for a table to become
available because you've already reserved one. As a result, the time delay would be negligible. Only
when linking, transferring, and disconnecting the circuit is there some time for delay.
As you can see in the Figure 27, the overall delay in the circuit switch network is due to the time required
to establish the link, transfer data, and disconnect the circuit, so the delay in this time is very small.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

The benefits of circuit switching include the creation of a dedicated channel that no one else can use.
And if I talk about dedicated, that means my packet loss will be very low, and if there is a dedicated
channel, overhead will be very low because everyone is on the same path. If I want to get to a specific
station and everyone is taking the same path. I'm also following the same paths because I don't have to
think about which way to go, whether left or right, because I'm simply following the same direction.
Improves data transfer rate significantly because there is no waiting period and no delay. As a result,
the data transfer rate is strong here, which reduces data loss. If you want to go to a wedding but don't
know where to go. You're just following path one after another, and some dedicated link is created for
you, and you're just following the route, one after another, so data loss will be extremely rare here, and
my data will not be lost. It improves delay in the data flow.

Disadvantages of circuit switching

• The waiting time lasts long, and there is no data transfer.
• Each connection has a dedicated path, and this gets expensive.
• When connected systems do not use the channel, it is kept idle.

Message Switching

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As message switching is used, the entire message is treated as a data unit, and each node receives the
entire message and buffers it before forwarding it to the next node. A message switching shown in
Figure 28.

Figure 28 Message Switching

This form of network is known as a store and forward network since no dedicated route is established
between the sender and the receiver. We are not allocating any resources between the sender and the
recipient, implying that there is no dedicated route. It's a combination of dropping store and forward
strategies.

Advantages of Message Switching

• Stores the message when the next node is not available
• Reduces traffic congestion.
• Data channels are shared by network devices.
• Manages traffic efficiently by assigning priorities.

Drawbacks of Message Switching

• Transit path needs enough storage.
• Message switching is very slow.
• Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.

Packet Switching
Datagram and virtual circuit packet switching are the two methods of packet switching. Let's look at
what packet switching is and why it's called that because the data is split into packets. The packet
switching technique is a switching method that sends the message all at once. However, it is broken
down into smaller bits and sent separately. Messages are split into smaller pieces known as packets,
with each packet having its own sequence number, so that we can place them in order when we receive
them. The length of the packet may be set or variable; the switching information is contained in the
header of each packet; the type of information header contains as shown in Figure 29. The source and
destination nodes, as well as the intermediate number, are listed in the header. The sequence number
is the intermediate number since, in this case, each packet is taking a different path to reach its
destination. As a result, when the packets arrive, we must sort them into orders. So, who's going to
assist in putting the packet together? That is your sequence number, and it is with the aid of that
sequence number that we are placing the packets in the correct order. The message will be sent again if
the packet is lost or corrupted.

Figure 29 Details of Header

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Modes of Packet Switching
So, what are the different types of packet switching? Packet switching may be connection-oriented or
connectionless. In a connectionless network, packets can pass through the network using the shortest
route possible, with all packets falling on separate paths to the destination being reassembled at the
receiving end.

Figure 30 Modes of Packet Switching

Since this is the source and this is the destination, if I try to send data from source to destination, it will
divide the data into little small packets. So that's why we'll reassemble the packet only if you're
segmenting it. After you've divided the package, it's time to put it together. We'll reassemble the packets
and reassemble the message when we receive them. If the correct order is met, an acknowledgment
message indicating that the packet was successfully received is also sent.

Two Basic Forms of Packet Switching

There are two ways to treat packets. It may be a virtual circuit or a datagram switching as shown in
Figure 31.

Datagram
networks
Packets handled
in two ways
Virtual circuit

Figure 31 Forms of Packet Switching

But, first and foremost, let's talk about datagram networks.

Datagram network
It is a packet switching technology in which a packet is referred to as a datagram, hence the name
datagram switching. Now, each packet contains destination information, which the switch uses to
forward the packet to the next destination. Packets can now follow any practical path. So, in a datagram
switching technique, the path is not set, i.e., it is not committed to the fact that you will only use this
path to get to your destination. On the cloud, a variety of paths would be available. As I previously
said, the modes of packet switching are connectionless and connection based, respectively, and
datagram switching is a connection less switching. As a result, datagram switching, also known as
connectionless switching, involves intermediate nodes making routing decisions in order to forward
packets. As a result, datagram networks are also known as connectionless networks. What does
connection less mean? It means that the switch does not store information about the connection state.
As seen in the Figure 32 below. A is sending a packet of data, which is divided into packets, each of
which has a sequence number and contains information about the source, destination, and sequence
number.

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Figure 32 Datagram Network

So 1234, and as you can see here, each packet takes a different path to reach its destination, which is x.
As a result, when they arrive at their destination, they are not in order 1432. This is the order, so we can
place our previous message in our order by looking at their sequence number, which we can organise
in the order routing table. Each switch has a routing table that is based on the destination address.
Routing tables are dynamic and are modified on a regular basis if no new nodes are added to the
network. Routing tables are dynamic and are updated on a regular basis if no new nodes are added to
the network. As a result, the destination address now assists in getting packets to their intended
destination by forwarding them to the next destination. So, in a datagram network, the destination
address in the header of a packet stays the same during the entire journey of the packet performance of
datagram networks is unquestionably better than a circuit switch network.
And I want to submit a packet every time. I don't need to set up a link or a phase, and I don't need to
reserve resources because it costs a lot of money; resources are only allocated when there are packets
to be transferred, which means resources are only reserved on demand. If you have a packet to send
during datagram switching. At that time, if only you will submit the packet, which ensures that only
resources will be allocated at that time. In the case of datagram switching, if you want to send a packet,
resources will be allocated only on request. Since resources are not allocated in advance, there is a
greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual circuit network if you have a packet to send delay.

Virtual Circuit Networks

Since it is a combination of datagram and circuit switching, it is link driven. It is expensive to implement
because if you want to transmit data, a global packet is transmitted to the network. Resources are
allocated for time periods, and it is a highly efficient medium of transmission. It will also set aside all
resources so that the packets can be sent to their destinations. Only if you have a package to send will
the global packet be sent, which will reserve the resources as if you needed them. If you want to send
a packet, you'll also need CPU bandwidth and a buffer to hold the packet for a period of time. As a
result, in the case of a virtual circuit, a pre-planned route is formed prior to the message being sent. As
seen in the Figure 33 below, call request and a call Accept packets are used to create the sender-receiver
link. Paths are reserved in this case for the length of the logical relation. If I want to end the link, a
simple request will be sent to end the connection request. So call request call accept indicates that a link
has been established; if you have data to send, it will send the data transfer, and an acknowledgment
will be sent indicating that my data has been received successfully; and finally, we can terminate the
connection by sending a simple request.
Since a global packet is sent in this case as well, packets are sent to the recipient in the same order as
they were sent by the sender. But that's how the money are set aside. As a result, every packet takes the
same route to its destination. A virtual circuit is a secure network link. In each packet, there is no need
for overhead.

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Figure 33 Working of virtual circuit

Advantages of Virtual circuit

• Packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order sent by the sender.
• Virtual circuit is a reliable network circuit.
• There is no need for overhead in each packet.
• Single global packet overhead is used in virtual circuit.

Disadvantages of Virtual Circuit

• Virtual circuit is costly to implement.
• It provides only connection-oriented service.
• Always a new connection set up is required for transmission.

5.3 Difference between Datagram switching and virtual circuit switching

The following Figure 34 illustrates the distinction between datagram switching and virtual circuit
switching.

Figure 34 Datagram switching vs Virtual circuit switching

Networking Devices
As hardware devices that are used to link computers, printers, fax machines, and other electronic
devices, you will be able to learn about various networking devices and understand the functioning
and functionality of various networking devices. These devices send data over the same or a different
network in a fast, safe, and accurate manner. As a result, we must investigate all of the devices that
assist in the transfer of data from source to destination. Those are what we refer to as networking
devices.

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Use of Networking Devices

Figure 35 depicts the number of networking devices in operation.

Figure 35 Use of Networking Devices

So, networking devices are the devices that are used for organizing a network, linking our network,
routing the package, and improving the signals because my signal loses strength when it travels from
source to destination.

5.4 Types of Networking Devices

Types of networking devices are shown in Figure 36.

Figure 36 Types of Networking Devices

Modem
Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator. An analog signal is converted to a digital signal, and
digital signals are converted to analog signals. The modulator is used to transform digital signals to
analog signals. The demodulator modem is used to communicate over telephone lines when an
analogue signal is converted to a digital signal as seen in Figure 37.

A B

Figure 37 MODEM

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How fast the modem can transfer and receive the data?
• At Slow Speeds, modems are measured in baud rate.
• At Higher Speeds, modems are measured in bits per second.
• Higher the speed, the faster you can send and receive data over the network.

Working of MODEM
So, as you can see in the diagram, if A wants to send data to B, here's an example. However, we must
first use the modem before transmitting the signals to the telephone lines. So, a modem can transform
digital data from a device to an analogue signal so that it can be sent over a telephone line. Then there's
the fact that those cables can only accept analogue signals. Finally, we want to give a signal to machine
B, which will only accept digital data. So, once again, we must use a modem to transform this analogue
signal into a digital signal, which is known as a demodulator.

Which Layer Modem Works in OSI Model?

Modem works at Physical Layer of the OSI model.

HUB
The hub is a networking system that connects different types of cables to centralized network traffic via
a single connecting point hub, which also serves as a central controller for all connected devices as a
master controller. Hub serves as a master controller. It actually goes to whatever communication is
taking place, and it will go through the hub, as seen in this example. The hub now serves as a central
controller for all devices that want to connect.

Figure 38 Hub

If A wants to send data to C, instead of sending the data directly to C, A can send the data to hub. As a
result, the hub serves as a central controller, and no devices are attached directly to one another. Hub
will still broadcast data, which means it will send data to C, E, and D. As a result, the hub will still
broadcast data, which means it will send information to all connected devices. Following that, even the
C's acknowledgment will be sent to all of the units. To begin, A sends data to C, which will arrive at the
hub, which will broadcast the data, and C will accept it. Other nodes B, E, and D will search the header
information and determine that the packet is not for them, so they will discard it. Then C will send the
acknowledgment, and since Cs cannot send acknowledgements directly to A, C will send to the hub
again, and the hub will broadcast the data again because this is a hub property. So it will give to B, E,
and D, as well as A, with A accepting and the rest of the devices discarding the packet. To link topology
segments of land and track network traffic, a hub with multiple ports is used. It organises and monitors
all data sent and received between computers. Now, in order to prevent data collisions, we use the
CSMA CD protocols, so if A sends data and c sends data at the same time, the data will be lost. When
hub was broadcasting and C was sending the message. So, when A has already sent data to C and C
has begun sending data, when the hub broadcasts the data, there will be a collision. So, to prevent these
collisions, we use a CSMA CD technique, which you will understand and which will give you all of the
details of this lecture when it comes up in the future lectures.

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Types of HUB
Active hubs, passive hubs, and intelligent hubs are the three types of hubs as show in Figure 39. In the
case of an active hub, it performs the same functions as a passive hub, but before forwarding the data
signal, it amplifies it. As a result of this added functionality, active hub is also known as a repeater, as
it amplifies the signal.

Figure 39 Types of HUB

The passive hub comes next. It transmits data signals in the same format in which they are received. It
has no impact on a signal in any way. It operates in the same way as an active hub, but it also has remote
control capabilities. They also offer networking devices the ability to use different data rates. It also
allows an administrator to track traffic passing through the hub and configure each port in the hub, as
well as determine which layer hub is active. As a result, the OSI physical layer and the TCP IP model
are used by the hub.

Switch
The switch is a multiple LAN connecting system that receives data packets from multiple input ports
and forwards them to a particular output port. When opposed to a hub, a switch is a more intelligent
system. This is what a hub does: it takes data and sends it to all of the ports that are connected to the
hub, while a switch, which is an intelligent system, receives data from one of the devices but only sends
it to the specific intended recipient to whom it belongs. Let's say A wants to give some information to
B. As a result, A will send data to switch, and switch will send data to C exclusively. It will not broadcast
the data, but the way they are transmitting it, a switch will actually learn the physical addresses of the
devices that are connected to it and store these physical addresses in a table called a MAC address.

Figure 40 Switch Table

We're using a switch, which has a MAC address, which is the system's physical address. That is why
we call switches intelligent devices because of how they send data to a specific recipient to which it
belongs, using a MAC address to send data only to the computer to which your data belongs. But these
are your MAC addresses, aren't they? 00,04,5A,63,AI,66. This is your MAC address, which is 12 digits
long.

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Figure 41 Switch Example

As you can see Figure 41, PC1 needs to transmit data to PC4, so PC1 sends the data to the switch, but
the switch does not broadcast the data like the hub did; instead, the switch can only send the data to
the intended receiver, which is PC4, since the MAC address is written on the header. As you can see,
PC1 needs to transmit data to PC4, so PC1 sends the data to the switch, but the switch does not
broadcast the data like the hub did; instead, the switch can only send the data to the intended receiver,
which is PC4, since the MAC address is written on the header.
As a result, the MAC address is included in the post, and the data is sent to PC 4 via the MAC address
switch. Only the intended recipient will receive it. As a result, the switch is aware of the MAC addresses
of all systems connected to it. Now, more than ever, switch are favored over hubs because they
eliminate unwanted traffic on the network.

Various Switching Methods

In the Figure 42 Different methods of switching below, various switching strategies are depicted.The
first is the cut-through technique. The next choice is to use the store and forward process.

Figure 42 Different methods of switching

Cut Through
If I use the cut through process, the data will be split into small packets whenever I send it. In the case
of the cut through process, the data will now be forwarded by the switch. The turn forwards the packet
as soon as it arrives. As a result, each packet will take a different route to reach its destination. It does
not wait for all of the data to arrive in a cut through. It simply forwards the packet as soon as it arrives.
As a result, packet loss is more likely in the case of cut through and packet loss.

Store and forward

First and foremost, the switch waits for all of the data to arrive at the destination successfully before
forwarding the packet to the intended recipient, then it will wait for all of the data to arrive before
forwarding the packet to the destination to the intended recipient, so it will wait for all of the data to
arrive before sending the packet to the destination. Packet failure is extremely unlikely in the case of
store and forward strategies because it waits for all of the data to arrive before moving on to the next.

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Difference between Hub and switch

Hub Switch

Only detects that a device is Can detect specific devices that

physically connected to it. are connected to it because it
keeps a record of MAC
ADDRESS of those devices.

Similarity Between Hub and Switch

• Both are used to share data within a local area network, such as a home or business network.
• Both are not accustomed to exchanging data with each other outside of their own network,
such as over the internet.
• Since a computer must be able to read IP addresses in order to exchange data or route data
outside their own network or to another network, such as the internet.
• switch and hub Both may not read the IP address; we need a router to read the IP address. As
a result, data is routed from one network to another based on IP addresses.

Router
When data packets are sent, the router inspects the IP address to decide whether the packet was
intended for its own network or for another network. The router is particularly the gateway offer
network. Example of router is shown in Figure 43.

Figure 43 Router

It will allocate to the same receiver if it fits within the same network. If it isn't intended for the same
network, don't use it. It is intended for use in another network, and it will transmit data to that network
using IP addresses, as routers do. Routers bind two or more topologically related or dissimilar
networks, such as LANs and WLANs. It will share the available bandwidth through a network of
computers. As a hardware firewall, it offers better security against hacking. Routers are smart enough
to figure out the shortest and quickest path from source to destination, which is the easiest way to send
data from one location to another.
So, if you want to send data from source to destination, routers can assist you in finding the shortest
path. There are a variety of routes to choose from. So, which path is the fastest, and which one is the
shortest? Such that my packet arrives at its destination in the shortest time possible. As an example, the
shortest route from node 11, N11, to node N3 is found using the router as shown in Figure 44. When a
data packet is forwarded to its final destination, the linked routers are registered.

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Figure 44 Description router

As a result, these records are held in a database table called the routing table. So, a routing table can be
designed statistically or dynamically, so the router knows which route to take to send the data since it
is updated on a regular basis. If any new networks access the network router, the destination addresses
are still modified. As a result, routers are aware of each system's IP address. The IP address is the unique
identifier for each device. So, routers know what the next hop is, where data will be transferred, and
how long it will take to get data from source to destination. One of the functions of the router is to link
many small networks into a larger network. By linking small networks together, we can create a larger
network. So, one of the most popular routers, and one that is very familiar nowadays, is a wireless
router, which allows a user to connect easily without installing any cables, and they also allow a user
to connect easily without installing any cables, so if we are talking about wireless implies that we are
not using any cables and can connect wirelessly.

Important points
• Which Layer Router Operates?
Operates at network layer of OSI model.

• When it comes to the network layer, two things must come to mind: the IP address and the
router.
• the router read the system's IP address.
• The router can use this information to determine the best path for your packets or data to
travel from source to destination in the shortest time possible.

Network interface card.

It is a circuit board or a card that allows computers to communicate over a network through cables or
wirelessly through a small antenna network Figure 45. It connects to a network via cables cat5, coaxial
cable, fibre optics, etc. When someone tells you the other term for a network interface card, it's a LAN
adapter, network adapter, or network card. You may also use the terms LAN adapter, network adapter,
or network card to describe your device.

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Figure 45 Network Interface Card

Types of NIC
The wired network interface card and the wireless network interface card are the two types of network
interface cards.

Figure 46 Types of NIC

Wireless NIC
Wireless NIC means in laptop, we are using a NIC card, it can be connected through cable. Also, but if
it is a wireless NIC it can connect through the wireless modem. It works on the radio frequency.

Wired NIC
A wired network is one of the most popular wired configurations. Ethernet cables are used to transmit
data between connected PCs in most wired networks. A single router will link all the computers in a
small wired network. Multiple routers or switches connected to each other are common in larger
networks. A cable modem, T1 line, or other form of Internet connection is usually connected to one of
these devices. Wired may also apply to peripheral devices. Since several keyboards and mice are now
wireless, the term "wired" is frequently used to refer to input devices that attach to a USB port as seen
in Figure 47. Monitors and external hard drives use cables as well, although they are rarely referred to
as wired devices because wireless alternatives are rarely available.

Figure 47 Wired NIC

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• On desktop computer, we use wired NIC. If NIC is wired then connect through RJ45 port. By
connection cable with RJ45 you communicate with internet.

How to check whether NIC card is working or not?

It's a straightforward procedure.
The first move is to go to the start menu, select Run, and type CMD into the command prompt that
appears in Figure 48.

Figure 48 Open command prompt

In that case, when the company manufactures the NIC, it assigns the NIC, which is a network interface
card, a loopback address in phase two. I'd like to point out that we're writing PING space 127.0.0.1 as
seen in Figure 49.

Figure 49 To check loopback address

Figure 50 Reply of loopback address

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So if you get a response, it means everything is fine as seen in Figure 50.

LAN Standards
Different LAN standards are:
• ISO
• ANSI
• EIA/TIA
• IEEE
But there are several LAN standards that are developing the standards that we are discussing on the
NIC that we are publishing, the first of which is the ISO. So this form of organisation describes flow
management, promotes flow management, and checks and promotes the consistency of the norm. The
ANSI American National Standard international organisation is the next LAN standard. This is the
organisation that governs all cards relevant to NIC network equipments, regulations, and quality
control. The next one is your EIA, TIA, which is used when we do wired communication via cable and
link one device to another via cable. Then there are two colour norms that we use. So EIA and TIA
agreed on colour coding, for example, if I wanted to connect two identical devices, such as one PC to
the other PC, we'd use a crossover cable. If I want to communicate, I'll use a PC with a router, which
means those are two different devices. In that case, the straight cable patch straight cable would be
used. So, when do you use a straight cable and when should you use a crossover cable? These are the
criteria that EIA TIA decides on. The IEEE is the next organisation, which develops all communication
standards. The 802.11 standard was the first land standard. 802.1, 802.2, 802.3 45678, and so on. It is
essentially a correspondence that is decided by 12 bits. So latest one is 802.17 is there.
So now, a MAC address for the network interface card that we're discussing is divided into two bits,
one of which is known as the manufacturing ID and the other as the serial number as seen in Figure 51.

00-04-AC F3-1C—D4

Manafacture ID Serial number

Figure 51 Parts of MAC Address

When a hacker tries to steal data from a target PC, the MAC address is punched on the network interface
card, just like students. ISP stands for internet service provider, or security department. Cybercrime can
be used to track down the intruder, and the serial number can be used to pinpoint their location. At this
time, the individual is present at which site. As a result, we are able to track down the hacker using his
MAC address.

Figure 52 MAC Address format

A MAC address is a hexadecimal number of 12 digits. As a result, when you convert this to binary. As
a result, it has been reduced to 48 bits. As a result, the MAC address is a long-term address. A physical
address is another term for it. It is difficult to change this permanent address in practice; however, you
can change the MAC address virtually with the aid of a variety of applications. Since a single
hexadecimal digit represents four binary bits, an Ethernet MAC address consists of a 48-bit binary
value. Hexadecimal is used to label an Ethernet address. As seen in this Figure 52 As a result, 12
hexadecimal values can be used to represent a 48-bit Ethernet MAC address.

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Which Layer NIC Operates?
Operates on physical and data link layer of OSI model.

Repeater
The term "repeater" refers to a device that increases the signal's intensity as it passes from source to
destination. So it's likely that your signals begin to lose energy; in fact, they begin to lose energy. As a
result, we'll need an amplifier or other repeaters to increase the signal's intensity or improve it.

Figure 53 Repeater

It operates at the physical layer of the OSI model, and it's ideal for long-distance networks. The bus
topology's main benefit is that it removes unnecessary noise from incoming signals, which is why my
signal was losing energy. If you wish to receive the exact signal that is being sent, you must also give
the exact signal. As a result, we'll have to use the repeater repeater.

Bridge
A bridge is a networking system that links two or more LANs together, treating them as a single
network as seen in Figure 54. So, this is what distinguishes it from a router; in a router, we link two
different networks together and they act as a separate network.

Figure 54 Bridge

A bridge is a networking system that links two or more LANs together, treating them as a single
network. So this is what distinguishes it from a router; in a router, we link two different networks
together and they act as a separate network. Multiple networks are linked together in this situation, but
they are considered as a single network. As a result, bridges are used when the number of LANs grows
and network traffic becomes too much to handle. So we use the bridge to divide the LAN network
traffic into segments and thus reduce the network traffic. As a result, a bridge will send data over two
separate protocols, such as Ethernet and Token Bus. It examines the frame's MAC address. If they fit,
the data is forwarded; if they don't, the frame is discarded.

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At which layer bridge operates?

The OSI model's data link layer is where bridge operates.

Gateway
A gateway is a computer network node (router) that serves as a critical stopover point for data on its
way to or from other networks. We can connect and send data back and forth thanks to gateways.
Without gateways, the Internet will be useless to us (as well as a lot of other hardware and software).
The gateway is the device in an office that routes traffic from a workstation to the outside network that
serves Web pages. The Internet Service Provider, which gives you access to the entire Internet, is the
hub for basic Internet connections at home.
A node is essentially a physical location where data is halted for transport or reading/use. (A node is a
device or modem; a computer cable is not.) A few node notes are as follows:

• A gateway or a host node may serve as a stopping point on the Internet.

• A node is a machine that manages the traffic that your Internet Service Provider (ISP) receives.
Your gateway is the modem (or modem-router combo) your ISP offers so you can connect to their
network if you have a wireless network at home that allows your entire family access to the Internet.
On the other hand, the device that your Internet Service Provider (ISP) uses to monitor all of the data
traffic it receives and sends out is a node. When a computer server serves as a portal, it also acts as a
firewall and proxy server. Unwanted traffic and outsiders are kept out of a private network by a
firewall. A proxy server is software that sits between the applications you use on your computer (such
as a Web browser) and the computer server that supports your network. The proxy server's job is to
ensure that the real server can handle the request.

Keywords
Bandwidth: Refers to the range of frequencies assigned to a channel.

Bounded Media: Refers to the wired transmission systems that employ physical media, which are
tangible.

Coaxial Cable: It is a very robust shielded copper wire two-conductor cable in which a solid center
conductor runs concentrically (coaxial) inside a solid outer circular conductor.

Frequency Spectrum: Refers to the range of frequencies being supported by a particular transmission
medium.

Gauge: Gauge is a measure of the thickness of the conductor.

Graded Index Multimode Fiber: In the case of a graded index multimode fiber, the index of refraction
across the core is gradually changed from a maximum at the center to a minimum near the edges, hence
the name graded index.

Monomode/Singlemode fiber: This has a thinner inner core. In this case, the core diameter of about 9
μm is much closer in size to the wavelength of light being propagated, about 1.3 μm. This limits the
light transmission to a single ray or mode of light to propagate down the core of the fiber.

Multimode Fiber: The core diameter is relatively large compared to a wavelength of light.

Optical Fiber: Optical fiber carries the transmitted information in the form of a fluctuating beam of light
in a glass fiber rather than as an electrical signal on a wire.

Cable Modem: It works on the principle of modems and provides access to data signal sent through
the cable television infrastructure.

Cell Site: A circular geographical area that handles cellular phones within its defined physical
boundary.

Microwave Radio: It is a form of radio transmission that uses ultra-high frequencies.

Radio: A technique where data is transmitted using radio waves and therefore energy travels through
the air rather than copper or glass.

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Review Questions
1. Describe how satellite communication is different from radio broadcast?
2. Explain different types of networking devices along with advantages and disadvantages.
3. What are the different transmission mediums over which data communication devices
can provide service?
4. What are the major limitations of twisted pair wire?
5. Describe how satellite communication is different from radio broadcast?

Self Assessment
1. Which is the smallest unit amongst the following with reference to the ATM-
a) transmission path
b) virtual path
c) virtual circuit
d) all are of the same size
2. A device that provides a central connection point for cables is –
a) Switch
b) Hub
c) Gateway
d) Proxy Server
3. A device that helps prevent congestion and data collisions –
a) Switch
b) Hub
c) Gateway
d) Proxy Server
4. Transmission media directly controlled by
a) Physical layer
b) Data link Layer
c) Network Layer
d) Session Layer
5) guided media provides a conduit from one device to another, includes
a) twisted pair cable
b) fiber optic cable
c) coaxial cable
d) All of above
6) RG-59 is used in
a) radio
b) thick ethernet
c) thin ethernet
d) cable tv

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7) A local telephone network is an example of a _______ network.

a) Packet switched
b) Circuit switched
c) Bit switched
d) Line switched
8) Most packet switches use this principle ____________
a) Stop and wait
b) Store and forward
c) Store and wait
d) Stop and forward
9) In _________ systems, resources are allocated on demand.
a) packet switching
b) circuit switching
c) line switching
d) frequency switching

Answers
1 (c) 2 (c) 3 (a)

4 (a) 5 (d) 6 (d)

7 (b) 8 (b) 9 (a)

Further Readings
Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall
Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and
Networking, McGraw-Hill Companies
Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media
McGraw-Hill Osborne Media
Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet,
Vikas Publication

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 Unit 06: Data link layer – error control and flow control Notes
Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

Unit 06: Data link layer – error control and flow control
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 What is the block coding?
6.2 Error Control Mechanisms May Work in Two Different Ways
6.3 Error Correction
6.4 Data Link Control
6.5 Flow Control and Error Control
6.6 Protocols
6.7 NOISELESS CHANNELS
6.8 NOISY CHANNELS
Self-Assessment
Answers: Self-Assessment
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions

Objectives
• what is block coding
• learn different types of error detection mechanism
• Different types of framing techniques

Introduction
When transmitting data from source to destination, it is likely that the data will get
compromised during transmission. Your bits shift from one to zero or zero to one between
transmissions as seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 Error

So, how do we prove that my pieces aren't tampered with? or How would the receiver be able to tell
whether the bits produce an error? As a result, we must learn the pathways for detecting errors. As
a result, data can be manipulated when being transmitted. This is the reason we need to learn error
detection mechanism.

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6.1 What is the block coding?

If I want my receiver to know whether the bits are corrupted or not, I use block coding, which divides
our messages into a block called a data term. So, along with the data terms, we'll add some redundant
bits. When we combine the redundant terms with the data universe, we get our code name. If I write
101, I'm using data terms. This is a list of my data terms. Now, if we add r redundant bits to this data
word, it becomes the code word; if we add r redundant bits to this data word, it becomes the code
word.
This is referred to as a code term. As a result, the sender sends these bits to the recipient. As a result,
we'll use these redundant bits to determine if my data is properly corrected and the same data that
the sender sent, or if my bits are incorrect. So we can build a combination of two raise to power k
data words using k bit. With n bits, we can make a dataword that combines two raise to power n
datawords.

Figure 2 Block Coding

Ques:- How can errors be detected by using block coding?

Ans:- So, we have two options for determining if my data is right or not: my potential recipient
already has a valid codeword, and that valid code will determine if my data is correct or not. If they
don't align, the bits are corrupted, and the original code word has been replaced by an invalid one as
seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Error Detection

So, let's start with a few topics that are directly or indirectly relevant to error detection and correction
mechanisms. First and foremost, we use only a small number of integers while we are using modular
arithmetic. As a result, we define a modulus, which is a spectrum of zero to n minus one. If n is 12,
the range would be zero to 12 minus one, which is zero to 11. As a result, we only use the integers 0
to 11 inclusive. Only integers in the range of zero to n minus one are used in modulo-N arithmetic.
In modulus arithmetic, there is no carry and if you do a subtraction there is no carry even if you do
an addition there is no carry, I hope you people have seen this, in case of addition and subtraction
the outcome is almost the same, the result is almost the same zero plus 0 and zero both are the same
here, in case of addition and subtraction the result is almost the same, the result is almost the same
zero plus 0 . Whenever we use the error correction schemes, we'll use the exclusive OR estate. So you
must understand what an exclusive is. If the bits are the same, the result will be zero; if the bits are
different, the result will be one. Similarly, these are the results of the exclusive OR, and this is what

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we'll use to assist you in error detecting mechanisms, such as when calculating the cyclic redundancy
search. Even so, in addition to performing, we use this XOR property.

Types of Error
There are bits that can be changed during transmissions whenever a bit flow from one place to
another. So, single bit error, multi bit error, and burst error are the three categories of errors as seen
in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Types of Error

Single Bit Error

If only a single bit is corrupted, you can see that only a single bit from zero to one is corrupted. As a
result, this is a well-known example of a single bit as seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5 Single bit Error

Multi-bit Error
If two bits in two separate places are corrupted. As a result, this is referred to as a multi bit
malfunction.

Figure 6 Multi-bit Error

Burst Error
A third type of error is a burst error, which occurs when several bits are scrambled at the same time.
The fact that we have 100 instead of 011 indicates that three consecutive bits are compromised. As a
result, this is referred to as a burst malfunction.

Figure 7 Burst Error

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So, single bit error, multi bit error, and burst error are the three categories of errors. For several bits,
just a single bit is compromised. When more than one bit is corrupted in multiple places, this is
referred to as a multi bit error. When consecutive bits are corrupted, this is referred to as a burst error.

Redundancy

We add the redundant bits together with the data if we have a data expression. As a result, these
redundant bits assist the receiver in determining if the bits are corrupted or false. So these are the
pieces that assist the receiver in determining the outcome. We have a list of data words. This is
referred to as data terms, and it isn't real data. As a result, it can be made up of 8 bits or any other
number of bits. We then combine the redundant bits with the data. As a result, this amount becomes
my code term. So we're sending duplicate bits, which means we're sending extra bits.

Figure 8 Four Types of Redundancy Check

Vertical Redundancy Check: The vertical redundancy check (VCR), also known as a parity check, is
the most effective and least costly method for error detection. Any data unit is appended with a
redundant bit called a parity bit in this procedure, bringing the total number of bits in the unit
(including the parity bit) to an even number.

Longitudinal Redundancy Check: In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is

organized in a table (rows and columns). For example, instead of sending a block of 32 bits, we
organize them in a table made of four rows and eight columns, as shown in Figure 9. We then
calculate the parity bit for each column and create a new row of eight bits, which are the parity bits
for the whole block.

Figure 9 LRC

CRC and checksum will discuss later in this chapter.

6.2 Error Control Mechanisms May Work in Two Different Ways

We have two options for detecting and correcting a mistake. So we have two mechanisms: one is
called error detecting, and the other is called error correction as seen in Figure 10. To begin, there is
a distinction to be made between error detection and error correction. We only consider whether
the error has occurred or not in the case of error detection; we do not consider which bit has an
error, the magnitude of the error, whether it is a single bit error or a burst error in the case of error
detection, but we do in the case of error correction.

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Figure 10 Error Control Mechanism

In the case of error correction, the receiver needs to see how many bits and how big the error is. As a
result, in order to correct an error, we must know the precise number of bits that contain the error.
We also need to know where the error is located, because the number of errors and their magnitude
are critical factors in error correction.

Detection vs Correction
Table 1 Detection vs Correction

Error Detection Error Correction

we are looking only to see if any we need to know the exact number of bits that are
error has occurred. corrupted and more importantly, their location in the
message

Not even interested in the The number of the errors and the size of the message are
number of errors important factors

A single-bit error is the same for If we need to correct one single error in an 8-bit data unit,
us as a burst error we need to consider eight possible error locations;

Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of
• Simple Parity Check
• Two-Dimensional parity Check
• Checksum
• and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).

Simply Parity Check

Let's go over each one one by one. One is a quick parity check; it may be even or odd parity; in this
case, we'll count the number of ones. If I'm counting, because I want equal parity, I'll calculate the
amount of one and add to make it even. Let me demonstrate with an example how we can add the
redundant bit as seen in Figure 11.

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Figure 11 Simple Parity Check

Single Parity Bit

Single parity screening is an easy and inexpensive mechanism for detecting errors. A redundant bit,
also known as a parity bit, is appended to the end of the data unit in this technique to make the
number of 1s equal. As a result, the cumulative number of bits sent will be nine. If the number of 1s
bits is odd, parity bit 1 is appended at the end of the data unit; if the number of 1s bits is even, parity
bit 0 is appended. The parity bit is determined from the received data bits and added to the received
parity bit at the receiving end. Even-parity checking is a procedure that produces a cumulative
number of 1s that is even.

Figure 12 Single Parity Bit

Drawbacks of Single Parity Checking

It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.
If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

Two-Dimensional Parity Check, which organizes data in the form of a table, will increase
performance.
For each row, parity check bits are computed, which is analogous to a single-parity check.
A block of bits is separated into rows in a Two-Dimensional Parity scan, and the redundant row of
bits is applied to the whole block.

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Figure 13 Two-Dimensional Parity Check

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

The 2D Parity checker would not be able to spot the error if two bits in one data unit are corrupted
and two bits in the same place in another data unit are not corrupted.
In certain instances, this technique may not be able to spot 4-bit or more errors.

Checksum
A checksum is a method for detecting errors that is based on the principle of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator
A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the data into equal
segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by using one's complement
arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the original data, known as checksum field.
The extended data is transmitted across the network.
Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be ?L

Figure 14 Checksum

The Sender follows the given steps as shown in Figure 14:

The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

Checksum Checker
A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming data into equal
segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together, and then this sum is

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complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data is
rejected.

The Receiver follows the given steps:

The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to get the sum.
The sum is complemented.
If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is discarded.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:
In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n number is less than the
number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division which is n+1 bits.
Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is known as binary
division. The remainder generated from this division is known as CRC remainder.
Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original data. This newly
generated unit is sent to the receiver.
The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will treat this whole unit
as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is accepted.
If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error. Therefore,
the data is discarded.

Figure 15 Cyclic Redundancy Check

Let's look at an example to better explain this concept:

Assume the divisor is 1001 and the initial data is 11100.

CRC Generator

• A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the end of
the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length of the string 0s to be
appended is always one less than the length of the divisor.
• Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor 1001.
• The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The
generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.

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• CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the final
string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network as seen in Figure 16.

Figure 16 CRC Generator

CRC Checker

• The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.

• When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker performs the
modulo-2 division.
• A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
• In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is accepted as
seen in Figure 17.

Figure 17 CRC Checker

6.3 Error Correction

Error correction is much more complex than error prediction, as we previously said. The receiver just
needs to realize that the sent codeword is invalid in error detection; in error correction, the receiver
must locate (or guess) the original codeword sent. We may assume that error correction requires
more redundant bits than error detection.

Errors and Errors correcting code

In error correction, the encoder and decoder have different structures.
Bits can be corrupted when being transferred over a data network due to congestion and network
issues. Errors are caused by distorted bits, which cause the recipient to receive erroneous data. Under
the limits of the algorithm, error correcting codes determine the precise number of bits that have been
corrupted and the origin of the corrupted bits.Error-correcting codes (ECC) are a series of numbers

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developed by algorithms for detecting and correcting errors in data transmitted over a noisy
medium.

Error-correcting codes can be divided into two categories.

Block codes-
The message is broken down into fixed-size chunks of bits, with redundant bits inserted for error
detection and correction.
Convolutional codes use data streams of arbitrary length to create parity symbols, which are
created by sliding a Boolean function over the data stream.

Hamming Distance
So, the first is our hamming distance, which is the number of places where the related symbols vary
from two strings of equal length. But, using hamming distance, we'll figure out how many bits are
distinct.

Example
Find the Hamming Distance Between Two Pairs of Words
Ques:- The Hamming distance d(OOO, 011) is
000
Ans:- = 2 ( two 1s)
011
10101
= 3 (three 1s)
11110

Minimum Hamming Distance

The shortest Hamming distance for all possible pairs of strings in a series of equal length strings is
called the minimum Hamming distance.

Example
Suppose there are four strings 010, 011, 101 and 111.
010 ⊕ 011 = 001, d(010, 011) = 1.
010 ⊕ 101 = 111, d(010, 101) = 3.
010 ⊕ 111 = 101, d(010, 111) = 2.
011 ⊕ 101 = 110, d(011, 101) = 2.
011 ⊕ 111 = 100, d(011, 111) = 1.
101 ⊕ 111 = 010, d(011, 111) = 1.
Hence, the Minimum Hamming Distance, dmin = 1.

Hamming Code
Hamming code is a block code that can identify and correct single-bit errors while detecting up to
two simultaneous bit errors. It was created by R.W. Hamming for the purpose of error correction.
The source encodes the message using this coding process by adding redundant bits into the
message. Extra bits are produced and placed at unique locations in the message to allow error
detection and correction. When the destination receives this message, it performs recalculations in
order to locate errors and determine which bit location is incorrect.

Hamming Code is a method of encoding a letter.

The procedure used by the sender to encode the message encompasses the following steps −
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits.
Step 3 − Calculating the values of each redundant bit.
Once the redundant bits are embedded within the message, this is sent to the user.

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Decoding a Hamming Code message

When a message is sent, the recipient performs recalculations to find and correct errors. The
recalculation procedure is as follows:
Step 1: Determine how many redundant bits there are.
Step 2: Putting the obsolete pieces in their proper places.
Step 3: Testing for parity.
Step 4: Identifying and correcting errors
Step 1 − Calculation of the number of redundant bits
Using the same formula as in encoding, the number of redundant bits are ascertained.
2r ≥ m + r + 1 where m is the number of data bits and r is the number of redundant bits.
Step 2 − Positioning the redundant bits
The r redundant bits placed at bit positions of powers of 2, i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 etc.
Step 3 − Parity checking
Parity bits are calculated based upon the data bits and the redundant bits using the same rule as
during generation of c1,c2 ,c3 ,c4 etc. Thus
c1 = parity(1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and so on)
c2 = parity(2, 3, 6, 7, 10, 11 and so on)
c3 = parity(4-7, 12-15, 20-23 and so on)
Step 4 − Error detection and correction
The decimal equivalent of the parity bits binary values is calculated. If it is 0, there is no error.
Otherwise, the decimal value gives the bit position which has error. For example, if c1c2c3c4 = 1001, it
implies that the data bit at position 9, decimal equivalent of 1001, has error. The bit is flipped to get
the correct message.

6.4 Data Link Control

Data link management and media access control are the two primary features of the data link layer
as shown in Figure 18. The first, data link control, is concerned with the architecture and procedures
for node-to-node connectivity between two neighbouring nodes. This feature is covered in this
chapter. The data link layer's second feature is media access control, or how to share the link.
Framing, flow and error management, and software-implemented protocols are all data link control
functions that ensure seamless and stable frame transfer between nodes. The first topic in this chapter
is framing, or how to arrange the pieces held by the physical layer. The flow and error management
are then discussed.

Figure 18 Data Link control

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FRAMING
Moving bits in the form of a signal from the source to the destination is what data transfer in the
physical layer entails. Bit synchronisation is provided by the physical layer, which ensures that the
sender and recipient use the same bit durations and timing.
The data link layer, on the other hand, must cram bits into frames in such a way that each frame can
be distinguished from the previous one. Framing is a technique used by our mail department. The
basic act of sealing a letter in an envelope divides one piece of data from another; the envelope acts
as a delimiter. By inserting a sender address and a recipient address, framing in the data link layer
divides a message from one source to a destination, or from other messages to other destinations.
The sender address aids the receiver in acknowledging the arrival of the packet; the destination
address determines where the packet will go.
While the whole message could fit in one frame, this is rarely achieved. One explanation for this is
that frames can be very broad, making flow and error control inefficient. When a message is sent in
a single big frame, then a single bit error requires the whole message to be resent. A single-bit error
impacts only the small frame when a message is split into bigger frames.

Two Types of Framing

A. Fixed sized framing
B. Variable sized framing

Fixed-Size Framing
The size of the frames may be constant or variable. There is no need to define the limits of the frames
in fixed-size framing; the size will serve as a delimiter. The ATM wide-area network, which uses
fixed-size frames called cells, is an example of this method of framing.

Variable-Size Framing
In variable-size framing, which is common in local area networks. We need a way to identify the end
of one frame and the start of the next in variable-size framing. A character-oriented approach and a
bit-oriented approach have also been used in the past for this reason.

Figure 19 Variable Size Framing

Character Oriented Protocols

The data to be transported in a character-oriented protocol is 8-bit characters from an encoding
scheme such as ASCII (see Appendix A). The header, which typically contains the source and
destination addresses as well as other control information, and the trailer, which contains redundant
bits for error detection and correction, are both multiples of 8 bits. An 8-bit (I-byte) flag is applied to
the beginning and end of each frame to distinguish it from the next. The start or end of a frame is
signaled by the flag, which is made up of protocol-dependent special characters. The format of a
frame in a character-oriented protocol is seen in Figure 20.

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Figure 20 A frame in a character-oriented protocols

When the data link layers only exchanged text, character-oriented framing was common. Every
character that isn't used in text chat may be chosen as the flag. Other types of content, such as graphs,
audio, and video, are now sent. Any pattern used on the flag may also be included in the data. If this
occurs, the receiver may believe it has reached the end of the frame when it finds this pattern in the
centre of the data. A byte-stuffing technique was applied to character-oriented framing to solve this
issue. When a character has the same pattern as the flag, byte stuffing (or character stuffing) adds a
separate byte to the data portion of the frame. An extra byte has been stuffed into the data row. This
byte, which has a predefined bit pattern, is known as the escape character (ESC). The receiver extracts
the ESC character from the data segment and considers the next character as data rather than a
delimiting flag whenever it sees it.

Figure 21 Byte stuffing and unstuffing

The inclusion of the flag in the data section of the frame is allowed by byte stuffing by the escape
character, but it introduces a new challenge. What happens if one or more escape characters are
accompanied by a flag in the text? The receiver discards the escape character but holds the flag, which
is mistakenly read as the frame's end. The escape characters that are part of the text must also be
labelled by another escape character to solve this dilemma. To put it another way, if the escape
character is already present in the code, an additional one is inserted to indicate that the second one
is still present. The scenario is depicted in Figure 21. Another issue with data communications is
character-oriented protocols. Unicode and other universal coding schemes use 16-bit and 32-bit
characters, which clash with 8-bit characters.

Bit-Oriented Protocols
The data segment of a frame in a bit-oriented protocol is a series of bits that the upper layer interprets
as text, image, audio, video, and so on. We do need a delimiter to distinguish one frame from the
next, in addition to headers (and perhaps trailers). To specify the beginning and end of the frame,
most protocols use the special 8-bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter as shown in Figure 22.

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Figure 22 Bit-Oriented Protocol

This flag has the same potential for causing problems as the byte-oriented protocols. That is, if the
flag pattern exists in the details, we must notify the receiver that the frame is not yet complete. To
avoid the pattern appearing like a flag, we stuff one single bit (rather than one byte).
The receiver finally removes the extra stuffed bit from the results. It's worth noting that the extra bit
is inserted after one 0 and five 1s, regardless of the next bit's value. This ensures that the flag field
sequence does not appear in the frame by accident.
Bit stuffing at the sender and bit elimination at the receiver are shown in Figure 23. It's worth noting
that even though we end up with a 0 after five 1s, we still stuff an O. The receiver will delete the zero.

Figure 23 Bit Stuffing and Unstuffing

6.5 Flow Control and Error Control

Data transmission necessitates the cooperation of at least two computers, one of which sends data
and the other of which receives it. Even such a simple arrangement necessitates a great deal of
planning in order for an understandable transaction to take place. Flow control and error control are
the two most critical functions of the data link network. These functions are collectively referred to
as data link management. The basic functions of data link layer are framing, Error control and flow
control as seen in Figure 24.

Figure 24 Basic Functions of Data Link Layer

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6.6 Protocols
Let's take a look at how the data link layer can use framing, flow management, and error control to
deliver data from one node to another. In most cases, the protocols are implemented in software
using one of the standard programming languages. To keep our discussions language-free, we wrote
a version of each protocol in pseudocode that focuses mostly on the process rather than delving into
the nuances of language rules.

Types of Data Link Protocols

The protocols are divided into those that can be used for noiseless (error-free) channels and those
that can be used for noisy (error-producing) channels. The protocols in the first group can't be used
in real life, so they're useful for learning about noisy channel protocols. The classifications as seen in
Figure 25.
There is a distinction between the protocols we address here and the protocols used in actual
networks. The data frames pass from one node, referred to as the sender, to another node, referred
to as the receiver, in all of the protocols we address.

Figure 25 Classifications of protocols

Data flows in just one direction, despite the fact that special frames called acknowledgment (ACK)
and negative acknowledgment (NAK) will flow in the opposite direction for flow and error
monitoring. In a real-world network, data link protocols are bidirectional, allowing data to flow in
all directions. Piggybacking is a method used in these protocols to provide flow and error control
information such as ACKs and NAKs in the data frames. We picked the latter for our topic because
bidirectional protocols are more complicated than unidirectional protocols. They can be generalised
to bidirectional protocols if they are understood.

6.7 NOISELESS CHANNELS

Let's pretend we have an ideal channel with no missing, duplicated, or compromised frames. For this
sort of channel, we add two protocols. The first is a protocol that does not use flow control, while the
second does. Of necessity, neither has error management since we assumed the channel to be fully
noiseless.

Simplest Protocol
For lack of a better term, we call our first protocol the Simplest Protocol. It has no flow or error
management. It is a one-way protocol, meaning data frames only pass in one direction, from sender
to receiver. We assume that the receiver can accommodate any frame it receives right away, with a
loading time that is negligible. The receiver's data link layer separates the header from the frame right
away and hands the data packet to its network layer, which will accept it right away. To put it another
way, the receiver should never be overloaded with pictures.

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Design
Flow control is not needed in this scheme. The sender site's data link layer receives data from its
network layer, creates a frame out of it, and transfers it. The receiver site's data link layer collects a
frame from its physical layer, removes data from it, and sends it to its network layer. The sender and
receiver's data link layers provide transmission facilities to their network layers. For the actual
exchange of bits, the data link layers depend on the services offered by their physical layers (such as
signalling, multiplexing, and so on). A design as seen in Figure 26.
We need to go into the protocol that all data link layers use. The sender location would not be able to
transmit a frame until it receives a data packet from its network layer. Until a frame arrives, the
recipient location cannot send a data packet to the network layer. If the protocol is applied as a
process, the concept of events must be introduced. The procedure at the sender site is still running;
no action is taken before the network layer makes a request. The process at the receiver site is still
running, but no action is taken before the physical layer sends a warning. Since they don't know
when the associated incidents will occur, both operations are still going.

Figure 26 The design of the simplest protocol with no flow or error control

Algorithms
The protocol at the sender site is depicted in Algorithm 1.

Algorithm 1 The simplest protocol has a sender-site algorithm.

while(true) //repeat forever

WaitForEvent(); //Sleep until an event occurs

if(Event(RequestToSend) //There is a packet to send

GetData(); //takes a data packet from

the network layer

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MakeFrame(); //adds a header and

delimiter flags to the data
packet to make a frame
SendFrame(); //delivers the frame to the
physical layer for
transmission.
}
}

Algorithm 2 The simplest protocol has a receiver-site algorithm.

while(true) //repeat forever

{
WaitForEvent(); //Sleep until an event occurs
if(Event(Arrivalnotification) //There is a packet to send
{
ReceiveFrame(); //receives the frame from the
physical layer
ExtractData(); //extracts the data from the
frame
Deliverdata(); //delivers the data to the
network layer.
}
}
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
When data frames arrive at the receiver site quicker than they can be processed, they must be stored
before they are needed. The recipient, in most cases, does not have enough storage capacity,
particularly if it is processing data from multiple sources. Frames may be discarded or service may
be denied as a result of this. To keep the recipient from becoming overburdened for pictures, we need
to advise the sender to slow down in some way. There has to be more. The sender receives input
from the recipient. The Stop-and-Wait Protocol gets its name from the fact that the sender sends one
frame, waits for clarification from the recipient (all right, go ahead), and then sends the next frame.
Data frames remain unidirectional, but auxiliary ACK frames (simple tokens of acknowledgment)
are sent in the opposite direction.

Example

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Figure 27 Stop and Wait Protocol

Figure 27 plays a collaboration sample using this protocol. It's all quite straightforward. The sender
sends one frame and waits for the receiver's answer. When the ACK comes up, the next frame is sent
by the sender. It's worth noting that sending two frames in the protocol puts the sender in
danger. The sender is involved in four cases, while the recipient is involved in two.

6.8 NOISY CHANNELS

Since the Stop-and-Wait Protocol demonstrates how to incorporate flow control into it, Noiseless
channels, unlike their predecessors, do not exist. We may choose to dismiss the mistake (as we always
do). We either need to apply error management to our protocols (which we don't), or we need to add
error control to our protocols.

Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request

The Stop-and-Wait Automatic Repeat Request (Stop-and-Wait ARQ) is our first protocol, which
applies a basic error control feature to the Stop-and-Wait Protocol. Let's take a look at how this
protocol does error detection and correction. We need to apply redundancy bits to our data frame to
find and repair corrupted frames. Frames that have been lost are more difficult to deal with than
those that have been corrupted. In previous protocols, we used There was no way to tell what frame
it was. It's possible that the obtained frame is the right one. or a copy, or an out-of-order frame To
solve the problem, number the frames. When it comes to the When a recipient gets an out-of-order
data frame, it means the frames were either sent in the wrong order or were sent in the wrong order.
duplicated or misplaced.
In this protocol, the completed and lost frames must be resent. If the recipient agrees, If the sender
does not react when an error occurs, how can the sender know which frames to resend? To To avoid
this, the sender saves a copy of the sent frame. It begins at the same time. Since an ACK frame can be
corrupted and lost, it needs redundancy bits as well. as well as a series number This protocol's ACK
frame includes a sequence number region. In this protocol, the sender actually discards or rejects a
compromised ACK frame. One that is out of order.

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Figure 28 Stop and Wait ARQ

In Figure 28, frame an is submitted and accepted as an indication of Stop-and-Wait ARQ. After the
time-out, frame 1 is missed and resent. The timer is stopped after the received frame 1 is
acknowledged. The frame has been submitted and accepted, but the acknowledgement has been
misplaced. Since the sender has no way of knowing if the frame or the acknowledgment has been
lost, it resends frame 0, which is accepted, after the time-out.

Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat Request

Many frames must be in transition when waiting for acknowledgement to increase transmission
performance (filling the pipe). To put it another way, we need to keep the channel busy while the
sender waits for acknowledgement by allowing several frames to be outstanding. Go-Back-N
Automatic Repeat Request is the only . We will send several frames in this protocol before collecting
acknowledgements, and we hold a backup of these frames before the acknowledgements arrive.

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Figure 29 Go-Back-N ARQ

Selective-Repeat ARQ
The go-back-n protocol works well when errors are low, but it loses a lot of bandwidth on
retransmitted frames when the line is poor. The selective repeat protocol is an alternative technique
that allows the receiver to accept and buffer frames after a broken or missing one.
discerning Retransmit only those packets that are currently missing (due to errors) a second time:
The receiver must be able to accept out-of-order packets.
Since packets must be released in order to the higher layer, the recipient must be able to buffer any
packets.

Retransmission requests:
Implicit – The receiver accepts any positive packet; packets that do not receive an ACK before the
timeout are considered to be missing or incorrect. It's worth noting that this method must be used to
ensure that any packet is obtained at some stage.
Explicit NAK (selective reject) – An explicit NAK (selective reject) can only request the
retransmission of one packet. This method might speed up the retransmission, but it isn't strictly
necessary. In reality, one or both methods are used.

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Selective Repeat Protocol

Except that buffers are used and the recipient and sender each retain a window of space, this protocol
(SRP) is almost identical to the GBN protocol. Where the connection is extremely unreliable, SRP
works well.
Sender’s Windows ( Ws) = Receiver’s Windows ( Wr).

• In the SR protocol, the window size should be smaller than or equal to half the sequence
number. This is to prevent packets from being misidentified. If the windows size is greater
than half the sequence number space, the sender can send new packets that the receiver
interprets as retransmissions if an ACK is lost.
• The sender will send new packets as long as the total number of unacknowledged packets
is less than W.
• After a timeout – or a NAK if NAK is used – the sender retransmits un-ACKed packets.
• The right packets are acknowledged by the receiver.
• The receiver saves the right packets before they can be sent to the higher layer in time.
• The sender and receiver windows in Selective Repeat ARQ must be no more than one-half
of a metre wide.

Figure 30 Selective Repeat Protocol

Figure 30: Only frames for which a NAK is sent are retransmitted by the sender.
The Selective Repeat Protocol (SRP) has the same utility as the GO-Back-N protocol.
Efficiency = N/(1+2a)
Where a = Propagation delay / Transmission delay
Buffers = N + N
Sequence number = N (sender side) + N (Receiver Side)

Piggybacking
Data frames flow in only one direction in the three protocols we discussed in this section, though
control information such as ACK and NAK frames will pass in both directions. Data frames flow in
both ways in real life: from node A to node B and from node B to node A. This necessitates the flow
of control knowledge in both directions. Piggybacking is a method for increasing the reliability of
bidirectional protocols. When a frame carries data from point A to point B, it can also carry control
information about arrived (or lost) frames from point B; when a frame carries data from point B to
point A, it can also carry control information about arrived (or lost) frames from point A.

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Figure 31 Design of piggybacking in Go-Back-NARQ

Figure 31 shows a specification for a Go-Back-N ARQ that uses piggybacking. Each node now has
two windows: one for sending and one for receiving data. Both include the use of a timer. Request,
entry, and time-out are three forms of incidents in which all are concerned. The arrival case, on the
other hand, is complicated; when a frame arrives, the site must manage all control details and the
frame itself.
All of these issues must be addressed in a single situation: the arrival event. At each location, the
request event only uses the send window; the arrival event requires both windows. The fact that all
pages would use the same algorithm is a vital aspect of piggybacking. Since it would merge two
arrival events into one, this algorithm is difficult.

Self-Assessment
1. Which can be used as an intermediate device in between transmitter entity and receiver entity?
a) IP router
b) Microwave router
c) Telephone switch
d) All of the mentioned
2. Which is more efficient?
a) Parity check
b) Cyclic redundancy check
c) Parity & Cyclic redundancy check
d) None of the mentioned
3. CRC uses
a) Multiplication
b) Binary division
c) Multiplication & Binary division
d) None of the mentioned
4. In ___________ coding, we divide our message into blocks, each of k bits,called _____________.

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a) block; blockwords
b) linear; datawords
c) block; datawords
d) none of the above
5. Checksums use _________ arithmetic.

a) one’s complement arithmetic

b) two’s complement arithmetic
c) either (a) or (b)
d) none of the above
6. The checksum of 1111 and 1111 is _________.

a) 0000
b) 1111
c) 1110
d) 0111
7. In cyclic redundancy checking, the divisor is _______ the CRC.

a) one bit less than

b) one bit more than
c) The same size as
d) none of the above
8. In cyclic redundancy checking, what is the CRC?

a) The quotient
b) The dividend
c) The divisor
d) The remainder
9. Stop and Wait Automatic Repeat request is a special case of

a) simplest protocol
b) Go Back-N Automatic Repeat request
c) Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request
d) stop and wait
10. The send window in the Go-Back-N Protocol is an abstract conceot defining an imaginary box
with

a) one variable
b) two variables
c) three variables
d) four variables
11. The stop and wait uses the link of

a) modulation
b) full duplex
c) half duplex
d) de modulation
12. In block coding, we divide our message into blocks, is called

a) code blocks

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b) packet blocks
c) code words
d) data words

Answers: Self-Assessment

1. d 2. b 3. c 4. c

5. a 6. a 7. b 8. d

9. b 10. c 11. c 12. d

Summary
• The strategies for gaining access to a shared communication channel and ensuring secure
data transfer are described in the data link layer. Framing, checksums, error detection and
correction, acknowledgment, flow control, and encapsulating packets from the network
layer to frames are some of its key responsibilities.
• Unacknowledged connectionless service, acknowledged connectionless service, and
acknowledged connection-oriented service are all provided by the data link layer.
• The simplest type of error detection is parity check, which requires the receiver to count
only the number of 1s in the obtained data stream with an additional parity bit.
• A checksum is a basic redundancy scan that is used to find data errors.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check is a method for adding a data string to packets of information
that can be used to detect errors in the data packets that is commonly used in computer
networks.
• On an error-free communication channel, the Stop and Wait protocol is the simplest to adopt
and proves to be the most effective. An error-free contact channel, on the other hand, is
virtually impossible.
• The Go Back N protocol necessitates buffer management, making it difficult to maintain
source and destination devices in line. It's actually the least effective since it retransmits all
subsequent frames in the event of a frame failure, wasting a lot of bandwidth.
• Selective Repeat is an enhancement of the Go Back N protocol that attempts to make more
usage of bandwidth by reducing the amount of retransmissions by retransmitting just one
frame rather than the whole sequence. As a result, Selective Repeat is a safer option.

Keywords
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol that links two communicating link-
level peers at either end of a point-to-point link.
Selective Repeat: Provides buffers at the source and destination hosts, allowing the source node to
provide multiple remaining frames at the same time and the destination node to accept out-of-order
frames and store them in its window.
Simplex is a term that refers to Stop and Wait: After propagation, the source node waits for the
destination node to accept it. Following receipt of the acknowledgment, the loop is repeated again
Checksum: An algorithm for calculating the binary values in a packet or other block of data and
storing the results with the data to correlate with a new checksum at the other end.

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Cyclic Redundancy Check: A method for adding a data string to information packets that can be used
to find errors in the data packets.
Error management entails sequencing frames and submitting confirmation control frames.
Controlling the rate of data transfer between two source and destination hosts is referred to as flow
control.
Framing: The data link layer splits the bit stream into frames to provide a secure transmission of bit
streams to the network layer.
Go Back N: Using buffers, the Go Back N protocol allows the source computer to have multiple
outstanding frames at the same time.
Even parity and odd parity methods are used in parity checks. The receiver's procedure is
straightforward since it just has to count the number of 1s in the obtained data stream with the
inclusion of a parity bit.
Acknowledged Connectivity-oriented Operation: Before any data transfer, the data link layer offers
this service to the network layer by creating a connection between the source and destination hosts.
Acknowledged Connectionless Service: When each frame transmitted between two hosts is sent
correctly, it is referred to as acknowledged connectionless service.

Review Questions
1. What is the data link protocol?
2. What advantages does Selective Repeat sliding window protocol offer over Go Back N
protocol?
3. What is the purpose of flow control?
4. Describe how does finite state machine model carry out protocol verification?
5. What are different data link protocols available? Why does PPP have become popular?
6. Explain error detection techniques.
7. Explain hamming code with example.

Further/Suggested Readings
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.
• Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and
Networking, McGraw-Hill Companies.
• Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media,
McGraw-Hill Osborne Media.
• Rajneesh Agrawal and Bharat Bhushan Tiwari, Computer Networks and Internet,
Vikas Publication
• https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-network-tutorials/

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

Unit 07: Data Link Layer-medium access protocol

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 History of HDLC
7.2 Point-to-Point Protocol
7.3 Multiple Access Protocols in Computer Network
7.4 Random-access protocols
7.5 Controlled access
7.6 Channelization Protocols
Summary
Keywords
Self Assessment
Answers for Self Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings

Objectives
• understand bit-oriented protocol.
• know the frame format and types of HDLC and PPP frame.

• understand multiple access protocol.

Introduction
The frame is clearly viewed as a set of bits with no semantics or context in a bit based approach.
Regardless of the frame contents, a bit oriented protocol can switch data frames. HDLC is a bit-
oriented protocol.

HDLC
HDLC stands for high-level Data Link Control protocol, which ensures that data frames are
delivered reliably over a network or communication link. HDLC also offers framing, data
transparency, error detection and correction, and even flow management, among other things.

7.1 History of HDLC

Let's look at the history of HDLC. The synchronous Data Link Control protocol, developed by IBM,
is an example of a bit based protocol. The SDLC is currently standardised as HDLC synchronous
Data Link Control, who standardises as an HDLC. The SDLC was standardised by the ISO as the
high level Data Link Control protocol, and SDLC is really important for the data link layer. It is not
commonly used, but it is critical for many data link layer protocols. It's a bit-oriented protocol that
can be used for point-to-point and multi-point communication.

Transfer mode of HDLC

As you can see in the Figure 1, HDLC has two transfer modes: normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode. There are two kinds of stations in normal response mode. A primary
station sends orders, and a secondary station responds to the commands sent. In point-to-point and
multi-point correspondence, the normal response mode is used. Asynchronous Balanced mode is
when the setup is balanced, which ensures that each station can send and receive commands. It is
only used for one-to-one correspondence.

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HDLC Frame format

The first is the beginning sequence, which is 8 bits long and shows you how many bits will be used
to indicate the start and end of the frame as seen in . This is also known as the flag bits, and it
consists of eight bits, meaning that this is the start of the series. After that, there's a 16-bit header.
Your body sections, which are variable in volume, are the third one. We can't define the scale since
the body is so big. This body one would receive whatever data it receives from the network layer.
The CRC stands for error detection with cyclic redundancy scan, and it has a 16-bit duration. Then
comes the ending sequence, which is eight bits long and indicates the end of the frame; the starting
and ending sequences are both 06 times one and none. This sequence is also sent while the
connection is idle such that the sender and receiver's clocks remain in sync. The starting and ending
sequences are 0, 6 times one, then zero.

Figure 2 HDLC Frame format

During some times when the connection is idle, this sequence is also transmitted. Why? So that the
sender and receiver can keep their clocks synchronized. The next field is the header, which I've
already showed you, followed by the address and control fields, which hold the address and
control foot. And there's the body, which is a variable-size payload of whatever data we're getting
from the satellite. The next section is the shell, which is a variable-size payload information that any
data we get from the network layer will be inserted into this body one CRC cyclic redundancy
search error detection mechanism. We've already seen that any data is collected from the network
layer in the datalink layer is added to the header and the trailer trailer, which are the error
detection bits and CRC. So, header refers to the header, and trailer header refers to the trailer
header, which has a 16-bit CRC. A trailer is what we call it in this country. Error correction parts
will be used in the teaser.

Types of HDLC Frame

There are two fields in the HDLC frame format header: one is known as the address field, and the
other is known as the control field. So, what is the purpose of a control field? The purpose is to
define the type of HDLC frame.

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Figure 3 Types of Frames

It's as if you're trying to figure out what kind of HDLC frame you have. The control field
determines the frame class, and the control field is, in turn, a part of the header. So there are three
different kinds of HDLC frames: I-frame, S-frame, and U-frame as shown in Figure 4. The
knowledge frame is also known as the I-frame. A supervisor frame is also known as a S frame.
Unnumbered frames are also known as U-frames.

st
I-Frame 1 bit is 0

st
S-Frame 1 two bits is 10

st
U-Frame 1 two bits is 11

Figure 4 Types of HDLC Frames

The control field determines the frame forms. As you can see in the table, we have an I-frame, an S-
frame, and a U-frame. An I-frame is one in which the first bit in the control field is zero; an S-frame
is one in which the first bit in the control field is one zero; and a U-frame is one in which the first
two bits or one zero is in the control field. It's a S frame in a U frame, which stands for unnumbered
frame. A unnumbered frame is one in which the first bit is one.If the first bit in the control field is
zero, the frame is an Iframe, which means it carries information. If the first two bits in the control
field are one, zero, the frame is a supervisor frame.So, the supervisor frame plays a part in error
management and flow control systems, and the third one is the unnumbered frame. It's used for a
variety of tasks, including connection management.

Byte Oriented Protocol

Consider the frame as a string of bytes or a character. That is why, as we discussed in the previous
lecture, it is often regarded as a character-oriented approach.
In general, we have three protocols.
BISYNC -> PPP -> Binary Synchronous Communication Protocol
PPP -> Point-to-Point Protocol.
DDCMP -> Message Protocol for Digital Data Communication

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7.2 Point-to-Point Protocol

It is a data link layer protocol that is available. The Point to Point Protocol (PPP) is a van protocol
that is widely used over internet connections. When we say "internet connections," we're referring
to two routers. The Point to Point Protocol (P2P) is a commonly used protocol. It's also known as
the van protocol. Since there are two major applications for the Point to Point Protocol.the two most
popular applications It's commonly used in internet networks that have a lot of traffic and a lot of
speed. Obviously, the internet is one of the stuff that has a high load and a fast pace at the same
time. It's often used to send data from two multipoint-to-point computers, or two computers that
are directly connected.

Components of PPP
• Encapsulation Component
• Link Control Protocol (LCP)
• Authentication Protocols (AP)
• Network Control Protocols (NCPs)

Encapsulation Component
It encapsulates data grams in order for them to be transferred over this physical layer.

Link Control Protocol (LCP)

It is in charge of creating, configuring, checking, maintaining, and terminating connections, as well
as negotiating ties. It also makes use of functionality across two end point connections.

Authentication Protocols (AP)

Password authentication protocol and challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol, also known
as PAP protocol and CHAP protocol, are two authenticated protocols of Point to Point Protocol that
authenticate endpoints for usage of services. The acronyms PAP and CHAP stand for Password
Authentication Protocol and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol, respectively.

Network Control Protocols (NCPs)

The conditions and services for the networks are negotiated using this protocol.

Frame format of PPP

PPP frames are typically used to encapsulate packets of data or information that only contain
configuration data or data. PPP is based on the same fundamental format as HDLC. PPP usually
has one more field, the protocol field. After the control field and before the input or data field, this
protocol field appears.

Figure 5 Frame format of PPP

Flag field –
PPP frames are identical to HDLC frames in that they both begin and end with the regular HDLC
flag. It always has a 1-byte value, which is 01111110 in binary.
Address filed –
The address field essentially serves as a transmitted address. All 1's basically means that all of the
stations are able to embrace frame in this case. It has a 1-byte value, or 11111111 binary value.
Specific station addresses are not given or assigned by PPP, on the other hand.

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Control filed –
In HDLC, this area primarily uses the U-frame (Unnumbered frame) format. The control field is
needed for various purposes in HDLC, but in PPP, it is set to 1 bit, or the binary value 00000011.
This 1 byte is used for a data link that does not need a connection.
Protocol field –
This area essentially defines the datagram's network protocol. It usually determines the type of
packet in the data field, or what is being transported in the data field. This field is 1 or 2 bytes long
and is used to identify the PDU (Protocol Data Unit) encapsulated by the PPP frame.
Data filed –
It normally includes the datagram from the upper layer. For standard PPP data frames, the network
layer datagram is especially encapsulated in this region. The length of this field varies rather than
being continuous.
FCS filed –
This area normally includes a checksum for the purpose of detecting errors. It can be 16 bits or 32
bits in length. It's even done on the address, access, protocol, and also information fields.
Characters are applied to the frame for monitoring and error management.

Byte Stuffing in PPP frame

When the flag sequence appears in the packet, byte stuffing is used in the PPP payload field such
that the recipient does not believe it to be the end of the frame. Each byte that comprises the same
byte as the flag byte or the escape byte has the escape byte, 01111101, packed before it. Before
transferring the message into the network layer, the receiver extracts the escape byte.

7.3 Multiple Access Protocols in Computer Network

The Data Link Layer is responsible for transmission of data between two nodes. Its main functions
are-

• Data Link Control

• Multiple Access Control

Data Link control –

The data link control is responsible for reliable transmission of message over transmission channel
by using techniques like framing, error control and flow control. For Data link control refer to –
Stop and Wait ARQ

Multiple Access Control –

If the sender and receiver have a dedicated connection, the data link control layer is sufficient; but,
if the sender and receiver do not have a dedicated link, several stations will reach the channel at the
same time. To reduce collisions and prevent crosstalk, multiple access protocols are needed.When
an instructor asks a question in a classroom full of students, and all of the students (or stations)
begin responding at the same time (send data at the same time), a lot of confusion is generated
(data duplication or data loss). It is then the teacher's task (multiple access protocols) to control the
students and get them answer one at a time.For data sharing on non-dedicated networks, protocols
are thus necessary. Multiple control protocols can be further broken down into the following
subcategories:

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Figure 6 Multiple Access protocols

7.4 Random-access protocols

It manages station connection to the transmission line. It sends out a connection that necessitates
the use of an access control system. As a result, random access protocols are used. We use a variety
of methods. So, Aloha CSMA, CSMA CD, and CSMA CA, respectively.

(a) ALOHA
It was created for a wireless LAN, but it can also be used for a shared medium. Multiple stations
will relay data at the same time in this scenario. This is why, in this situation, we are confronted
with a crash and data that is jumbled. If you can see in the Figure 7, if two cars begin transmitting
data at the same time or begin using the station at the same time, there is a risk of a crash.

Figure 7 Collision

If more than one station begins using the channel at the same time, a collision can occur. There are
two separate interpretations of aloha. One is pure Aloha. The second is slotted ALOHA as shown in
Figure 8.

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Figure 8 Different versions of ALOHA

Pure Aloha
When a station transmits data, it waits for a response. If the acknowledgment does not arrive
within the allotted time, the station waits a random period of time (Tb) before re-sending the
results. Since multiple stations take varying amounts of time to wait, the chances of another
collision are reduced.
Vulnerable Time = 2* Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-2*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.184 for G=0.5

Slotted Aloha
It's equivalent to pure aloha, except that we split time into slots and data can only be sent at the
start of each slot. If a station runs out of time, it must wait for the next available slot. This lowers the
chances of a crash.
Vulnerable Time = Frame transmission time
Throughput = G exp{-*G}
Maximum throughput = 0.368 for G=1

Difference between Pure Aloha and Slotted Aloha

The difference between pure aloha and slotted aloha is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Pure Aloha vs Slotted Aloha

(b) CSMA
Since the station must first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data, Carrier
Sense Multiple Access means less collisions. It sends data if the channel is idle; otherwise, it waits
for the channel to become idle. However, because of the propagation delay, there is also a risk of a
collision in CSMA.

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For example: Station A will first feel the medium before sending results. It will begin transmitting
data if the channel is found to be idle. If station B asks to send data and senses the medium, it will
also find it idle and send data by the time the first bit of data is sent (delayed due to propagation
delay) from station A. As a consequence, data from stations A and B will collide.
CSMA access methods: -
1-persistent: The node detects the channel and sends the data if it is idle; otherwise, it
continuously checks the medium for idleness and transmits unconditionally(with 1 probability)
when the channel becomes idle.
Non-persistent: If the channel is idle, the node sends the data; if not, it tests the medium after a
random period of time (not continuously) and transmits when it is found idle.
P-persistent: The node detects the medium and, if it is idle, sends data with a probability of p. If
the data isn't sent ((1-p) chance), it waits a while and then scans the medium again; if it's already
idle, it sends with p probability. This process is repeated before the frame is submitted. Wifi and
packet radio networks both use it.
O-persistent: The superiority of nodes is determined ahead of time, and transmission takes place
in that order. Node waits for its time slot to transmit data if the medium is idle.

(c) CSMA/CD
Carrier detects multiple entry points and detects collisions. If a collision is observed, stations may
stop data transmission.

(d) CSMA/CA
Multiple access is detected by the carrier, and collisions are avoided. The sender receives
recognition signals as part of the collision detection process. The data is successfully transmitted if
there is only one signal (its own), so if there are two signals (its own and the one with which it
collided), a collision has occurred.

7.5 Controlled access

In monitored access, the stations exchange data to determine which station has the authority to
transmit. To stop message collisions on shared medium, it only requires one node to send at a time.
The three controlled-access methods are:

• Reservation
• Polling
• Token Passing

Reservation
Until sending info, a station must make a reservation using the reservation process. There are two
types of periods on the timeline:
1. A fixed-length reservation interval
2. Variable frame data transfer time

Polling
The polling procedure is similar to a roll call in class. A handler, like the coach, sends a message to
each node in turn.
One serves as the main station (controller), while the others serve as secondary stations. Both data
must be exchanged via the controller. The address of the node being chosen for access is included
in the message received by the controller.
While all nodes receive the message, only the one to which it is sent responds and sends data, if
any. If there is no evidence, a “poll reject” (NAK) message is normally returned as shown in Figure
10 and Figure 9.The polling messages have a high overhead, and the controller's reliability is highly
dependent.

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Figure 10 Polling (a) Figure 9 Polling (b)

Token passing
The stations in a token passing scheme are theoretically bound to one another in the form of a loop,
and station access is controlled by tokens.
A token is a small message or a special bit pattern that circulates from one station to the next in a
predetermined order.
Tokens are exchanged from one station to the next in the ring in the case of Token ring, while in the
case of Token bus, each station uses the bus to transfer tokens to the next station in a predetermined
order.
In all instances, the token denotes the ability to submit. When a station receives the token and has a
frame queued for transmission, it will transfer the frame before passing the token to the next
station. If there is no queued loop, it merely transfers the token as seen in Figure 11.
Following the transmission of a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to
send the token to their neighbors, as well as the other N – 1 station to send a frame if they have one.
There are issues such as token duplication or loss, insertion of a new station, and replacement of a
station that must be addressed in order for this scheme to operate correctly and reliably.

Figure 11 Token Passing

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7.6 Channelization Protocols

The usable bandwidth of the link is shared in time, frequency, and code among multiple stations to
allow them to access the channel at the same time.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

The usable spectrum is split into equivalent bands, allowing each station to have its own band. To
stop crosstalk and disruption, guard bands have been added to ensure that no two bands overlap.

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

The bandwidth is used by a number of different stations. To prevent collisions, time is split into
slots, and stations are assigned to relay data during these slots. However, there is a synchronisation
overhead since each station must know the time slot. Add synchronisation bits to each slot solves
this issue. Another problem with TDMA is propagation delay, which can be overcome by using
guard bands.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

Both signals are carried on a single channel at the same time. There is no such thing as bandwidth
or time division. If there are several people in a room speaking at the same time, for example,
flawless data reception is also possible if only two people talk the same language. Similarly, data
from several stations can be broadcast in various code languages at the same time.

Summary
• The data link layer is divided into two sub layers. The upper sub layer is in charge of data
link management, while the lower sub layer is in charge of addressing mutual media
connectivity.
• The Finite State Machine model is a technique for verifying the protocol's correctness. The
data link protocols PPP and HDLC are commonly used.
• Bluetooth is a proprietary open wireless technology protocol for transmitting data over
short distances (using short wavelength radio communications in the ISM band from 2400
to 2480 MHz) between fixed and mobile devices, allowing for the development of highly
secure personal area networks (PANs).
• In CSMA/CA, the sender collects the acknowledgement to identify potential collisions,
and if there is just one acknowledgement present (its own), the data-frame has been
transmitted successfully.
• Until submitting info, a station must make a reservation using the reservation access
system. Intervals are used to divide time. A reservation frame precedes the data frames
sent in that interval in each interval.

Keywords
Point-to-Point (PPP): It's a data link layer protocol that links two connecting link-level peers at
either end of the link over a point-to-point link.
Aloha: Multiple access (MA) to the shared medium is possible with ALOHA. This arrangement has
the potential for collisions. When one station sends data, another can try to send data at the same
time. The data from the two stations clash, resulting in a jumbled mess.
CSMA: Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) adds collision detection
to the CSMA algorithm. After sending a picture, a station tracks the medium to see if the
transmission was accurate. If that's the case, the station is over. If there is a collision, though, the
frame is sent again.
Controlled access: In controlled access, the stations confer to determine who has the authority to
deliver. It is not possible for a station to submit until it has received permission from other stations.
Channelization: Channelization is a multiple-access system in which a link's usable bandwidth is
exchanged between separate stations in terms of time, distance, or code.

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FDMA: The usable spectrum is split into frequency bands in frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA). A band is assigned to each station for data transmission. To put it another way, each band
is assigned to a particular station and remains with that station at all times.
CDMA: To gain multiple access in code-division multiple access (CDMA), the stations use separate
codes. CDMA is based on coding theory and employs number sequences known as chips.

Self Assessment
1. ...................... describes the techniques to access a shared communication channel and
reliable transmission of data frame in computer communication environment.
2. ...................... does not include any connection setup or release and does not deal with frame
recovery due to channel noise.
3. ...................... refers to a reliable transfer of bit streams to the network layer for which the
data link layer breaks the bit stream into frames.
4. ...................... controls mismatch between the source and destination hosts data sending and
receiving speed and therefore dropping of packets at the receiver end.
5. We have categorized access methods into _________ groups
a. Two
b. Three
c. Four
d. Five
6. In _______, the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time.
a. FDMA
b. CDMA
c. TDMA
d. none of the above
7. In the _______ method, the stations in a network are organized in a logical ring.
a. Polling
b. token passing
c. reservation
d. none of the above
8. _________ augments the CSMA algorithm to detect collision.
a. CSMA/CD
b. CSMA/CA
c. either (a) or (b)
d. both (a) and (b)
9. In the _________ method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame
immediately. If the line is not idle, it continuously senses the line until it finds it idle.
a. p-persistent
b. non persistent
c. 1-persistent
d. none of the above
10. In the _____ method, time is divided into intervals. In each interval, a reservation frame
precedes the data frames sent in that interval.
a. token passing
b. Reservation
c. Polling
d. none of the above
11. In the _______ method, each station has a predecessor and a successor.

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Data Communication and Networking

a. token passing
b. polling
c. reservation
d. none of the above
12. The vulnerable time for CSMA is the ________propagation time.
a. three times
b. two times
c. the same as
d. none of the above

Answers for Self Assessment

1. Data link 2. Unacknowledged 3. framing 4. Rate of data 5. A

layer connectionless transmission
sevice

6. C 7. B 8. A 9. C 10. B

11. A 12. C

Review Questions
1. What is the data link protocol?
2. List three categories of multiple access protocols.

3. How can a collision be avoided in CSMA/CD network?

4. Compare and contrast CSMA/CD and token passing access methods.

5. Is Slotted Aloha always better than Aloha? Explain your answer with justification.

6. How does PPP transmit data grams over serial point-to-point links?

7. How does PPP establish link for authenticated transfer of file?

8. What are different data link protocols available? Why does PPP have become popular?

9. How does the data link layer accomplish the transmission of data from the source network

layer to the destination network layer?

10. Compare and contrast a random-access protocol with a channelizing protocol.

11. Do we need a multiple access protocol when we use the local loop of the telephone
company to access the Internet? Why?
12. Define channelization and list three protocols in this category

Further Readings
Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and

Networking, McGraw-Hill Companies.

J. D. Spragins, Telecommunications Protocols and Design, Addison-Wesley.

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Unit 08: Network layer - logical addressing

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 IP address and its full form
8.2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPV6
8.3 Classful Addressing
8.4 Classless Addressing
8.5 Subnetting
8.6 Network Address Translation
8.7 Address Resolution protocol
8.8 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self Assessment
Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• what is an IP address?
• types of IP address.
• how to find the public IP address
• classification of IP addresses
• comparison between ipv4 and ipv6
• understand Classful Addressing and classless addressing
• understand NAT, ICMP, ARP, and RARP

Introduction
How can you locate your computer's or smartphone's IP address? Computers on the internet
connection with one another through underground or underwater cables, as well as wirelessly. If I
want to copy a file from the internet, I think my machine has to have a URL so that other computers
on the internet can identify and locate it. In Internet terms, a computer's address is known as an IP
address; an IP address is essentially a device's identity; without an IP address, no system can connect
with another on the internet. Let's look at another case to better explain what an IP address is. Assume
if anyone wishes to deliver mail here and needs a home address. You must have a home address to
deliver mail to others. Similarly, whether you want to send or communicate with the machine's
programs, or if you want to copy something from any internet-connected device to your machine,
the computer requires an address as seen in Figure 1.

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Figure 1 Comparison of a home address with IP address

Such that machines on the internet give you a file that you wish to download, that address is called
an IP address in internet terms. An IP address is nothing more than a set of numbers written in a
certain format. Now, this is your home address, as determined by your local postman, and it is to this
address that you receive all mail. And your home's identity is based on its address. Someone would
like to deliver a message. So, the postman will send the letter to you because they know this is the
address and we have to bring this letter to this same address. Similarly, the machine has an IP address
that is used to identify it on the internet, and you have access to all downloadable files. This
computer's address is: As a result, this is the system's IP address.

8.1 IP address and its full form

The Internet Protocol Address is the entire version of the IP address. What exactly is the concept of
Internet Protocol? The Internet Protocol (IP) is a series of laws that govern how the Internet functions.

Figure 2 IP Address

Two Types of IP Addresses

So now we have two kinds of IP addresses, one for IP version four and the other for IP version six as
seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Two types of IP Address

What exactly is IP version 4? Why have we gone on to IP version six while we have IP version four?
But, first and foremost, let's define IP version four. The full form of IP version four is internet protocol

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version four, which consists of four numbers separated by a dot and dot n dot n dot n, which means
there are four numbers separated by a dot operator as seen below.

The IP address is made up of numbers in the range of zero 0 to 255. On 192.168.0.1, I can write.
However, if I send a message to 256.168.0.1, this is an invalid IP address since the range should be
between 0 and 255. However, machines are incapable of comprehending decimal numbers. Since
we're written in decimal numbers, then every range we're writing in between 0 and 255 is in decimal
numbers. Computers, on the other hand, do not grasp decimal numbers so they are perplexed by
them. So, what is the answer to this? As a result, we must translate these decimal numbers into binary
numbers that the machine can comprehend. As a result, the binary spectrum can be written as shown
in Figure 4.

Figure 4 IP in Binary Form

So IP version four is a 32-bit address, which is a special sequence of ones or zeros allocated to each
computer; we call it unique since no two devices will use the same IP address as seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5 IP is a 32-bit address

That is why it is referred to as a specific address. Any device connecting to the internet will have a
different IP address. They have a specific IP address any time they connect to the internet. So, the
question now is how many devices they can address. As a result, a total of 2power32, or roughly 4
billion computers, can be addressed and wired to the internet. Version four of IP. But it's only capable
of addressing 4 billion devices. As a result, we can only bind 4 billion computers as shown below.

ISSUE with 32-bit IPv4

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Nowadays, every machine, every user, has a laptop, tabs, and several devices; they have a desktop,
their desktop, and they use smartphones as well. As a result, they like the IP address of any device.
Also in today's world, not every machine is present in every household. Everyone has their scheme.
Everyone has their smart screen much of the time. They want to connect to the internet, and to do so,
they would need IP addresses. As a result, IP version four will not be able to supply IP addresses to
all of them because it can only communicate with 4 billion addresses. As a result, it can only have 4
billion addresses. So far, we've surpassed the 4 billion mark, and we're on our way to IP version six.

IPv6
Let's take a look at IP version six now. IP version 6 is a 128-bit address written as a series of eight
hexadecimal digits separated by the column in human-readable mode. IP version six can be written
as, as you can see here, in a human-readable format. However, computers do not understand
hexadecimal, so we must convert it back to binary. It'll be divided into 128 ones and zeros. Since each
device linked to the internet is given this sequence of zeros and ones, since no two machines should
be allocated the same IP address, this is a special series number. In this example, IP version four is
the same, so both would be unique. With IP version six, 2128 computers to the internet.
This is the value that has been seen here: 2 power of 128 equals as seen in Equation 1. So, with this
many addresses, it will address this many devices. This importance indicates that it can handle this
many computers, which is much more than sufficient for future generations.

Equation 1

How to Find Your Computer Public IP Address?

So, first and foremost, go to Google and type in "what is my IP." As you can see, we've opened Google
and are typing in "what is my IP." As a result, it will show your public IP address. Even now, the
only concern is how you'll search your smartphone's public IP address.

Figure 6 What is my IP

So, in Google, write down my IP address. As a result, Google will inform you of your smartphone's
public IP address. One very important thing to remember is that we won't be able to connect to the
internet without IP versions four and six; an IP address is needed for an internet connection. You
believe that if you don't have an IP address, you won't be able to log in to the internet, which means
you won't be able to download or upload something, and you won't be able to check something. But
you'll need an IP address if you want to connect to the internet.

Classification of IP Addresses
IP addresses are divided into two categories: dynamic IP addresses and static IP addresses.

Dynamic IP Address
When you bind your device or smartphone to the internet, this is what happens. Then there's Internet
Service Provider ISP, which is a company that provides an IP address from a pool of valid IP
addresses. You have an IP address, then you can connect to the internet. Once connected, you can
transmit and receive data to and from other devices on the internet. So, the next time you want to
connect to the Internet, do so. ISP will assign you a new IP address with the same availability set,
which is why it is called dynamic. Dynamic means that it changes all of the time. DHCP assigns a
unique IP address to every device.

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Figure 7 Dynamic IP Address

Static IP Address
It is the only other classification that remains constant. Who is using this static IP address and who
are the domain name servers that are using this IP address? What is the DNS server actually, these
are the computers that help you to open a website on your computer?
A static IP address provides information, such as the device is located in which continent. In which
country, which city, and which is the internet service provider, that is providing the internet
connection to that device.

Figure 8 Example of Static IP Address

It is an internet service provider that assigns IP addresses to computers so that they can connect to
the Internet. We can monitor the location of a computer connecting to the internet until we know the
ISP. As a result, IP addresses allow billions of devices to be identified. What is the disadvantage of
using a static IP address? One of the most significant disadvantages is that it is less safe so it is easy
to trace. As a result, we can classify it as less stable.

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8.2 Comparison between IPv4 and IPV6

Table 1 shows the differences between IPv4 and IPv6.

Table 1 Comparison between IPv4 and IPv6

8.3 Classful Addressing

From 1981 before Classless Inter-Domain Routing was implemented in 1993, classful addressing was
a network addressing the Internet's architecture. Centered on four address bits, this addressing
system splits the IP address into five distinct groups. Group A, B, C, D, and E are the five categories
in which classful addressing is divided. An IP address is a 32-bit unique address with a 2power32
address space.
In general, IP addresses are written in one of two ways: dotted decimal notation or hexadecimal
notation as seen in Figure 9. It means classful addressing can be represented in binary also, and it can
be represented as a decimal also.

Figure 9 Classful Addressing

Binary Notation

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In binary notation, the IP version four address is displayed as 32-bits each octet is often referred to
as a byte. So, it is common to hear an IP version four address refers to as a 32-bit address or a four-
byte address.
The following is an example of an IPv4 address in binary notation:
01110101 10010101 00011101 00000010
As a result, the IP version four address has been compressed and made easier to read. Internet
addresses are normally written with the decimal point dividing the bytes in decimal form.

Decimal Notation
So, we have two tools, one of which is binary and the other of which is decimal, and the same binary
is translated into decimal notation. So, there are two types of notations: dotted decimal and binary.

Figure 10 Notation for IPv4

As a result, the IP version four address has been compressed and made easier to read. Internet
addresses are normally written with the decimal point dividing the bytes in decimal form as seen in
Figure 10.

Important points to remember

1. There must be no leading zero (045).

2. There can be no more than four numbers in an IPv4 address.
3. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255 (301 is outside this range).
255.272.255.255

4. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed

172. 00101000. 254. 11001100

Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses

a. 111.56.045.78
b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14
d. 11100010.23.14.67

• When writing in decimal notation, it cannot be begun from zero like it is in the first one.
• It is divided into five octets in the B, so five octets are not allowed.
• The range for the third one should be between 0 and 255. The 301 series is not accurate.
• The fourth one uses a combination of binary and dotted decimal notation.

How would you be able to know to which class it belongs

When your IP address is written in binary notation and the first bit is 0, it means it's a class A address.
If the first two bits of your IP address are one zero, your IP address is classified as Class B. If the first
three bits of the binary notation are 110, It is classified as Class C. It belongs to Class D if the first four
bits are triple one and zero. It belongs to Class E if the first four bits are 11110 as seen in Figure 11.

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Figure 11 Class of the address in Classful Addressing

Example of Binary Notation

So, since the first bit is zero, it is classified as Class A. Let's look at another case. So far, only the first
three bits have been discovered. The first two bits are one, and the third bit is zero, indicating that
this is a Class C address as seen below in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Example of Binary Notation

Example of Dotted Decimal Notation

If my IP address is expressed in decimal form. So, how can I determine the class it belongs to? So,
there's a range, and it's divided into classes, and your IP addresses are divided into those classes. The
size of Class A is 0 to 127. Class B has a range of 128 to 191, Class C has a range of 192 to 223 and
Class D has a range of 224 to 239, and Class E has a range of 242 to 255.

Figure 13 Dotted Decimal Notation

So, if the first byte is 14, we now have a total of 14 bytes. It indicates that they fall within the range of
0 to 127, which is class A. 252, and that they fall within the range of 240 to 255, which is class E.

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Figure 14 Example of decimal notation

Division of Classes
How can we know which part is a network ID and which part is a host ID if groups are split into two
parts? The bits used for network ID and host ID, as well as the total number of networks and hosts
possible in that class, are determined by the IP address class. Each computer connecting to a network
is assigned an IP address by the ISP or network administrator. As a result, an IP address in class A,
B, or C is split into Net ID and host ID in a classful addressing scheme. The length of these pieces
varies depending on the address's class. So keep in mind that Class D and E are reserved addresses.

Figure 15 Division of Classes

Division in Class A
So, in class A, the first eight bits represent the net ID and the remaining bits represent the host ID;
the remaining bits representing host ID, so the host ID is represented by 24 bits as seen in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Division in Class A

Important Points about Class A

• IP address begins with 0

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• 7 remaining bits in the network part

o Only 128 possible class A networks.
• 24 bits in the local part
o Over 16 million hosts per class A network.
• All class A network parts are assigned or reserved
As you can see in Figure 16, zero to seven show the network element, so how many bits are there,
total eight bits, and how many bits are there for the host, 24 bits, so each block has eight bits and each
byte has eight bits, so eight plus eight plus eight equals 24 bits. But, as you can see, we're going to
represent it in binary notation, as you can see here.

Exceptions in the class A IP addresses

The term "exception" refers to the fact that there are certain networks that we are unable to access,
such as network 0, which is the default network. 127 is the loopback address, which is used to
determine if the network interface card is functioning correctly or not. It is also known as the
loopback address. Table 2 shows a summary of Class A IP Addresses.
Table 2 Summary of Class A IP Address

When a leading bit is 0, it indicates that the first bit should also be zero. The network number area is
eight characters long. The remainder of the bit is 24 network area, which means that it is first in the
network field, so all of the other bits represent the host, so 24 plus eight equals 32 number of networks
128 address per network two raised to the power of 24. But now we're using one to 126, which is the
range of classes zero to 127, except zero, is reserved for the default network and 127 is the loopback
address. But we might assume that we're using a scale of one to 126.

Division in Class B
The network portion is represented by the first 16 bits. The host part is represented by the next 16
pieces as seen in Figure 17. A balance between the number of networks and the number of hosts is
achieved by using 16 bits for the network portion and 16 bits for the host part.

Figure 17 Division in Class B

Important Points in Class B

• 16 bits for network part 16 bits for the host part

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• A balance between the number of networks and hosts.

st
• IP address begins with 10(1 zero in the second position)
• 14 remaining bits in the network part
o Over 16,000 possible class B network
• 16 bits in the local part
o Over 65,000 possible hosts
The network portion is represented by the first 16 bits. The host part is represented by the next 16 pieces. A
balance between the number of networks and the number of hosts is achieved by using 16 bits for the network
portion and 16 bits for the most part. So, in decimal notation, we'll write down more, such as several zero to
127 for class A, and 128 to 191 for class B. We've translated the binary to decimal, so 128 to 191 is the result
as seen in Figure 18.

Figure 18 Conversion to Decimal Notation

Exceptions in Class B Addresses

• Exceptions in Class B IP Address

o 169.254.x.x
• We never assigned this IP address to any host because this range reserve for APIPA.
o 169.254.x.x is a private IP Addressing space reserved by Microsoft which it assigns
automatically to your Network Adapter if it cannot get an IP Address from the
DHCP Server
Table 3 has a list of Class B. The first two bits should be one zero, as we remember. Only then may
we assume it is a Class B address, with a network number bit field of 16 bits and a text bit field of 16
bits. The number of networks can be represented by 2 power 14 and the number of addresses per
network by 2 power 16. As a result, the scale is 128 to 191.
Table 3 Summary of Class B IP Address

Division in Class C
When it comes to class C, the first 24 bits represent the network, while the last eight bits represent
the host as seen in Figure 19. It is a common and widely used IP address that starts with the 110 or
the first zero in the third position in the case of a Class C address. There are over 2 million potential
class C networks with 21 more bits in the network part and eight bits in the local part.

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Figure 19 Division in Class C

So, as you can see in the binary notation, the first three bits are set, which is 110, and the next eight
bits are representing the network element, and the last eight bits are representing the host part, which
we represented with the 111 and the 000, as in the binary notation here.

Important points in Class C

• 24 bits for the network address and 8 bits for host
• Popular and commonly used
• IP address begins with 110(1st zero in 3d position)
• 21 more bits in the network part
• Over 2 million possible class C networks
• 8 bits in the local part
• Only 256 possible hosts per class C network.
When we translate this to decimal notation, it becomes 192 to 223 as seen in Error! Reference source
not found..

So, let's look at this overview of a Class C leading bits: 110 since it begins with 110, the size of the
network number bit field is 24, the text bit field is eight, and the number of networks is two lift to
power 21 because 110 is reserved out of 24 network bits. The number of addresses per network has
been increased from 2 power 8 which equals to 256. The summary of Class C is shown in Table4.Error!
Reference source not found.

Class D
The IP address range now begins with 224 and ends with 239, which is the range of IP addresses. The
first four bits are always 1110, which is used for multicasting IP addresses and always starts with
zero. As a result, it delivers a message to a network of hosts rather than just one. There are no network
or host bits specified. The first four bits are always triple one, zero, as you can see. When we are
expressed in binary form as seen in Table 4.
Table 4 Range of Class D

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Important Points in Class D

• Starts from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255
• There is no subnet mask for Class D.
• Used for multicasting (one to many types)
• IP address begins with 1110
• Used for multicasting, not defining networks
• Sending a message to a group of hosts
• Not just to one
• Do not define network or host bits
• Different from broadcasting
• Used for videoconferencing.
As a result, when we translate this to decimal notation. As a result, the ranges are 224 to 239 as shown
in Figure 20.

Figure 20 Decimal Conversion in Class D

Popular Class D IP Addresses

• 224.0.0.0: Base address reserved
• 224.0.0.1: Used for all multicasting host groups
• 224.0.0.2: Used for all subnet routers
• 224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6: Used by Open Shortest Path First, an interior gateway protocol for
all network segment routing information

Class E
Class E IP addresses are only used for experimental and testing purposes. Class E IP addresses range
from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. There is no sub-net mask for this class. The first octet of class E's
higher-order bits is always set to 11110 as shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Range of Class E

Important points in Class E

• Class E IP addresses starts from 240.0.0.0. to 255.255.255.255

• Reserved for experimental purposes.
• IP address begins with 1111.
In Binary Form
11110000.00000000.00000000. 00000000
To

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11111111.11111111.11111111. 11111111
In decimal form
240.0.0.0
To
255.255.255.255

Range of Special IP addresses

169.254.0.0 – 169.254.0.16 Link-local addresses

127.0.0.0 – 127.0.0.8 Loop-back addresses

0.0.0.0 – 0.0.0.8 used to communicate within the current

network.

Issues with Classful Addressing

There are many issues with classful addressing, the most serious of which is the lack of a network
class capable of supporting a medium-sized domain efficiently. A Class C network with 254 hosts is
typically too thin, whereas a Class B network with 65,534 hosts is much too big. A request for a
network address block from a medium domain is typically addressed by assigning a Class B network
address rather than several Class C network addresses, losing thousands of possible host addresses,
and causing a detrimental effect on the Internet routing tables.

Design of Classful Addressing

• Class A addresses were designed for large organizations with a large number of attached
hosts or routers.
• Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations with tens of thousands of
attached hosts or routers.
• Class C addresses were designed for small organizations with a small number of attached
hosts or routers

8.4 Classless Addressing

Subnetting is a technique for reducing IP address waste in a block. We use the host id bits of a classf
ul IP address as the net id bits. We specify the IP address and the number of bits for the mask (usua
lly followed by a ‘/' symbol), for example, 192.168.1.1/28. The subnet mask is identified by setting
the specified number of bits out of 32 to 1, for example, in the given address, we need to set 28 out of
32 bits to 1 and the remainder to 0, resulting in 255.255.255.240 as the subnet mask.

Important points in Classless Addressing

• IP Addressing with Classless Addressing is a more advanced scheme.

• It improves the efficiency of IP address allocation.
• It takes the place of the older class-based addressing scheme.
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing is another name for it (CIDR).

CIDR Block
CIDR automatically assigns a block of IP Addresses depending on such rules when a user requests a
certain number of IP Addresses. This block includes the number of IP addresses that the user has
requested. The CIDR block is a set of IP addresses.

Rules for Creating CIDR Block-

The following three rules are used to build a CIDR block:

Rule -01:

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The CIDR block's IP addresses must all be contiguous.

Rule-02:
The block's dimension must be presentable as a power of two.
The total number of IP addresses in the block is the block's size. Any CIDR block will still have a size
of 2pow1, 2pow2, 2pow3, 2pow4, 2pow5, and so on.

Rule-03:
The block's first IP address must be divisible by the block's height.

CIDR Notation
CIDR IP Addresses look like-
a.b.c.d / n

• They finish with a dash and a number known as an IP network prefix.

• The IP network prefix specifies the number of bits used to identify a network.
• The remainder of the bits was used to identify hosts in the network.

Example
An example of a CIDR IP Address is-
182.0.1.2 / 28
It implies-

• The detection of the network is done with 28 bits.

• The remaining four bits are used to identify hosts in the network.

8.5 Subnetting
Subnetting is the practice of breaking up a big network into smaller networks. A single-wide network
is similar to a city with no sectors or street addresses. A postman in such a town could take 3 to 4
days to locate a single address. He will conveniently locate any address in less than an hour if the
town is separated into sectors and streets.
Let's look into another scenario. There will be a planned power outage due to repairs. If the town is
split into sectors, the electric department will make a local announcement for the affected sector
instead of a general announcement. Aside from these two examples, there are several other real-life
examples of massive structures being broken into smaller parts. The same principle applies to
computer networks. Subnetting is a computer networking technique that divides a wide IP network
into smaller IP networks called subnets. The default class A, B, and C networks each have 16777214,
65534, and 254 hosts. When there are a large number of hosts on a single network, problems such as
broadcast, collision, and congestion arise.
Let's look at a case. There are four divisions of a company: manufacturing, distribution, growth, and
management. There are 50 users in each department. A private class C IP network was used by the
company. Both computers can run in a single big network if there is no subnetting.

Figure 21 A single large Class C IP Network

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To enter and supply information in a network, computers use transmitted signals. In a computer
network, a transmitted message is an announcement message that is heard from all hosts in the
network. Since all machines are connected to the same network, they can receive all broadcast signals,
whether or not the broadcast messages are important to them. This network can be split into subnets
in the same way as a city is divided into sectors. When a network is split into subnets, machines can
only transmit broadcasts that pertain to them. Since the corporation has four departments, the
network can be divided into four subnets.

Description Network1 Network2 Network3 Network4

Network address 192.168.1.0 192.168.1.64 192.168.1.128 192.168.1.192

Valid hosts 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.65 to 192.168.1.129 to 192.168.1.193 to

192.168.1.62 192.168.1.126 192.168.1.190 192.168.1.254

192.168.1.255
Broadcast address 192.168.1.63 192.168.1.127 192.168.1.191

Advantages of Subnetting
• Subnetting is a technique for dividing a big network into smaller networks. Small networks
are simple to administer.
• By having only the transmitted traffic that is important to the subnet, subnetting eliminates
network traffic.
• Subnetting increases the network's overall efficiency by reducing unwanted traffic.
• Subnetting improves network stability by blocking a subnet's traffic inside a subnet.
• Subnetting decreases the number of IP addresses needed.

Disadvantage of Subnetting
• To connect, different subnets need an intermediary system known as a router.
• Getting more subnets means losing more IP addresses so each subnet has its network and
broadcast addresses.
• Subnetting increases the network's complexity. The subnetted network must be managed
by an experienced network administrator.

8.6 Network Address Translation

It's a method of converting private IP addresses to public IP addresses. It was first mentioned in RFC
1631.

What is the reason for its implementation?

NAT was implemented due to the scarcity of IP addresses. There was a time when we believed that
the Internet's expansion would be halted due to the scarcity of IP addresses. If we have five networks,
we want internet access to each of them. since the need for IP addresses has risen As a result, we
assumed that the internet's growth would eventually slow.

The solution to the implementation of IP Addresses

However, a short-term solution to the issue of IP address depletion or exhaustion has been given.
One is IP version six, which is a long-term workaround that we have already implemented. One is
CIDR classless inter-domain routing, which is a short-term solution, and the other is NAT network
address translation, which is a long-term solution.
NAT is a method for converting private IP addresses to public IP addresses. It's a method of
preserving IP addresses. There are a variety of private addresses available as seen in Table 6.

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Table 6 Range of Addresses

A variety of private addresses are available. These IP addresses have been allocated to private
networks for you to connect to the Internet.

Role of NAT
Network address conversion can translate these IP addresses into public IP addresses, allowing them
to access the internet. For example, we would use NAT to allocate a single public IP address to all of
the systems that have private IP addresses, allowing them to connect to the Internet.

We have a setup with one server with a private IP address of 10.0.0.1. We also have a router with
NAT installed, and every router maintains a routing table with a public IP address that they use to
map which private address to which public IP address, which is known as a global IP address. And
that device would have a global IP address, making it visible on the internet. It will now map 10.0.0.1
to 172.69.58.80 with the aid of the router. It says that the device will not be recognized by the 10.0.0.1
server. That is a non-public IP address. 172.69.58.80 will include this information. The public IP
address is that.

NAT Working
A border router has one interface in the local (inside) network and one interface in the global (outside)
network and is designed for NAT. NAT transfers a local (private) IP address to a global (public) IP
address as a packet travels outside the local (inside) network.
The global (public) IP address of a packet is translated to a local (private) IP address as it reaches the
local network.
The packets will be lost and an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) host unreachable packet
to the destination will be transmitted if NAT runs out of addresses, i.e. no addresses are left in the
pool setup.

What is the purpose of masking port numbers?

Assume two hosts A and B are linked in a network. Now, on the host side, they both request the same
destination, on the same port number, say 1000, at the same time. If NAT just performs IP address
conversion, when their packets arrive at the NAT, all of their IP addresses are disguised by the
network's public IP address and sent to the destination. Destination will respond using the router's
public IP address. As a result, when NAT receives a response, it would be unknown which reply
belongs to which host (because source port numbers for both A and B are the same). As a result, NAT
masks the source port number and creates an entry in the NAT table to prevent such a problem.

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Network Address Translation (NAT) Types

There are 3 ways to configure NAT:
Static NAT – In this configuration, a single unregistered (Private) IP address is mapped to a legally
registered (Public) IP address, resulting in a one-to-one mapping of local and global addresses. This
is a popular term for web hosting. This is not used in businesses since many devices need Internet
connectivity, and providing Internet access necessitates the use of a public IP address.

Figure 22 Types of NAT

As 3000 devices need Internet access, the organization would have to purchase 3000 public addresses,
which would be very expensive.
Dynamic NAT: An unregistered IP address is converted into a registered (Public) IP address from
a pool of public IP addresses in this form of NAT. The packet would be lost if the pool's IP address
is not open, since only a limited number of private IP addresses can be converted to public addresses.
If a pool of two public IP addresses is available, only two private IP addresses can be interpreted at
any given time. Since several private IP addresses are mapped to a pool of public IP addresses, if a
third private IP address tries to access the Internet, the packet will be lost. When the number of people
who wish to use the Internet is set, NAT is used. This is also very expensive since the company would
purchase a large number of global IP addresses to create a pool.
PAT: NAT overload is also known as Port Address Translation (PAT). Many local (private) IP
addresses can be mapped to a single registered IP address using this method. The traffic is
differentiated by port numbers, which identity which traffic belongs to which IP address. This is the
most common method. After all, it is cost-effective because thousands of users can be connected to
the Internet with only one single global (public) IP address.

Advantages of NAT

• NAT protects lawfully assigned IP addresses.

• It ensures anonymity by masking the device's IP address when sending and receiving traffic.
• When a network changes, address renumbering is no longer necessary.

Disadvantage of NAT

• Switching route delays occur as a result of translation.

• Although NAT is enabled, certain applications will not work.
• Tunneling protocols like IPsec get more complicated.
• Also, as a network layer system, the router should not tamper with port numbers (transport
layer), but it does due to NAT.

ICMP (Internet control message protocol)

Which layer does ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol run in? It runs in the network layer, so
which packet has the greatest chance of being discarded? What does that mean when we're sending
a packet from source to destination and there's noise, or there's a congestion problem, or there's a
buffer problem?
Any packets are discarded so that traffic can flow and congestion can be relieved.

Which packet has the greatest likelihood of being discarded?

The ICMP stands for Internet Managed Messaging Protocol. The first one is the ICMP then IGMP
then UDP, and then TCP. Routers search for ICMP packet to discard so that they can make a space
for the highest priority protocol

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ICMP<IGMP<UDP<TCP
Which is the highest priority protocol?
TCP.

So, there are two situations in which we use the ICMP:

• error management and request and respond as shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23 Two situations to use ICMP

Figure 24 ICMP(a)

If a source sends a packet, and the source is going to transmit an IP packet, the source must send the
IP packet to the destination, and it must send it via Routers R1 and R2 as shown in Figure 24. So, my
packet arrived at R1 first, then R2. However, when my packet reaches R2, it is rejected. My packet
was suddenly discarded due to congestion or a buffer problem; there was so much traffic, and the
packet was discarded. As a result, the source's IP packet has been discarded. The router, R2, is
responsible for informing the source that your packet has been discarded. As a result, the packet
must be resent. So, in this case, the ICMP packet (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used to
provide clarification that a packet has been lost. As a result, an ICMP packet containing the source
and destination addresses will be sent to the source to notify them that their packet has been
discarded as seen in Figure 25. How we deal with the mistake in this situation.

Figure 25 ICMP(b)

Request and response are the second.

Using ICMP packets, the sender will make a direct request to the destination. When studying ICMP,
there are certain fundamental laws that you must adhere to. What are the basic rules? We will use
the ICMP packet as input if the IP packet is discarded.

Figure 26 ICMP Request and Reply

Some Basic Rules

If IP packet is discarded

• We can use the ICMP packet as feedback.

If the ICMP packet is discarded

• No ICMP packet will be used as feedback.

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However, let's use the ICMP packet as an example to see what the issue is. So, what sort of issue
might it be? We've got a starting point and an endpoint. The IP packet will be sent to routers r1 and
r2, and it is assumed that R2 will discard the packet due to a congestion problem. Now R2 is going
to use the feedback, and which feedback packet it uses, it uses the ICMP packet as feedback. (R2, S)
is written in brackets in this case. S is the destination to whom it wishes to warn that your packet has
been lost, and R2 is the source one and second. When it arrived at r1, however, r1 still discarded the
packet due to a congestion problem or buffer. R1 now has to notify R2 that the packet you sent for
the source has been discarded. In this case, the source is R1 and the destination is R2. As a result of
the ICMP comments, the packet will be sent to R2 once more. Still, owing to some congestion, R2 has
a lot of congestion and a lot of other protocols, and R2's highest protocols are TCP and if ICMP
packets are present, it will discard the lowest priority one, which is the ICMP packet.
So R2 will discard the ICMP packet; in this situation, R2 must remind r1 that whatever packet you
sent me, whatever information it contained, has been lost. But, in this case, R2 sends the information
to r1, where r2 is the source and r1 is the destination. It's sending to r1, so r1 can discard the packet
once more. Since ICMP is the packet with the lowest priority. If there is congestion, they can dump
the ICMP envelope, which has the lowest priority. Now, using an ICMP packet, r1 can send a
feedback type or feedback request to R2. R2 will discard once more, and this will continue to happen
over and over. So, endless loop, what do you think is going on here? As a result of the law violation,
you will be trapped in an endless loop as shown in Figure 27.

Figure 27 Issue in using ICMP packet

Important point
Always note that if you are sending an ICMP packet and it is misplaced, you cannot use an ICMP
packet as feedback; you must use another packet. If an IP packet is refused, it is thrown out. The
ICMP packet can be used as input. However, if an ICMP packet is destroyed, it cannot be used as
feedback.

8.7 Address Resolution protocol

To send/receive messages, most computer programs/applications use a logical address (IP address),
but the direct correspondence takes place over a physical address (MAC address), which is layer 2 of
the OSI model. As a result, our goal is to obtain the destination MAC address, which is needed for
communication with other devices. This is where ARP comes into play; it aims to convert IP
addresses to physical addresses as seen in Figure 28.

Figure 28 Address Resolution Protocol

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ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol and is one of the most relevant protocols in the OSI
model's Network layer. From a host's established IP address, ARP determines the hardware address,
also known as the Media Access Control (MAC) address.

Figure 29 Network Layer

ARP Working
Consider a computer that wishes to connect with another device over the internet. What is the
purpose of ARP? Is it broadcasting a packet to all of the originating network's devices? The network
devices peel the data link layer header from the protocol data unit (PDU) called frame and send the
packet to the network layer (OSI layer 3), where the packet's network ID is validated against the
destination IP's network ID, and if they are identical, it responds to the source with the destination's
MAC address. The above procedure is repeated until the second last network computer in the path
to the destination is validated, at which point ARP responds with the destination MAC address.

8.8 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is an acronym for Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol, which is a computer networking protocol that allows a client computer to obtain its IP
address from a gateway server's Address Resolution Protocol table or cache. In the gateway-router,
the network administrator builds a table that maps the MAC address to the corresponding IP address.
This protocol is used to transfer data between two server points. The client does not need to know
who the server is capable of serving its request in advance. An administrator must configure each
server's Medium Access Control (MAC) addresses individually. RARP is only capable of supporting
IP addresses. When a replacement computer is set up, it can or may not have a connected disc that
can hold the IP Address indefinitely, so the RARP client software must request the IP Address from
the router's RARP server. Under the assumption that an entry has been created in the router table,
the RARP server will return the IP address to the machine.

Figure 30 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

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RARP Working
The RARP is a Network Access Layer protocol that allows data to be sent between two points in a
network.
Each network member has two distinct addresses: an IP (logical) address and a MAC (physical)
address (the physical address). The IP address is allocated by program, and the MAC address is built
into the hardware after that.
Any ordinary device on the network will act as a RARP server and respond to RARP requests. It
must, however, store the data of all MAC addresses as well as their allocated IP addresses. If the
network receives a RARP order, only these RARP servers can respond. The data packet must be
transmitted over very low-cost network layers. This means that the package is sent to each of the
participants at the same time. For an Ethernet broadcast address and its physical address, the client
sends out a RARP order. The server then informs the client of its IP address.

Summary
• A global identification scheme that uniquely identifies every host and router is
required at the network layer for packet transmission from host to host.
• An IPv4 address is 32 bits long and identifies a host or router on the Internet
specially and universally.
• The netid is the part of the IP address that defines the network in classful
addressing.
• The part of the IP address that specifies the host or router on the network is known
as the host in classful addressing.
• The relation of a computer to a network is defined by its IP address.
• IPv4 addresses are divided into five categories. The number of hosts per network
permitted in Classes A, B, and C varies. Multicasting is in Class D, and Class E is
reserved.
• The first byte of an address can conveniently be used to evaluate its class.
• For unicast correspondence, addresses in classes A, B, or C are often used.
• Multicast correspondence is carried out using addresses in class D.
• Subnetting splits a wide network into many smaller ones, introducing an
intermediate level of IP addressing hierarchy.
• We can partition the address space into variable-length blocks with classless
addressing.
• IPv6 addresses are divided into three categories: unicast, anycast, and multicast.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is an acronym for Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol, which is a computer networking protocol that allows a client
computer to obtain its IP address from a gateway server's Address Resolution
Protocol table or cache.

Keywords
IP Address: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical mark assigned to each interface
(e.g., computer, printer) in a computer network that communicates using the Internet Protocol.
IP Protocol: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the principal communications protocol used for relaying
datagrams (packets) across an internetwork using the Internet Protocol Suite.

NAT: Network address translation (NAT) is a way of converting one IP address space to another
by changing network address information in packets' IP headers as they are in transit via a traffic
routing system.

ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol, and is one of the most relevant protocols in the
OSI model's Network layer.

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RARP: Where only the ethernet address is identified and the IP address is needed, RARP offers the
opposite service to ARP.

PAT: Different devices on a LAN can be mapped to a single public IP address using Port Address
Translation (PAT), which is an extension of Network Address Translation (NAT).

Classful Addressing: The address space is divided into five classes of Classful addressing: A, B,
C, D, and E. Each of these classes has an IP address set that is valid.
Classless Addressing: Unlike classful addressing, classless IPv4 addressing does not partition the
address space into classes.
Subnetting: Subnetting is the process of dividing a larger network into smaller networks to preserve
security.

Review Questions
1. Explain the IP Protocol. What makes it different from the TCP protocol?
2. What are IP addresses, and what do they mean? Describe how an IP address is formatted.
3. Distinguish between IPV4 and IPV6 addressing, as well as their grouping.
4. Explain what subnetting is and how it works.
5. Difference between ARP and RARP.

Self Assessment
1. What is the format of the IP address?
a) 34 bit
b) 64 bit
c) 16 bit
d) 32 bit
2. Version 6 of the IP address has how many bits.
a) 64 bits
b) 128 bits
c) 32 bits
d) 256 bits
3. How many versions/s of IP’s are there?
a) 4 versions
b) 3 versions
c) 2 versions
d) 1 version
4. Which technology allows a large number of private IP addresses to be represented by a
smaller number of public IP addresses?
a) NAT
b) NTP
c) RFC 1631
d) RFC 1918
5. What is the effect of the overload keyword in a static NAT translation configuration?
a) It enables port address translation.
b) It enables the use of a secondary pool of IP addresses when the first pool is depleted.
c) It enables the inside interface to receive traffic.
d) It enables the outside interface to forward traffic.
6. What is the first step in the NAT configuration process?

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a) Define inside and outside interfaces.

b) Define public and private IP addresses.
c) Define IP address pools.
d) Define global and local interfaces.
7. Which of the following is the ethernet broadcast address used in ARP and RARP requests?
a) 255.255.255.255
b) 08:00:20:11:aa:01
c) ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
d) 224.0.0.0
8. Which of the following describes the function of ARP?
a) It is used to map a 32-bit IP address to a 48-bit ethernet address.
b) It is used to map a 48-bit ethernet address to a 32-bit IP address.
c) It is used to map a 32-bit ethernet address to a 48-bit IP address.
d) It is used to map a 48-bit IP address to a 32-bit ethernet address.
9. In classful addressing, the address space is divided into
a. Five classes
b. Ten classes
c. Fifteen classes
d. Three classes
10. In classless addressing, there are no classes but the addresses are still granted in
a. Sections
b. Blocks
c. Codes
d. All of the above.
11. In IPv4 Addresses, classful addressing is replaced with

a) Classless Addressing
b) Classful Addressing new version
c) Classful Advertising
d) Classless Advertising
12.The first address in a block is used as the network address that represents the

a) Class Network
b) Entity
c) Organization
d) DataCodes

Answers
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. a

5. a 6. a 7 c 8. a

9. a 10. b 11. a 12. c

Further Readings
Achyut S Godbole and Atul Kahate, Web Technologies, Tata McGraw Hill.
Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

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Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,

McGraw-Hill Companies.
Douglas Comer, Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications, 4th
Edition, Prentice-Hall.
Ferguson P., Huston G., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998. Quality of Service: Delivering
QoS on the Internet and in Corporate Networks.
J. D. Spragins, Telecommunications Protocols and Design, Addison Wesley.
McDysan, David E. and Darren L. Spohn, ATM Theory and Applications, McGraw-
Hill Osborne Media, 1998.
Nassar, Daniel J., Ethernet and Token Ring Optimization, iUniverse.com, 2000.
Spurgeon, Charles E. Ethernet, The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly & Associates, 2000.
William A Shay, Understanding Communication and Networks, 3rd Edition, Thomson
Press.

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 08: Network layer – routing Notes

Unit 08: Network layer – routing

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 Unicast
9.2 Distance Vector Routing
9.3 Link State Routing
9.4 Path Vector routing
9.5 Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)
9.6 Types of Casting in a computer network
9.7 Routing in Adhoc Network
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self-Assessment
Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• what is Unicast Routing.
• three major protocols for unicast routing.
• classification of Routing Algorithms.

Introduction
At the network layer, the Internet Protocol (IP) serves as the primary protocol. IP is a best-effort
distribution protocol, but it lacks certain functionality including flow control and error control. It's a
logical addressing-based host-to-host protocol. Other protocols are needed to make IP more open to
certain specifications of today's internetworking. To construct a mapping between physical and
logical addresses, protocols are used. Logical addresses are used in IP packets. However, these
packets must be encapsulated in a frame, which requires physical addresses (node-to-node). We'll
see the ARP, or Address Resolution Protocol, is designed specifically for this purpose. We sometimes
need to reverse map a physical address to a logical address. Since the Internet Protocol lacks flow
and error management, another protocol, ICMP, was created to provide warnings. It records network
or destination host congestion and other forms of errors.

9.1 Unicast
Unicast routing refers to propagation from a single source to a single receiver, often known as point-
to-point correspondence between sender and receiver. TCP and HTTP are two examples of unicast
protocols. TCP stands for transmission control protocol, which is the most widely used unicast
protocol. It is a connection-oriented protocol that relies on the recipient site's recognition. The
hypertext transmission protocol (HTTP) stands for hypertext transfer protocol. It is a collaboration
protocol that is based on object-oriented principles. Intradomain routing protocol, intranetwork
routing protocol, and intranet routing protocol are two types of routing protocols as shown in Figure
1. Intradomain routing protocols are used to route packets within a given area, such as within an
institutional network for e-mail or Web browsing. An interdomain routing protocol, on the other
hand, is a method for routing packets through domain networks.

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Figure 1 Types of Routing Protocol

For unicast routing, we have three main protocols: distance vector routing, connection state routing,
and route vector routing as shown in Figure 2.

9.2 Distance Vector Routing

In distance vector routing, the least cost for any two nodes is the path with the shortest distance, and
each node keeps a table of the shortest distances to each other. The term "distance vector" refers to
how routes are marketed using two characteristics.
Distance: This metric determines how long it is to the destination network and is dependent on hop
count, cost, bandwidth, distance, and other factors.
Vector: The vector specifies the next-hop router's or exit interface's path in order to reach the
destination.

Figure 2 Three major protocols for unicast routing

Example: We present a system of five nodes and the tables that go with them in Figure 3.

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Figure 3 Distance Vector Routing Tables

The table for node A illustrates how to get from this node to every other node.
Our lowest cost to enter node E, for example, is 6. C is a stop along the way.

Intilaization
Figure 3 shows that the tables are stable; each node knows how to access every other node and how
much it will cost. However, this is not the case in the beginning. Only the distance between each node
and its immediate neighbours, all that are closely bound to it, can be known. So, for the time being,
we'll presume that each node will send a message to its immediate neighbours and calculate the
distance between them.

Figure 4 Initialization of Tables in Distance Vector Routing Protocols

The original tables for each node are seen in Figure 4. Any entry that isn't a neighbour is given an
infinite distance (unreachable).

Sharing
The exchange of information between neighbors is at the heart of distance vector routing. While node
A is unaware of node E, node C is. As a result, if node C shares its routing table with node A, node
A will still figure out how to get to node E. Node C, on the other hand, has no idea how to get to node
D, but node A does. If node A and node C share a routing table, node C will also know how to access
node D. In other words, as immediate neighbors, nodes A and C will boost their routing tables by
assisting one another. There's just one problem. How much of the table does each neighbour share?
The table of a neighbour is unknown to a node. The best answer for each node is to give its entire
table to its neighbour and let him determine the parts to keep and which to delete.
The neighbour, on the other hand, does not benefit from the third column of a table (next stop). This
column must be replaced with the sender's name when the neighbour collects a table. The sender of
the table is the next node if all of the rows can be included. As a result, a node can only give the first
two columns of its table to all of its neighbours. To put it another way, sharing here just refers to the
first two columns.
Updating
A node must change its routing table when it receives a two-column table from a neighbour. There
are three approaches to updating:

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1. For each value in the second column, the receiving node must apply the cost between itself
and the transmitting node.
2. If the receiving node uses information from another row, it must apply the name of the
transmitting node as the third column of each row. The next node in the path is the sending
node.
3. Each row of the receiving node's old table must be compared to the corresponding row of
the updated version of the received table.
a. Where the next-node entry differs, the receiving node selects the row with the
lowest rate. The old tie is maintained if there is one.
b. The receiving node selects the new row if the next-node entry is the same. Assume
node C previously advertised a distance-based path to node X. Assume there is no
longer a path between C and X; node C now advertises this route with an infinite
radius. About the fact that its old entry is smaller, Node A must not disregard this
value. The old road is no longer in use. The current path is infinite in duration.
Node A changes its routing table after obtaining the partial table from node C, as seen in Figure 5.
When Do You Share?
When does a node transmit its partial routing table (which only has two columns) to all of its
immediate neighbours? The table is submitted both on a regular basis and when the table changes.
Periodic Update: Every 30 seconds, a node sends its routing table in a periodic update. The length
of time is determined by the protocol that uses distance vector routing.
Triggered Update: When a node's two-column routing table changes, it sends a triggered update to
its neighbours. This is referred to as an activated upgrade.
The following factors can influence the outcome.
1. A node receives a table from a peer and updates it, resulting in modifications in its own table.
2. A node senses a defect in one of the adjacent connections, resulting in a drop in distance to infinity.

Figure 5 Updating in Distance Vector Routing Table

9.3 Link State Routing

The second family of routing protocols is connection state routing. Link-state routing uses link-state
routers to exchange messages that allow each router to learn the entire network topology, while
distance vector routers use a distributed algorithm to compute their routing tables. Each router will
then compute its routing table using a shortest path calculation based on the learned topology.

Features of link state routing protocols

Link State Packet: A small packet that includes routing information is known as a connection state
packet.

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Link State Database – A database containing data collected from link state packets.
Shortest path first algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm) – A database estimation produces the shortest
path.
Routing Table: A list of known routes and interfaces is called a routing table.

Calculation of shortest path

To find shortest path, each node need to run the famous Dijkstra algorithm. This famous algorithm
uses the following steps:
Step-1: The node is selected as the tree's root node, resulting in a tree with just one node. Set the
cumulative cost of each node to a value depending on the information in the Connection State
Database.
Step-2: The node now chooses the node that is closest to the root of all the nodes not in the tree-like
structure and connects it to the tree.
The tree's outline is transformed.
Step 3: After this node has been connected to the stack, all non-tree nodes' costs must be modified
so the paths could have shifted.
Step-4: The node repeats Steps 2 and 3 until all of the nodes in the tree have been inserted.
In contrast to Distance Vector protocols, Link State protocols have:

1. It necessitates a significant amount of memory.

2. Shortest route computations necessitate a large number of CPU circles.
3. If a network uses a small amount of bandwidth, it responds easily to topology changes.
4. To shape connection state packets, all objects in the database must be sent to neighbours.
5. In the topology, all neighbours must be trusted.
6. To prevent unwanted adjacency and complications, authentication methods may be used.
7. In link state routing, split horizon strategies are not feasible.

Open shortest path first (OSPF) routing protocol –

1. OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) is a unicast routing protocol developed by an Internet
Engineering Task Force working group (IETF).
2. It's a protocol for routing within a domain.
3. It's a free and transparent protocol.
4. It's akin to the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) (RIP).
5. OSPF is a classless routing protocol, meaning it uses the subnet of each path it recognises in
its notifications, allowing for variable-length subnet masks. An IP network can be divided
into several subnets of different sizes using variable-length subnet masks. This gives
network operators more consistency in network setup.
6. OSPF is implemented as a network layer application that utilises the facilities offered by the
Internet Protocol IP datagram that transports OSPF messages. OSPF sets the protocol field
value to 89.
7. The OSPF algorithm, also known as the Dijkstra algorithm, is based on the SPF algorithm.
8. Version 1 and version 2 of OSPF are available. Version 2 is the most widely used.
OSPF Messages – The OSPF protocol is a complicated one. It employs five distinct message
forms. The following are some of them:

1. Hello messages (Form 1)

2. Message from the database (Type 2)
3. Message with a link-state request (Type 3)
4. Message about a link-state update (Type 4)

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5. Message of Link-State Recognition (Type 5)

9.4 Path Vector routing

The cost of reaching a given destination is not used by a route vector protocol to decide whether or
not each path open is loop free. Instead, route vector protocols analyse the path to the destination to
determine if it is loop-free.

Figure 6 Path Vector Routing

By logging each hop the routing advertising traverses through the network, a route vector protocol
ensures loop-free routes through the network. In this case, router A informs router B that the
10.1.1.0/24 network is reachable. When router B receives this data, it joins the path and broadcasts it
to router C. Router C joins the road and informs router D that the 10.1.1.0/24 network can be reached
in this direction. As Router D receives the route advertising, it joins the road as well. When router D
tries to advertise to router A that it will hit 10.1.1.0/24, router A rejects the advertising because the
corresponding direction vector in the advertisement suggests that router A is already in the path.
When a router encounters a message in which it is already a part of the path, it rejects it because
accepting the request will result in a routing information loop.

9.5 Border Gateway Protocol(BGP)

Rather than considering a single router as a single point in the path to any given destination, BGP
applies the path vector principle on a broader scale. Each autonomous system is treated as a single
point on the road to any given destination by BGP as shown in Figure 7.

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Figure 7 Path vector over a set of autonomous systems

This case is similar to Figure 6, except that instead of a single router, each autonomous device is
treated as a point along the road. The network 10.1.1.0/24, also known as a prefix, is marketed along
with a list of autonomous systems over which the upgrade has passed; this list of autonomous
systems is referred to as the AS Route. AS 65100 creates the prefix 10.1.1.0/24 and advertises it to AS
65200, connecting itself to the AS Route. AS 65200 is added to the AS Route, and the prefix is
advertised to AS 65300.

Figure 8 BGP routing with an AS

When AS 65300 advertises the prefix 10.1.1.0/24 to AS 65100, it is refused because the 65100 sees that
its local AS is already in the AS Path, and accepting the route will result in a routing information loop
as shown in Figure 8. The main reason BGP considers an entire autonomous device as a single hop
in the AS Path is to mask the AS's topological information. AS 65200, for example, has no way of
knowing what the route through AS 65100 looks like; all it knows is that the destination is reachable
through AS 65100. One interesting side effect of considering each autonomous system as a single
entity for which the autonomous system route vector is connected is that BGP can only detect loops
between autonomous systems without additional knowledge or laws, and it cannot guarantee loop-
free paths within an AS as shown in Figure 8.

9.6 Types of Casting in a computer network

The cast term here signifies some data(stream of packets) is being transmitted to the recipient(s) from
client(s) side over the communication channel that helps them to communicate. Let’s see some of the
“cast” concepts that are prevailing in the computer networks field.

1. Unicast

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When only one sender and one receiver are involved, this method of data transfer is
advantageous. So, in a nutshell, it is a one-to-one transmission. When a device with an IP
address of 10.1.2.0 in one network needs to transfer traffic (data packets) to a device with an
IP address of 20.12.4.2 in another network, unicast is used. Unicast example is shown in
Figure 9.

Figure 9 Unicast Example

Broadcast
There are two methods of broadcasting conversion (one-to-all) techniques:

Limited Broadcasting
If you need to transmit a stream of packets to all of the computers on your network, broadcasting w
ill come in handy as shown in Figure 10. To do this, it will append 255.255.255 (all 32 bits of the IP
address set to 1) to the destination address of the datagram (packet) header, which is reserved for
information transmission to all recipients from a single client (sender) across the network.

Figure 10 Network Cluster

Direct Broadcasting
If a node on one network needs to send a packet stream to all of the devices on the other network,
this is helpful. This is accomplished by converting all of the destination address's Host ID portion
bits to 1, which is referred to as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information
transfer.

Figure 11 Direct Broadcasting

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For video and audio delivery, television networks primarily use this mode. In computer networks,
one of the most important protocols in this class is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which is used
to resolve IP addresses into physical addresses, which is needed for underlying communication.

Multicast
In multicasting, data transfer traffic is shared between one or more senders and one or more receivers.
The traffic in this system is split into unicast (one-to-one) and broadcast (multicast) (one-to-all).
Multicast allows servers to send single copies of data streams to hosts that require them.
For IP multicast to operate, it needs the assistance of other protocols such as IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol) and Multicast routing. Class D is also reserved for multicast classes in Classful
IP addressing.

9.7 Routing in Adhoc Network

Challenges in Adhoc network
Dynamic topology, unreliable connections, restricted resources, lower connection bandwidth
security, and no default router are all problems in an ad hoc network. There could be one other major
problem in routing: there are no physical connections.

What does physical connection mean?

It means that when nodes travel from one location to another, wireless connections are formed and
broken. As a result of the regular disconnections and partitions, no physical relations exist. As a
result, routing protocols are classified as proactive, reactive, or hybrid as seen in Figure 12.

Figure 12 Routing Protocols

Proactive Routing protocols

First and foremost, in a constructive routing, proactive. Until packets are sent, the routing tables
are established. The following is an example of a connection state distance factor. Each node in
the network is aware of the routes to all other nodes. Each mobile node has its own routing table,
which stores information about routes to all potential destination mobile nodes. So, in the case
of constructive, because the topology in the mobile ad hoc network is complex, as I previously
said, these routing tables are changed regularly, either every 30 seconds or 35 seconds,
depending on how quickly the network topology varies. As a result, constructive routing
protocol has a drawback. As a result, it does not operate well with large networks so the routing
table entries become too large as they must retain and route information to all available nodes.

1. DSDV(Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol )

It is a proactive table driven routing protocol that extends the distance vector routing protocol and is
built on the Bellman Ford routing algorithm. DSDV is a proactive table driven routing protocol that
falls under the proactive. Due to the count to infinity issue, the distance vector routing protocol was
not suitable for a mobile ad hoc network. So, we have a solution for this in the form of the destination
sequence distance vector routing protocol. Any routing entry in the routing table that is managed by
each node now has a destination sequence number associated with it. Only if the entry consists of a
new modified path to the destination with a higher sequence number will a node contain the new
upgrade in the table. As a result, it is proactive which is why it is referred to as a table guided routing
protocol.

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2. GSR(Global State Routing)

The next protocol is the global state routing protocol, which extends the wired network's connection
state routing and is built on Dijkstra's routing algorithm. Since each node floods the link state routing
information directly through the whole network, the link state routing protocol is not suitable for
mobile ad hoc networks. As a result, global flooding can cause a network's control packets to become
congested. In the last slides of the previous lecture, I explained distance relation state route vector
routing. So, if you're not sure what's causing the rain, you should attend the session. What is
connection state routing and how does it work? Since you can get all of the details from the floods,
what is distance vector routing? As a result, the global state routing protocol was introduced as a
workaround. Really, link state routing packets are not flooded into the network by global state
routing.

Reactive
This are also known as on-demand routing protocols in the case of reactive routing. This path is only
found when it is needed or required. Path exploration is accomplished by flooding route request
packets across the mobile network. It is divided into two phases: path exploration and route
management. The path is only discovered when it is required.

1. DSR(Dynamic Source Routing protocol)

The DSR dynamic source routing protocol is the next step. It's a reactive or on-demand routing
protocol, which means the path is only found when it's required. Path exploration is accomplished
by flooding route request packets across the mobile network. There are two stages of it: path
exploration and route management.

Route Discovery
This process decides the most efficient route for data packet transfer between the source and
destination mobile nodes.

Route Maintenance
Since the topology of a mobile ad-hoc network is complex, this step performs route maintenance. As
a result, there are several instances of connection breakage resulting in network collapse between
mobile nodes.

2. AODV (Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol )

It's an on-demand/reactive routing protocol. It is a dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) extension
that aids in the elimination of the protocol's disadvantage. When the source mobile node sends the
data packet to the destination mobile node after route discovery in DSR, it also includes the full path
in its header. As a result, as the network grows in complexity, the length of the full route grows, as
does the size of the data packet header, slowing down the entire network. As a result, the Ad-Hoc
On Demand Vector Routing protocol was developed as a solution. The key distinction is about how
the route is stored: AODV stores it in the routing table, while DSR stores it in the data packet's header.
It works in the same way, with two phases: route exploration and route maintenance.

Hybrid routing Protocol

It essentially incorporates the benefits of both reactive and proactive routing protocols in one
package. These protocols are flexible in design, adapting to the source and destination mobile nodes'
zone and location. One of the most popular hybrid routing protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).

Summary
• Whether the deliverer (host or router) and the destination are on the same network, the
packet delivery is called direct; if the deliverer (host or router) and the destination are on
separate networks, the packet delivery is called indirect.
• Instead of a full list of the stops the packet must make, the next-hop approach only lists the
location of the next hop in the routing table; in the network specific method, all hosts on a
network share one routing table entry.
• The full IP address of a host is given in the routing table in the host-specific method.

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• To avoid massive routing tables, classless addressing necessitates hierarchical and regional
routing.
• The entries in a static routing table are modified manually by an administrator, while the
entries in a dynamic routing table are updated automatically by a routing protocol.
• RIP is based on distance vector routing, in which each router shares its knowledge of the
entire AS with its neighbours at regular intervals.
• Dijkstra's algorithm is used to determine OSPF routing tables.
• BGP is a routing protocol for interautonomous systems that is used to update routing tables.
• Only packets that have travelled the shortest distance from the source to the router are
forwarded in reverse path forwarding (RPF).
• Link State Routing tries to find its neighbours and learn their network addresses so that the
router can choose the shortest path. Many classes are used to relay packets in hierarchical
routing. Broadcast and multicast routings are used to send a single packet to multiple
recipients based on whether they are members of a broadcast or multicast network.
• The shortest path to - destination in the network is identified by traversing the tree, and the
Dijkstra algorithm is the most commonly used shortest path first algorithm.
• Based on the advertised information about the direction and distance for each destination,
which are stored in a local database, the distance vector algorithms are used to decide which
route is the safest path to each destination.

Keywords
Adaptive Algorithms: They can change their routing decisions in response to changes in the topology
and traffic, and they can automatically adjust routing details as the network configuration changes.
Distance Vector Routing: It maintains a routing table and exchanges its routing table with each of
its neighbors so that their routing tables get updated.
Flow-based Routing: It considers both the topology and the load.
Hierarchical routing: Intra-domain and inter-domain routing are used in hierarchical routing.
Link State Routing allows each router in the network to learn the network topology and build a
routing table based on it.
Multicast is a term that refers to one or more network interfaces that are spread across several
subnets. One-to-many connectivity is possible.
Multicast Routing: This refers to transmitting data to well-defined groups with a large number of
participants but a limited number in comparison to the whole network.

Review Questions
1. Describe briefly how hierarchal algorithm works.
2. What is the main purpose of using router in a network?
3. Differentiate between:
a. Connectionless and connection-oriented service
b. Interior and Exterior Routing
c. Link state and distance vector routing
4. Difference between proactive and reactive routing protocols.
5. What is the purpose of BGP?
6. Why do OSPF messages propagate faster than RIP messages?

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Self-Assessment
1. Multiple access schemes are used to allow ________ mobile users to share simultaneously a
finite amount of radio spectrum.
a. Many
b. One
c. Two
d. Ten-Fifteen
2. Multiple access protocols is divided into
a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Four
3. The use of hierarchy in routing tables can ____________ the size of routing tables.
a. Reduce
b. Increase
c. Both a and b
d. None of the above.
4. If there is only one routing sequence for each source destination pair, the scheme is known
as …..
a. static routing
b. fixed alternative routing
c. standard routing
d. dynamic routing
5. Count-to-Infinity problem occurs in .....................
a. distance vector routing
b. short path first
c. link state routing
d. hierarchical routing
6. Link state packets are built in ....................
a. short path first
b. distance vector routing
c. link state routing
d. hierarchical routing

7. In which routing method do all the routers have a common database?

a. Distance Vector
b. Link Vector
c. Shortest path
d. Link State
8. In distance vector routing algorithm, the routing tables are updated .....................
a. by exchanging information with the neighbours
b. automatically
c. using the backup database
d. by the server
9. Distance vector routing algorithm is implemented in Internet as ........................

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a. OSPF
b. RIP
c. ARP
d. APR
10. Which of the following routing algorithm takes into account the current network load.
a. broadcast
b. shortest path
c. flooding
d. distance vector routing
11. In distance vector routing the delay metric is ...................
a. number of hops
b. geographical distance
c. number of neighbours
d. queue length
12. A well -defined groups that are numerically large in size but small compared to the network
as a whole are used in .......................
a. Unicast routing
b. Multicast routing
c. Broadcast routing
d. Telecast routing

Answers
1. a 2. c 3. a 4. b

5. a 6. b 7. d 8. a

9. b 10. d 11. d 12. b

Further Readings

Achyut S Godbole and Atul Kahate, Web Technologies, Tata McGraw Hill.

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,

McGraw-Hill Companies.

Douglas Comer, Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications, 4th Edition,
Prentice Hall.

Ferguson P., Huston G., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998. Quality of Service: Delivering QoS on
the Internet and in Corporate Networks.

J. D. Spragins, Telecommunications Protocols and Design, Addison Wesley.

McDysan, David E. and Darren L. Spohn, ATM Theory and Applications, McGraw-Hill
Osborne Media, 1998.

Nassar, Daniel J., Ethernet and Token Ring Optimization, iUniverse.com, 2000.

Spurgeon, Charles E. Ethernet, The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly & Associates, 2000.

William A Shay, Understanding Communication and Networks, 3rd Edition, Thomson Press.

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 10: Transport layer-protocols Notes

Unit 10: Transport layer-protocols

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Services provided by the Transport Layer
10.2 Difference between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Service
10.3 Connectionless Service
10.4 Reliable vs Unreliable Delivery
10.5 TCP/IP protocol suite
10.6 Applications of UDP
10.7 TCP 3-Way Handshake Process
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• understanding services of transport layer
• difference between connection-oriented and connection-less service.
• Reliable vs Unreliable Delivery
• TCP 3-Way Handshake Process

Introduction
The fourth layer from the top is the transport layer. The transport layer's primary function is to
provide direct connectivity services to application processes operating on various hosts. The
transport layer allows application processes operating on separate hosts to communicate logically.
About the fact that application processes on separate hosts are not physically connected, application
processes use the transport layer's logical connectivity to transmit messages to one another. End
systems are equipped with transport layer protocols, but network routers are not. The network
programmes on a computer network may use more than one protocol. TCP and UDP, for example,
are two transport layer protocols that supply the network layer with separate networks.
Multiplexing/demultiplexing is supported by all transport layer protocols. It also offers other
features such as secure data transmission, guaranteed bandwidth, and guaranteed latency. Each
programme in the application layer is capable of sending a message over TCP or UDP as seen in
Figure 1. These two protocols are used by the programme to communicate. In the internet layer, both
TCP and UDP can connect with the internet protocol. The programmes have access to the transport
layer and can read and write to it. As a result, contact can be described as a two-way mechanism.

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Figure 1 Transport Layer

10.1 Services provided by the Transport Layer

The transport layer provides facilities that are identical to those offered by the data link layer. The
data link layer offers services within a single network, while the transport layer provides services
through several networks in an internetwork. The physical layer is controlled by the data link layer,
while the lower layers are controlled by the transport layer.

Figure 2 Services Provided by Transport Layer

The five types of services offered by transport layer protocols are as follows:

o End-to-end delivery
o Addressing
o Reliable delivery
o Flow control
o Multiplexing
End to End delivery
The transport layer sends the entire message to its intended recipient. As a result, it means that a
whole message is sent from source to destination.

Reliable delivery
Through retransmitting missing and corrupted packets, the transport layer delivers redundancy
services. The reliable delivery has four aspects:

o Error control
o Sequence control
o Loss control
o Duplication control

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Figure 3 Reliable Delivery

Error Control

o The primary role of reliability is Error Control. In reality, no transmission will be 100
percent error-free delivery. Therefore, transport layer protocols are designed to provide
error-free transmission.
o The data link layer also has an error management feature, but it only guarantees error-free
transmission from node to node. End-to-end reliability is not guaranteed by node-to-node
reliability.
o The data link layer examines each network for errors. If an error occurs within one of the
routers, the data link layer would not be able to detect it. It only detects errors that occurred
between the beginning and the end of the connection. As a result, the transport layer checks
for errors from beginning to end to guarantee that the packet arrives intact.

Figure 4 Error at Data Link Layer

Sequence Control
Sequence monitoring, which is applied at the transport layer, is the second component of reliability.
The transport layer is in charge of ensuring that packets obtained from the upper layers can be used
by the lower layers on the receiving end. It means that the different segments of a transmission can
be properly reassembled on the receiving end.

Loss Control
The third factor of durability is loss control. The transport layer means that all of a transmission's
fragments, not just any of them, arrive at their destination. A transport layer assigns sequence
numbers to all transmission fragments on the sending end. The receiver's transport layer will use
these sequence numbers to locate the missing portion.

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Duplicate Control
The fourth factor of durability is duplication control. The transport layer ensures that no redundant
data reaches its intended location. Sequence numbers are used to locate missing packets, as well as
to identify and discard duplicate fragments by the recipient.

Flow Control
Flow management is used to keep the sender from sending too many data to the recipient. When a
receiver is overwhelmed with files, it discards packets and requests that they be retransmitted. As a
result, network interference increases, lowering system performance. Flow regulation is handled by
the transport layer.

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is used by the transport layer to increase transmission reliability.

o Multiplexing can occur in two ways:

o Upward multiplexing: Upward multiplexing means multiple transport layer

connections use the same network connection. To make more cost-effective, the

transport layer sends several transmissions bound for the same destination along

the same path; this is achieved through upward multiplexing as seen in .

Figure 5 Upward Multiplexing

Downward multiplexing refers to the use of multiple network links through one transport layer link.
Downward multiplexing requires the transport layer to divide a link into multiple directions in order
to increase throughput. When networks have a low or sluggish bandwidth, this form of multiplexing
is used as seen in Figure 6.

Figure 6 Downward Multiplexing

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10.2 Difference between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless

Service
To build communications between two or more computers, Connection-oriented and Connection-
less Services are used. The establishment and termination of a link for sending data between two or
more devices is part of a connection-oriented service. Connectionless operation, on the other hand,
does not necessitate the establishment of any connection or termination mechanism in order to
transmit data over a network.

Connection-oriented service
A network infrastructure that was planned and built since the telephone system is known as a
connection-oriented service. Until sending data over the same or separate networks, a link-oriented
service is used to establish an end-to-end connection between the sender and the receiver. Packets
are delivered to the recipient in the same order as they were sent to the sender in connection-oriented
operation. It employs a handshake procedure to establish a link between the recipient and the sender
in order to transfer data over the network. As a result, it is often referred to as a dependable network
infrastructure. Assume a sender wishes to transmit data to a recipient. The sender then sends a
request packet in the form of a SYN packet to the recipient. After that, the receiver sends a (SYN-
ACK) signal/packets in response to the sender's message.
That signifies the recipient's acceptance of the sender's request to begin contact with the receiver. The
letter or data will now be sent to the recipient by the sender.

Figure 7 Connection-Oriented Communication

Similarly, a recipient may reply or send data in the form of packets to the sender. A sender may
terminate a link by sending a signal to the receiver after successfully exchanging or transmitting data.
As a result, we can conclude that it is a dependable network operation.
Example of connection-oriented is TCP.

TCP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that establishes links in the
same or separate networks to facilitate communication between two or more computer devices. That
is the most important protocol for transferring data from one end to the other using the internet
protocol. TCP/IP is the abbreviation for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

10.3 Connectionless Service

A link is similar to the postal system in that each letter follows a separate path from the source to the
destination address. In a network system, a connectionless service is used to transmit data from one
end to the other without establishing a link. As a result, no link must be established before
transmitting data from the sender to the recipient. It is not a dependable network service since it does
not guarantee the delivery of data packets to the receiver, and data packets will arrive at the receiver
in any order. As a result, the data packet does not follow a predetermined direction. The transmitted
data packet is not received by the recipient in a connectionless operation due to network interference,
and the data may be lost.

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Figure 8 Connectionless Communication

Since it is a connectionless service, a sender can transmit some data to the receiver without first
forming a link. The sender's data would be included in the packet or data sources that hold the
receiver's address. Data can be sent and received in any order in a connectionless operation.
However, it does not promise that the packets will be sent to the correct location.
Example of connectionless service is : UDP
The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that allows two or more devices to
communicate without having to create a link. A sender sends data packets to the receiver with the
destination address in this protocol. A UDP does not guarantee that data packets are sent to the right
destination or that the sender's data is acknowledged.
The difference between connection-oriented and connectionless is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Connection-oriented vs Connectionless service

Connection-oriented service Connectionless Service

It is built on the telephone system in terms of It is a postal system-based operation.

architecture and development.

Until sending data over the same or a separate It is used to transmit data packets from
network, it is used to provide an end-to-end senders to receivers without establishing a
link between the senders and the receiver. link.

It establishes a simulated connection between Between the sender and the recipient, no
the sender and the recipient. virtual link or route is established.

Before sending data packets to the recipient, it Before transmitting data packets, it does not
needs authentication. require authentication.

The sender's data packets are returned in the The order in which data packets are received
same order that they were delivered. differs from the order in which they are sent
by the sender.

The data packets must be sent over a larger The data packets must be sent over a low-
bandwidth. bandwidth connection.

As it ensures data packets pass from one end Since it does not guarantee the transmission of
to the other with a link, it is a more secure data packets from one end to the other in order
connection service. to create a link, it is not a secure connection
service.

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Since it provides an end-to-end link between Owing to the lack of an end-to-end link
the sender and receiver through data between the source and receiver for data
transmission, there is no interference. packet transmission, there could be
congestion.

A connection-oriented service is the Connectionless services include the User

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet Protocol
(IP), and Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP).

10.4 Reliable vs Unreliable Delivery

• If the application layer program needs reliability, we use a reliable transport layer protocol
by implementing flow and error control at the transport layer.
• This means a slower and more complex service.
• In the Internet, there are three common different transport layer protocols. UDP is
connectionless and unreliable.
• TCP and SCTP are connection oriented and reliable.

10.5 TCP/IP protocol suite

The original TCP IP protocol suite defines two transport layer protocols. One is UDP, and the other
is TCP, which we discussed when I taught you about the OSI model.

Position of UDP in the TCP/IP protocol suite

Figure 9 Position of UDP in the TCP/IP protocol suite

In this case, we'll start with a UDP, which is the easier of the two. Before we get into the TCP. We've
also developed a new transport protocol called SCTP.

UDP
So, first and foremost, we'll talk about the UDP protocol, which stands for user datagram protocol
in its full form. A connectionless and insecure transport protocol is what it's called. It adds little to
the IP's services other than providing process-to-process communication rather than HOST-to-HOST
communication. It also does only rudimentary error checking. Why does a mechanism want to use
UDP if it is too powerless? As a result of UDP. If there is a downside. It comes with a slew of benefits.
The main benefits are that UDP is a very basic protocol that uses very little overhead.
If a process needs to send a small message and isn't concerned about acknowledgement or reliability,
it should use UDP. Sending a small message with UDP requires much less contact between the sender
and the recipient than sending a small message with TCP or SCTP. We have well-known ports for
UDP, as seen in the Figure 10.
Few ports may be used for both UDP and TCP. For example, FTP can use port 21 for either UDP or
TCP. SNMP uses two port numbers, 161 and 162, with different purposes.

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Figure 10 Well Known Ports for UDP

UDP Header
The UDP header is an 8-byte defined and basic header, while the TCP header will range from 20 to
60 bytes. The first 8 bytes contain all required header information, while the remainder is text. Since
each UDP port number field is 16 bits long, the range for port numbers is 0 to 65535; port number 0
is reserved. Port numbers are used to differentiate between various user queries or processes.

Figure 11 UDP Datagram Protocol

Source Port : Source Port is a two-byte field that identifies the source's port number.
Destination Port: This is a two-byte field that identifies the destined packet's path.
Length: The length of UDP, including the header and data, is measured in bytes. It's a region of 16
bits.
Note: Checksum calculation is not needed in UDP, unlike TCP. UDP does not have error
management or flow control. As a result, UDP relies on IP and ICMP to record errors.

10.6 Applications of UDP

• When the size of the data is small, there is less concern for flow and error management,
because it is used for basic request-response communication.
• Since UDP supports packet swapping, it is a good protocol for multicasting.
• Few routing upgrade protocols, such as RIP, use UDP (Routing Information Protocol).
• Often used in real-time systems where uneven delays between portions of a sent message
cannot be tolerated.
• Following implementations uses UDP as a transport layer protocol:

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o NTP (Network Time Protocol)

o DNS (Domain Name Service)
o BOOTP, DHCP.
o NNP (Network News Protocol)
o Quote of the day protocol
o TFTP, RTSP, RIP.
Some activities may be performed by the application layer using UDP, such as route tracing, route
recording, and route time stamping.
UDP receives datagrams from the Network Layer, attaches their headers, and sends them to the
customer. As a result, it works quickly.
If you delete the checksum field from UDP, it becomes a null protocol.

1. Reduce the amount of computing resources used.

2. When transferring via Multicast or Broadcast.
3. Real-time packet transfer, primarily in multimedia applications

10.7 TCP 3-Way Handshake Process

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, which means it does everything to ensure the data is
transmitted in a secure manner.
The latest TCP/IP suite paradigm governs the mechanism of communication between devices over
the internet (stripped out version of OSI reference model).
The Application layer is the top layer of the TCP/IP architecture, from which client-side network
applications such as web browsers create connections with the server. The information is moved from
the application layer to the transport layer, which is where our subject appears.
TCP and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are two important protocols in this layer, with TCP being
the most common (since it provides reliability for the connection established). However, UDP can be
used to test the DNS registry in order to get the binary equivalent of the website's domain name.

Figure 12 TCP Handshake

Positive Acknowledgement with Re-transmission is a feature of TCP that ensures secure

communication (PAR). The transport layer's Protocol Data Unit (PDU) is known as segment. Still,
once it gets an acknowledgment, a system using PAR can resend the data unit. If the data unit
received at the receiver's end is corrupted (it scans the data with the transport layer's checksum
feature for Error Detection), the section is discarded. As a result, the sender must resend the data
device about which there is no positive acknowledgment.
As you can see from the above mechanism, three segments are exchanged between the sender (client)
and receiver (server) in order to create a secure TCP link as seen in Figure 13.

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Figure 13 Working

Stage 1 (SYN): In the first step, the client needs to create a link with the server, so it sends a segment
with SYN (Synchronize Sequence Number), which tells the server that the client is likely to begin
contact and with what sequence number it will begin segments.
Step 2 (SYN + ACK): When the server receives a client message, it sets the SYN-ACK signal bits.
Acknowledgement (ACK) denotes the answer of the segment it got, while SYN denotes the sequence
number from which it is likely to begin the segments.
Step 3 (ACK): In the final step, the client accepts the server's response and the two of them create a
secure link to begin the data transfer. The relation parameter (sequence number) for one direction is
established and acknowledged in steps 1 and 2. The relation parameter (sequence number) for the
other direction is established and acknowledged in steps 2 and 3. A full-duplex connectivity is
developed with these.
Note
When forming relations between the client and the server, the initial sequence numbers are chosen
at random.

Summary
• The transport layer of the OSI reference model allows direct data transmission between
source and destination machines by using network layer services such as IP to pass PDUs
of data between the two communicating machines.
• The transport layer is an end-to-end or source-to-destination layer. To ensure full data
sharing, the OSI Transport layer protocol (ISO-TP) manages end-to-end monitoring and
error checking. It allows “peer to peer” contact with the destination machine's transport
entity (remote peer).
• The transport layer adds a secure layer on top of the network layer's insecure networks.
Option negotiation among various quality of service criteria provides consumer
applications with efficient, dependable, and cost-effective transportation services.
• Flow control regulates data transfer between devices, ensuring that the transmitting device
sends no more data than the receiving device can handle. Data from multiple applications
can be sent over a single physical connection using multiplexing.
• On top of the network layer, transport primitives are an efficient means of transmitting data.
The transport layer facilities tend to be identical to those delivered at the data link layer.
However, they vary in several respects, with the data link layer using physical channels to
bind two routers and the transport layer using subnets.

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• UDP is a connectionless, insecure protocol that helps processes run faster by reducing the
burden on their CPUs. The performance challenges, which lack a scientific paradigm to back
them up, are backed up by personal perceptions and examples. They try to solve problems
in computer networks by testing network efficiency, designing systems for improved
performance, handling TPDUs quickly, and developing protocols for future high-
performance networks.

Keywords
Addressing: Addressing or tagging a frame is handled by the Transport Layer.
Connection Establishment Delay: That's the length of time it takes for the destination system to
accept that a connection has been demanded. Obviously, the shorter the wait time, the better the
service.
Connection Establishment Failure Probability: Because of network congestion, a lack of table
space, or other internal issues, the link does not develop within the defined delay.
Connection Establishment/Release: A naming function is used in the transport layer for forming
and releasing links across the network, so that a process on one computer may indicate with whom
it wants to interact.
Demultiplexing: Where multiple links are multiplexed, demultiplexing is needed at the receiving
end.
Error Control: To prevent errors caused by missing or overlapping segments, the transport layer
assigns specific segment sequence numbers to individual message packets, forming virtual circuits
with only one virtual circuit per session.
Flow Control: The fundamental principle of flow control is to keep a quick and slow mechanism in
synergy. The transport layer makes it possible for a fast process to keep up with a sluggish one.
Fragmentation: When the transport layer receives a large message from the session layer, it divides
the message into smaller units as required.
Multiplexing: The transport layer provides several network links to increase throughput.
Throughput: In a given time period, it specifies the amount of bytes of user data transmitted per
second. It is calculated separately for each contact source.
Transmission Control Protocol: It allows a secure data distribution service with error detection
and correction from beginning to end.
User Datagram Protocol(UDP): It is an insecure connectionless datagram protocol in which the
transmitting terminal does not validate if data has been received by the receiving terminal.

Review Questions
1. When the facilities delivered at both layers are almost identical, how is the transport layer
different from the data link layer?
2. Why transport layer is required when both the network and transport layers provide
connectionless and connection oriented services?
3. What are the different quality of services parameters at the transport layer?
4. Why UDP is used when it provides unreliable connectionless service to the transport layer?
5. What is the purpose of flow control?
6. Describe the TCP and its major advantages over UDP.

Self-Assessment
1. UDP known as
a. User Datagram Protocol
b. Unity Data Packet

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c. User datagram Packet

d. None of Above
2. TCP is a
a. Telnet Control Protocol
b. Transmission Cent Protocol
c. Transmission Control Protocol
d. None of above
3. FTP uses port
a. 22
b. 23
c. 24
d. 21
4. Which of the following is false with respect to UDP?
a. Connection-oriented
b. Unreliable
c. Transport layer protocol
d. Low overhead
5. What is the main advantage of UDP?
a. More overload
b. Reliable
c. Low overhead
d. Fast
6. The ______ field is used to detect errors over the entire user datagram.
a. udp header
b. checksum
c. source port
d. destination port
7. Which is the correct expression for the length of UDP datagram?
a. UDP length = IP length – IP header’s length
b. UDP length = UDP length – UDP header’s length
c. UDP length = IP length + IP header’s length
d. UDP length = UDP length + UDP header’s length
8. Port number used by Network Time Protocol (NTP) with UDP is ________
a. 161
b. 123
c. 162
d. 124
9. What is the header size of a UDP packet?
a. 8 bytes
b. 8 bits
c. 16 bytes
d. 124 bytes
10. Beyond IP, UDP provides additional services such as _______
a. Routing and switching
b. Sending and receiving of packets
c. Multiplexing and demultiplexing

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d. Demultiplexing and error checking

11. Beyond IP, UDP provides additional services such as _______
a. Routing and switching
b. Sending and receiving of packets
c. Multiplexing and demultiplexing
d. Demultiplexing and error checking
12. IP Security operates in which layer of the OSI model?
a. Network
b. Transport
c. Application
d. Physical

Self-Assessment Answers

1. a 2. c 3. d 4. a

5. c 6. b 7. a 8. b

9. a 10. d 11 d 12. a

Further Readings

Achyut S Godbole and Atul Kahate published, Web Technologies, Tata McGraw
Hill.

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,

McGraw-Hill Companies.

Douglas Comer, Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications, 4th
Edition, Prentice Hall.

Ferguson P., Huston G., Quality of Service: Delivering QoS on the Internet and in

Corporate Networks, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.

J. D. Spragins, Telecommunications Protocols and Design, Addison-Wesley.

McDysan, David E. and Darren L. Spohn. ATM Theory and Applications, McGraw-
Hill Osborne Media, 1998.

Nassar, Daniel J., Ethernet and Token Ring Optimization. iUniverse.com, 2000.

Spurgeon, Charles E. Ethernet, The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly & Associates, 2000.

William A Shay, Understanding Communication and Networks, 3rd Edition, Thomson

Press.

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 Unit 11: Transport layer - congestion control and QoS Notes
Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

Unit 11: Transport layer - congestion control and QoS

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 Data Traffic
11.2 Congestion Control
11.3 Quality of Service
11.4 Techniques to improve quality of service
11.5 Traffic Shaping
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment Answer
Further Readings

Objectives
• understand traffic descriptor and traffic profiles.
• understanding congestion control categories.
• learning flow characteristics.
• techniques to improve quality of service.
• learning traffic shaping techniques.

Introduction
So, first and foremost, congestion management and quality of service are two problems that are so
closely linked that improving one automatically improves the other. You're missing one strategy if
you're ignoring the other as well. As a result, most strategies for preventing or eliminating congestion
in a network often increase network quality of operation. A major target of congestion management
and quality of service is data traffic. In congestion control, we aim to reduce traffic congestion, and
in quality of service, we strive to build an optimal atmosphere for traffic.

11.1 Data Traffic

But, before we get into congestion management and service efficiency, let's take a look at data flow.
So, under the heading of data flow, we'll talk about two terms:

• traffic descriptors and

• traffic profiles.

Traffic Descriptor
You can see the data rate, absolute burst size peak rate, and average data rate in the Figure 1 below.
What does the information imply? The average data rate is the number of bits transmitted over time
divided by the number of seconds in that time, indicating how much data you will transmit in a given
second. The average data rate is a very helpful traffic characteristic because it shows how much
bandwidth the traffic requires on average.

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Figure 1 Traffic Descriptors

The maximum y axis value, the peak data rate, is a very significant metric, as you can see in the graph.
Peak data rate indicates that there is a sudden increase in traffic, which is why the bar is rising. Peak
data rate indicates that there was a lot of traffic at the time, and burst duration indicates how long
the traffic was at its peak. As a result, peak data rate is a critical metric since it shows the network's
maximum bandwidth, which is needed for traffic to flow without interruption. So, although the peak
data rate is certainly a key advantage for the network, the actual burst size should normally be
overlooked. if the peak value's period is very short. Let's look at a road case. Suddenly, there is a lot
of traffic because of an accident, so whether that traffic is just for a few seconds, or only a few minutes,
it is not going to affect any traffic, then we can tolerate this sort, but if it is for a long period of time,
it would certainly affect. So at the end, always remember that effective bandwidth is the bandwidth
that the network needs to allocate for the flow of traffic, the effective bandwidth is a function of three
values

Traffic Profiles
A data flow should provide one of the following traffic profiles for our purposes. As you can see in
the Figure 2, we have three figures: one for steady bitrate, another for volatile bitrate, and the third
for burst bitrate. I believe it is obvious from the diagram and the expression constant bitrate that it
refers to a fixed rate at which time the traffic is unchanged. There has been no improvement in traffic.
The traffic is moving at a really fast pace. As a result, the average data rate and peak data rate are
always the same in this form of traffic.

Figure 2 Three Traffic Profiles

The predictable network knows how much bandwidth to set aside for this kind of traffic ahead of
time. Variable bitrate is the next choice. In this class of segment, the rate of data flow varies over time,
implying that the changes are gradual rather than abrupt. There are days where there is more traffic
than there is when there is less traffic. We know what we do if the timing is nine to five if we are
operating with numbers, such as whether we are learning at a university or in a college. Right, but
there will undoubtedly be a lot of traffic at 5 p.m. But we'll certainly have to deal with traffic, and
there will be some variation: there will be a high, and then there will be a low.
As a result, rather than abrupt and sharp shifts, the data flow changes over time with gradual
transitions. The average data rate and the peak data rate are both different in this form of flow.
Typically, the maximal burst size is a small number. Since it does not need to be reshaped, this kind
of traffic is much more difficult to manage than continuous bitrate traffic. The next one is the bursty

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data rate, which gets its name from the fact that there was no traffic for a long time but then a massive
influx of traffic.
As a result, the data rate varies abruptly in a brief amount of time, implying that it is jumping from
zero. As an example, one Mbps can be converted to microseconds and vice versa. It's possible that
it'll stay at this level for a bit. Because of the abrupt shift in traffic, average bitrate and peak data rate,
or both, are different values in this situation. If you can see in the diagram, there was no data flow
when there was no traffic, but suddenly there is a lot of traffic. Bursty traffic congestion in the
network may occur if the demand on the network is greater than the network's capability. For
instance, there is excessive traffic on the road. The road's power was smaller than the load it could
handle. Congestion management refers to the mechanisms and procedures used to control
congestion and maintain load below availability. Congestion is a significant problem in a packet
switch network.

Network Performance
So, let's talk about network performance and how it affects it. As you can see in the diagram, there
are input queues and output queues. Since routers and switches have queues buffers that carry
packets before and after processing, network or inter network congestion exists.

Figure 3 Queues in a Router

Each interface on a router, for example, has its own input and output queue as seen in Figure 3. When
a packet is sent at the inbound terminal. There are three stages in the process. The packet is placed at
the bottom of the input queue and will be reviewed later. The packet is removed from the input
queue by the router's processing machine. The packet is placed in the proper output queue until it
enters the front of the queue and uses its routing table and destination address to locate the source.
And now it's your turn to submit. As a result, teachers, we must be mindful of two problems. If the
rate of packet arrival exceeds the rate of packet processing, so indeed. The input queues are becoming
increasingly long. The performance queue becomes longer and longer if the packet departure rate is
lower than the packet processing rate. As a function of load throughput, packet delay and throughput
indicate processor performance. So, congestion management requires two metrics that assess a
network's performance: throughput and delay throughput. Throughput refers to the network's
efficiency. If the power is less than the load, the throughput would inevitably be lower. When the
power exceeds the load. As a result, we will almost certainly achieve high network reliability,
allowing us to avoid congestion before it occurs or to alleviate congestion after it occurs as seen in
Figure 4.

Figure 4 Packet Delay and throughput as a function of Load

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11.2 Congestion Control

As a result, we can split these congestion management methods into two categories: open loop and
closed loop. Open loop refers to the avoidance of congestion before it occurs. Closed loop refers to
the steps that can be taken before congestion occurs.
• open-loop congestion control (prevention) and
• closed-loop congestion control (removal).
Now that we know the congestion has already happened, the next step is to figure out how to get rid
of it. I understand that there is still so much traffic on the lane, but I'm not sure how to alleviate it.

Figure 5 Categories of Congestion Control

Open Loop
To begin with, open loop, we are going to take several steps to avoid congestion and ensure that it
does not exist. So, we're going to talk about open loop congestion management strategies first, and
then we'll talk about other tactics. As a result, they are used to avoid congestion until it occurs. Either
the source or the destination is in charge of congestion management. Retransmission policy, window
policy, acknowledgment policy, discarding policy, and admission policy are some of the strategies
used in open loop.

Retransmission Policy
The first is a collection of retransmission policies. Retransmission is often inevitable if the sender
suspects that a packet has been destroyed or compromised, in which case the packets must be resent.
If you're retransmitting the packet, this is the case. It is certain that it will increase congestion. It is
likely that your packet will not meet its destination due to congestion because there is still so much
traffic, and your packet will get trapped in the traffic. But, if you retransmit it, it will increase traffic,
potentially increasing network congestion.
A successful retransmission strategy, on the other hand, will avoid congestion. What we should do
here is plan the retransmission protocol and retransmission timers to maximise reliability while still
preventing congestion. TCP's retransmission strategy, for example, is intended to avoid or reduce
congestion.

Window policy
The second is the window policy. We're talking about a selective repeat window, as you can probably
tell from the label. As a result, congestion can be affected in this kind of window at the sender. For
congestion management, the Selective Repeat Window is preferable to the Go Back. We've also
covered these two strategies in previous videos: selective repeat and go back N.
Congestion can also be affected by the type of window on the sender side. Although several packets
may be successfully received at the receiver side, some packets in the Go-back-n window are resent.
This duplication has the potential to worsen the network's congestion. As a result, the Selective
Repeat Window can be used because it sends the same packet that was missed.

Discarding Policy
A positive discarding strategy implemented by routers is that it allows them to avoid congestion
while still partly discarding compromised or less sensitive packages while maintaining message

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accuracy. When transmitting audio files, routers will discard less sensitive packets to avoid
congestion while maintaining the audio file's consistency.

Acknowledgment Policy
Since recognition is a component of network load, the acknowledgment policy enforced by the
recipient may have an impact on congestion. Congestion caused by acknowledgment can be avoided
using a variety of methods. Rather than sending acknowledgement for a single packet, the receiver
should send acknowledgement for N packets. And when a packet must be sent or a timer expires
should the recipient send an acknowledgment.

Admission Policy
A system should be used in admission policies to avoid congestion. Until transmitting a network
flow further, switches in a flow can review the resource requirements. To avoid more congestion, the
router should refuse building a virtual network link if there is a risk of congestion or if the network
is still congested.

Closed Loop
In the closed loop strategy, we attempt to alleviate congestion after it has occurred. Different
protocols will utilize a variety of mechanisms to accomplish their goals. So, the first is back pressure.

Back Pressure
As seen in the diagram below. Back pressure refers to a congestion control mechanism in which a
congestion node blocks data from the upstream node or nodes it is connected to. Back pressure is a
node to node congestion control that starts with the node and propagates in the opposite direction of
a data flow to the source, back pressure is a node to node congestion control that starts with the node
and propagates in the opposite direction of a data flow to the source, only a virtual circuit network
in which each node knows the upstream node for whom a data flow is arriving may use the
backpressure approach. Backpressure, as seen in the picture, indicates that they are moving in the
other direction. Assume that node three in the Figure 6 receives more data than it can process. So,
node three node three, we have congestion indicated on the diagram, which indicates it has more
input data, which means capacity is smaller but demand is greater. Congestion has already happened
at this time.

Figure 6 Backpressure

So, what it will do is drop some packets in their input buffer, and it will surely tell the node to
upstream mode, which means it will notify the node instantly that it is connected to this. As a result,
it will tell the node to slow down. Please don't send me any more packets, since node two will
undoubtedly alert node one. If node two is congested, it notifies node one to slow down, which may
cause congestion. If this is the case, node one notifies the source offer data that it should slow down.
This, in turn, relieves congestion over time. It's worth noting that the pressure on node three is
directed backwards to the source in order to relieve congestion; they aren't immediately informing
the source. They're alerting the upstream node; node three is telling node two to shut down; node
two will check to see if it's already full, and then it'll tell node one to shut down; node one will tell
the source to slow down; and node one will tell the source not to transmit any more packets. Because
there is already congestion on the network, they are not immediately telling the source in the event
of backpressure.

Choke Packet
Choke packets are packets delivered by a node to the source warning them of congestion. They are
directly telling the source of the congestion. The backpressure approach differs from the choke packet
approach in that the warning is sent from one node to its upstream node. Although the warning may
finally reach the source station in the choke packet, it is from the router, which has met congestion
straight to the source station. The intermediary nodes, such as node second or node first, through
which the packet has passed, are not being alerted here.

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Figure 7 Choke Packet

The Figure 7 is drawn here, as you can see in the illustration. This form of control may be seen in the
ICMP Internet Control Message Protocol, as you can see. When an internet router becomes
overburdened with IP datagrams. It's possible that some of them will be discarded. So, it sends a
source quench ICMP message (Internet Control Message Protocol) to the source code, and the
warning message is sent straight to the source station, bypassing the intermediate routers. I have
informed you that the ICMP packet is the lowest priority packet when I taught you about the ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol.

Implicit Signaling
If there is no communication between the crowded node and the source, who will inform about the
congestion? In this instance, the source will assume that the network is crowded, especially if it has
been for a long time. Because the source is not receiving any type of acknowledgement or attention,
it will presume that the network is congested. When a sender sends several packets and no
acknowledgement is received over an extended period of time, the source will assume that there is a
congestion and that packets are not arriving.

Explicit Signaling
If a node encounters congestion, it will send a packet to the source or destination to advise them of
the problem. As a result, congestion can occur as a result of the packet or the acknowledgement. As
a result, it is also a responsibility to tell both the source and the destination about the congestion. As
a result, explicit communication can take place in either a forward or a backward manner. When
forward signalling is used, the signal is transmitted towards the direction of the congestion. The
destination is alerted to the traffic. There is a source node destination node in the case of forward
destination means the destination. In the case of a forward signalling receiver, use the following
strategies to avoid further congestion. In the instance of backward signalling, informed sources
advised that it was necessary to slow down and stop transmitting extra packets due to congestion.

11.3 Quality of Service

Quality of service (QoS) is an internetworking topic that has gotten more attention than it has been
defined. Informally, we might describe quality of service as something that a flow strives towards.

Flow Characteristics
A flow has traditionally been assigned four characteristics: reliability, delay, jitter, and bandwidth as
shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Flow Characteristics

Reliability
A flow requires the quality of reliability. Losing a packet or acknowledgement due to a lack of
dependability necessitates retransmission. The sensitivity of application programmes to
dependability, on the other hand, is not the same. Electronic mail, file transfer, and Internet
connection, for example, are more crucial than phone or audio conferencing in terms of reliability.

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Delay
Another flow feature is source-to-destination latency. Again, various applications may tolerate
delays to varying degrees. Telephony, audio conferencing, video conferencing, and remote log-in all
require minimal latency in this situation, whereas file transmission and e-mail are less critical.

Jitter
Jitter is the difference in delay between packets in the same flow. For example, if four packets leave
at 0:01:02:03 and arrive at 20:21:22:23, they all have the same 20-unit delay. If the aforementioned four
packets arrive at 21, 23, 21, and 28, on the other hand, they will have distinct delays: 21,22, 19, and
24.
The first scenario is perfectly suitable for audio and video applications; the second situation is not. It
makes no difference whether the packets arrive with a small or lengthy delay for these applications
as long as the delay is consistent across all packets. The second example is not acceptable for this
application. The variance in packet delay is referred to as jitter. High jitter denotes a considerable
variance in delays; low jitter denotes a modest variance.

Bandwidth
Various applications necessitate various bandwidths. To refresh a colour screen in video
conferencing, we need to transfer millions of bits every second, although the total amount of bits in
an e-mail may not even approach a million.

11.4 Techniques to improve quality of service

We go through various approaches that may be utilized to improve service quality. We'll go through
four typical ways briefly: scheduling, traffic shaping, admission control, and resource reservation.

Scheduling
Different flows of packets arrive at a switch or router for processing. A smart scheduling strategy
balances and appropriately distributes the various flows. Several scheduling approaches have been
developed to improve service quality. Three of them are discussed in this article: FIFO queuing,
priority queuing, and weighted fair queuing.
FIFO Queuing
Packets wait in a buffer (queue) until the node (router or switch) is ready to handle them in first-in,
first-out (FIFO) queuing. The queue will fill up if the average arrival rate is higher than the average
processing rate, and incoming packets will be deleted. Those who have had to wait for a bus at a bus
stop are familiar with a FIFO queue. Figure 9 is a conceptual representation of a FIFO queue?

Figure 9 FIFO Queuing

Priority Queuing
Packets are initially assigned to a priority class in priority queuing. There is a separate queue for each
priority class. The highest-priority queue packets are handled first. The lowest-priority queue packets
are handled last. It's worth noting that the system doesn't cease servicing a queue until it's completely
empty. demonstrates priority queuing with two degrees of priority. Figure 10 demonstrates priority
queuing with two degrees of priority.

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Figure 10 Priority Queuing

Because higher-priority traffic, such as multimedia, may reach its destination with less latency, a
priority queue can provide better QoS than a FIFO queue. There is, however, a possible disadvantage.
If a high-priority queue has a continuous flow, packets in lower-priority queues will never be
processed. This is referred to as starving.

Weighted Fair Queuing

Weighted fair queuing is a superior scheduling strategy. The packets are still allocated to distinct
classes and accepted to distinct queues using this method. The queues, on the other hand, are
weighted according to their priority; a greater priority indicates a larger weight.

Figure 11 Weighted Fair Queuing

The system processes packets in each queue round-robin, with the number of packets chosen from
each queue dependent on their weight. For example, if the weights are 3, 2, and 1, the first queue
processes three packets, the second queue two, and the third queue one.
All weights can be equal if the system does not assign priority to the classes. As a result, we have fair
and prioritised queuing. The methodology is shown in Figure 11 with three classes.

11.5 Traffic Shaping

Traffic shaping is a method of controlling the volume and pace of data transmitted over a network.
Leaky bucket and token bucket are two strategies that may be used to shape traffic.

Leaky Bucket Algorithm

Water leaks from a bucket with a tiny hole at the bottom at a consistent pace as long as there is water
in the bucket. Unless the bucket is empty, the pace at which the water leaks is unrelated to the pace
at which the water is added to it. The input rate can change, but the output rate is always the same.
In networking, a method known as leaky bucket helps smooth out spikes in traffic. Bursty pieces are
collected in a bucket and distributed at a steady rate. Figure 12 depicts the impacts of a leaking bucket.

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Figure 12 Leaky Bucket Algorithm

In the diagram, we suppose that the network has allocated 3 Mbps of bandwidth to a host. The leaky
bucket is used to shape the input traffic so that it adheres to the commitment. Figure 12 shows a total
of 24 Mbits of data, the host delivers a burst of data at a rate of 12 Mbps for 2 seconds. After 5 seconds
of silence, the host delivers data at a rate of 2 Mbps for 3 seconds, totaling 6 Mbits of data. The host
has transmitted 30 Mbits of data in lOs in total. The leaky bucket smooths traffic by transmitting data
at a 3 Mbps rate over the same 10 seconds. The first burst may have harmed the network if it hadn't
been for the leaky bucket, since it would have consumed more bandwidth than was allocated to this
server. We can also understand how the leaking bucket may help to avoid congestion. Consider the
motorway at rush hour as an example (bursty traffic). Congestion on our highways may be
eliminated if commuters simply stagger their working hours.

Figure 13 Leaky Bucket Implementation

Figure 13 depicts a simple leaky bucket implementation. The packets are stored in a FIFO queue. If
the traffic is made up entirely of fixed-size packets. At each tick of the clock, the operation eliminates
a set number of packets from the queue. If the traffic is made up of packets of varying lengths, the
fixed output rate must be determined by the amount of bytes or bits.

Token Bucket
Having a leaking bucket is really restricting. An idle host is not credited. For example, if a host does
not send for an extended period of time, its bucket will become empty. The leaky bucket now only
supports an average rate if the host has bursty data. The duration of the host's inactivity is not taken
into account. The token bucket method, on the other hand, allows idle hosts to save credit for the
future in the form of tokens. The system transfers n tokens to the bucket for each tick of the clock. For
each cell (or byte) of data supplied, the system eliminates one token. The bucket accumulates 10,000
tokens if n is 100 and the host is idle for 100 ticks. The host can now eat all of these tokens in a single
tick with 10,000 cells, or 1000 ticks with 10 cells each. In other words, as long as the bucket isn't empty,
the host can deliver bursty data. Figure 14 demonstrates the concept.

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Figure 14 Token Bucket Algorithm

A counter may simply be used to implement the token bucket. The token's value is set to zero. The
counter is increased by one each time a token is inserted. The counter is decremented by one each
time a unit of data is transmitted. The host is unable to transfer data when the counter is 0.

Combining token bucket and leaky bucket

Both strategies can be used together to credit an idle host while also regulating traffic. After the token
bucket, the leaky bucket is used; the rate of the leaky bucket must be greater than the rate of tokens
dropped in the bucket.

Resource Reservation
A data flow necessitates the use of resources such as a buffer, bandwidth, and CPU time, among
others. When these resources are booked ahead of time, the quality of service is increased. In this
part, we'll look at one QoS model called Integrated Services, which relies significantly on resource
reservation to improve service quality.

Admission Control
Admission control is the process by which a router or switch accepts or rejects a flow based on
established parameters known as flow requirements. Before accepting a flow for processing, a router
examines the flow specifications to verify if the router's capacity (bandwidth, buffer size, CPU speed,
and so on) and past commitments to other flows are sufficient to handle the incoming flow.

Summary
• When there are too many packets in one region of the network, the subnet's performance
suffers. As a result, a network's communication channel is considered crowded if packets
transiting the path incur delays that are much greater than the way's propagation delay.
When packets never reach their destination, the delay approaches infinite, this is referred to
as extremely congested.
• The terms "congestion control" and "flow control" are not interchangeable. Flow control is
concerned with point-to-point traffic between a particular source host and a specific
destination host, whereas congestion is a global phenomena affecting all hosts, all routers,
the store-and-forward processing within the routers, and so on.
• The computer network, which is also a system, is separated into two categories according
to control theory. There are two types of solutions: open loop and closed loop.
• The traffic management capability helps you to make the most of your network's resources
while also ensuring that resources that haven't been expressly assigned are used efficiently.
The majority of traffic management will be determined by transmit priority and bandwidth
availability. Delay-sensitive traffic is given a higher transmit priority in the transmit
priority.

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• The leaky bucket technique is used in network traffic shaping and rate limiting applications.
The technique allows you to manage the rate at which data is injected into a network,
allowing you to handle data rate burstiness.

Keywords
Congestion: When packets crossing a network's communication channel incur delays that are much
greater than the path's propagation delay, the channel is said to be congested.
IP Address: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
(e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication.
IP Protocol: The Internet Protocol Suite's datagrams (packets) are relayed across an internetwork
using the Internet Protocol Suite's Internet Protocol (IP).
Traffic Shaping: Attempts to normalise the average data transfer rate.

Review Questions
1. Explain the general principles of congestion.
2. What do you understand by QoS? Describe the basic QoS structure.
3. Discuss the following two algorithms:
a. Leaky Bucket
b. Token Bucket
4. What are two types of congestion control? Where is congestion control implemented in
each case?
5. Explain all traffic shaping techniques.
6. Write down techniques to improve quality of service.
7. Difference between token bucket and leaky bucket algorithm.

Self-Assessment
1. The technique in which a congested node stops receiving data from the immediate upstream
node or nodes is called as
a. Explicit signalling
b. Back pressure
c. Implicit signalling
d. Redundant signals
2. A leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed-rate traffic by averaging the
a. Data rate
b. Average rate
c. Traffic rate
d. Traffic shaping
3. Two classes of services have been defined for
a. Integrated services
b. Quality data services
c. Technical services
d. Protocol services
4. In open-loop congestion control, policies are applied to
a. Prevent congestion
b. Discard congestion
c. Maximize congestion

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d. Eliminate congestion
5. A mechanisim to control the amount and the rate of the traffic sent to the network is called
a. Traffic congestion
b. Traffic flow
c. Traffic control
d. Traffic shaping
6. Scheduling is done by
a. Weighted fair queuing
b. FIFO
c. Random
d. LIFO
7. Which of the following is a congested control algorithm.
a. The leaky bucket
b. Token bucket
c. Resource reservation
d. All of above
8. In Congestion Control, the packet is put at the end of the input queue while waiting to be
a. checked
b. entered
c. read
d. interpret
9. Integrated Services is based on flow based Quality OF Service model designed for
a. CPU
b. Data Node
c. IP
d. Traffic Shaping
10. The token bucket can easily be implemented with a counter, initialized by
a. 0
b. 1
c. -1
d. -2
11. In Congestion, to define the maximum data rate of the traffic we use
a. Average Data Packet
b. Peak Data Rate
c. Packet Data Rate
d. Average Data Rate
12. In Congestion, the maximum burst size normally refers to the maximum length of time the
traffic is generated at the
a. Average Rate
b. Packet Rate
c. Protocol Rate
d. Peak Rate

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Self-Assessment Answer
1. b 2. a 3. a 4. a

5. d 6. d 7. d 8. a

9. c 10. a 11. b 12. d

Further Readings
Achyut S Godbole and Atul Kahate, Web Technologies, Tata McGraw Hill.
Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Companies.
Douglas Comer, Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications, 4th
Edition, Prentice Hall.
Ferguson P., Huston G., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998. Quality of Service: Delivering
QoS on the Internet and in Corporate Networks.
J. D. Spragins, Telecommunications Protocols and Design, Addison Wesley.
McDysan, David E. and Darren L. Spohn, ATM Theory and Applications, McGraw-
Hill Osborne Media, 1998.
Nassar, Daniel J., Ethernet and Token Ring Optimization, iUniverse.com, 2000.
Spurgeon, Charles E. Ethernet, The Definitive Guide. O’Reilly & Associates, 2000.
William A Shay, Understanding Communication and Networks, 3rd Edition, Thomson
Press.

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

Unit 12: Application layer – services and protocols

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
12.1 Telnet Commands
12.2 File Transfer Mode(FTP)
12.3 E-mail
12.4 POP and IMAP3
12.5 Domain Name System(DNS)
12.6 World Wide Web (WWW)
12.7 Hypertext transfer protocol
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self-Assessment
Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• understand Telnet, FTP
• understand E-mail, POP, IMAP
• understand domain name system
• understand WWW and HTTP

Introduction
Terminal NETwork is the abbreviation for Terminal Network. It's a protocol that allows one device
to communicate with another on the same network. It is a basic TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal
services that is provided by ISO. The local machine is the one that initiates the communication. The
remote computer is the computer to which the connection is made, i.e. the computer that recognises
the connection. When the link between the local and remote computers is created. During a telnet
session, whatever is going on on the remote computer is viewed on the local computer. Telnet works
on a client/server model. The telnet client software is used on the local computer, while the telnet
server programme is used on the remote computer.

12.1 Telnet Commands

A prefix character, Interpret As Command (IAC), with the code 255, is used to identify telnet
commands. After IAC, there are command and choice codes. The command's basic format is seen in
the Table 1 below.
Table 1Telnet Command Format

IAC Command Option

Code Code

The Table 2 are some of the most commonly used TELNET commands:

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Table 2 Telnet Commands

Character Decimal Binary Meaning

WILL 251 11111011 1. Offering to enable.

2. Accepting a request
to enable.

WON’T 252 11111100 1. Rejecting a request

to enable.
2. Offering to disable.
3. Accepting a request
to disable.

DO 253 11111101 1. Approving a

request to enable.
2. Requesting to
enable.

DON’T 254 11111110 1. Disapproving a

request to enable.
2. Approving an offer
to disable.
3. Requesting to
disable.

The Table 3 are some commonly used telnet options:

Table 3 Telnet Options

Code Option Meaning

0 Binary This translates to an 8-bit

binary transmission.

1 Echo It will repeat the information

obtained from one hand to the
other.

3 Suppress go ahead After info, it will switch off the

go-ahead signal.

5 Status It will inquire about TELNET's

position.

6 Timing mark It establishes the timing

markers.

8 Line Width It determines the width of the

rows.

9 Page Size It determines how many lines

are on a list.

24 Terminal type It was used to specify the

terminal type.

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32 Terminal Speed It regulated the terminal's

pace.

34 Line Mode It will switch to line mode.

Operational Modes:

Most telnet implementation operates in one of the following three modes :

• Default mode
• Character mode
• Line mode

Default Mode

• This mode is used if none of the other modes are invoked.

• In this mode, the client performs the echoing.
• In this mode, the user types a character, and the client enchoes it on the screen, but it does
not submit it until the whole line is over.

Character Mode

• In this mode, each character typed by the client is sent to the server.
• In this mode, the server usually enchoes the character to be viewed on the client's computer.

Line Mode

• Line editing like echoing, character erasing etc is done from the client side.
• Client will send the whole line to the server.

12.2 File Transfer Mode(FTP)

FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is an application layer protocol that allows you to transfer files between
local and remote file systems. It, like HTTP, runs on top of TCP. FTP uses two TCP links in parallel
to pass a file: a control link and a data connection as seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1 File Transfer Protocol

What is control connection?

FTP uses a control link to send control information such as user identity, passwords, commands to
modify the remote directory, commands to retrieve and store files, and so on. On port number 21,
the control link is created.

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What is data connection?

FTP allows use of a data link to transfer the entire request. On port number 20, a data link is created.
Since FTP uses a different control link, the control information is sent out-of-band. Some protocols
use the same TCP link to transmit their request and response header lines, as well as the data. They
are said to give their control details in-band as a result of this. HTTP and SMTP are two examples of
this.

FTP Session
When a client and server have an FTP session, the client establishes a control TCP connection with
the server. Over this, the client sends control detail. When the server receives this information, it
establishes a data link with the client. Over a single data link, only one file can be sent. The control
link, on the other hand, is kept active during the user session. HTTP is stateless, which means it does
not need to keep track of any user state. However, FTP must keep track of the user's status during
the session.

Data Structures
FTP supports three different kinds of data structures:
File Structure – There is no internal structure of file-structure, and the file is treated as a single series
of data bytes.
Record Structure – A file with a record structure is made up of consecutive entries.
Page Structure – A file with a page structure is made up of separate indexed files.
FTP Commands
Some FTP commands are as follows:
USER: The user identifier is sent to the server with this instruction.
PASS: The user password is sent to the server with this instruction.
CWD: This command helps the user to store or retrieve files in a separate directory or dataset
without changing his username or accounting records.
RMD: The directory listed in the path-name is deleted as a directory with this instruction.
MKD: This command creates a directory in the directory defined by the pathname.
PWD: The name of the current working directory is returned in the response from this order.
RETR: This command instructs the remote host to establish a data link and transfer the requested
file over it.
STOR: This order triggers a file to be saved in the remote host's current directory.
LIST: Sends a document for a list of all the files in the directory to be shown.
ABOR: This order instructs the server to terminate the previous FTP service command and all data
transfers associated with it.
QUIT: This order terminates a USER, and the server closes the control connection if no file transfer
is in progress.
FTP Responses – Some of the FTP responses are as follows:
200 Command okay.
530 Not logged in.
331 User name okay, need a password.
225 Data connection open; no transfer in progress.
221 Service closing control connection.
551 Requested action aborted: page type unknown.
502 Command not implemented.

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503 Bad sequence of commands.

504 Command not implemented for that parameter.

Anonymous FTP
On certain pages with publicly accessible files, anonymous FTP is allowed. These files can be accessed
without the use of a username or password. Instead, by contrast, the username is anonymous and
the password is visitor. User access is severely restricted here. The user can be able to copy files but
not move through folders, for example.

12.3 E-mail
Electronic mail (e-mail) is one of the most used Internet services. This service enables an Internet user
to send a formatted message (mail) to another Internet user located anywhere in the world. Messages
in the mail contain not only text, but also photographs, audio, and video files. The person who sends
mail is known as the sender, and the person who collects mail is known as the receiver. It's similar to
the postal mail service.

Components of E-Mail System:

The following are the main components of an email system: User Agent (UA), Message Transfer
Agent (MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. This are clarified in the following paragraphs:
User Agent(UA): The UA is usually a service that sends and receives mail. It is also known as a mail
reader. It supports a wide range of commands for sending, receiving, and replying to messages, as
well as manipulating mailboxes.

Message Transfer Agent(MTA):

MTA is in charge of transferring mail from one device to another. A device must have both a client
MTA and a system MTA in order to send email. If the receivers are wired to the same machine, it
sends mail to their mailboxes. If the destination mailbox is on another node, it sends mail to a peer
MTA. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to deliver messages from one MTA to another as seen in
Figure 2.

Figure 2 Message Transfer Agent

Mailbox
It's a local hard drive disc that collects e-mails. This file contains delivered emails. The user can read
it or delete it depending on his or her needs. Each customer must have a mailbox in order to use the
e-mail system. Just the mailbox user has access to the mailbox.

Spool File
This file holds all of the emails that need to be sent. SMTP is used by the user agent to append
outgoing mails to this register. For distribution, MTA removes pending mail from the spool register.
In e-mail, a single name, known as an alias, may be used to describe several e-mail addresses.

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Whenever a user has to send a post, the machine checks the name of the receiver against the alias
database. If a mailing list is present for a given alias, separate messages must be prepared and handed
to MTA, one for each entry in the list. If no mailing list exists for the given alias, the name becomes
the identifying address, and a single letter is sent to the mail transfer individual.

Services provided by E-mail system:

Composition:
The term "composition" refers to the method of creating messages and responses. Every kind of text
editor may be used to compose.

Transfer
The sending of mail from the sender to the receiver is referred to as a transfer.

Reporting
The term "reporting" applies to the announcement of postal delivery. It allows users to see if their
mail has been delivered, lost, or rejected.

Displaying
It applies to current mail in a format that the user can comprehend.

Disposition
This move is concerned with the recipient's behaviour after receiving mail, such as saving it, deleting
it before reading it, or deleting it after reading it.

12.4 POP and IMAP3

Both POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) and IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) are MAA (Message
Accessing Agent) protocols that are used to retrieve messages from the mail server and deliver them
to the recipient's device. Spam and virus filters are aware of all of these protocols. POP3 is more rigid
and complex than IMAP.

Difference Between POP3 and IMAP: Table 4 Difference between POP3 and IMAP.
Table 4 Difference between POP3 and IMAP

Post Office Protocol Internet message access protocol (IMAP)

POP is a straightforward protocol that allows IMAP is a more sophisticated protocol that
you to download messages from your Inbox to helps you to see all of the folders on the mail
your machine. server.

On port 110, the POP server listens, and on port On port 143, the IMAP server listens, and on
995, the POP with SSL safe (POP3DS) server port 993, the IMAP with SSL secure(IMAPDS)
listens. server listens.

POP3 allows you to view your email from just Messages are accessible from a variety of
one computer at a time. platforms.

It is necessary to download the mail on the local Before downloading the message, you can read
machine in order to read it. it in half.

The recipient cannot organise his or her emails The emails can be organised directly on the
in the mail server's mailbox. mail server by the recipient.

On the mail server, the user cannot make, erase, On the mail server, the user will build, erase,
or rename emails. and rename emails.

Before uploading mail to the local system, the Until uploading, a user can scan the content of
user cannot browse the content. an email for a certain string.

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There are two modes available: delete and keep. Multiple backup backups of the letter are stored
on the mail system, so that even if a local
After retrieval, the mail is removed from the
server's message is lost, the mail will still be
mailbox in delete mode.
recovered.
The mail is kept in the mail box after retrieval
in keep mode.

Local email tools can be used to make changes Online interface or email programme changes
to the mail. are synchronised with the server.

Many of the messages are downloaded at the Prior to uploading, the message header can be
same time. accessed.

12.5 Domain Name System(DNS)

DNS is a service that converts a host's name to an IP address. The Domain Name System (DNS) is a
hierarchical network that is applied as a hierarchy of name servers. It's an application layer protocol
that allows clients and servers to send and receive messages.

Requirement
A host is known by its IP address, but people have a hard time recalling numbers, and IP addresses
are not static, so a mapping is needed to convert a domain name to an IP address. As a result, DNS
is used to transform a website's domain name to a numerical IP address.

Domain
There are many types of DOMAIN:

1. Generic Domain: All of these are common domains:.com (commercial),.edu

(educational),.mil (military),.org (non-profit organisation), and.net (similar to commercial).
2. Country domain .in (india) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain
name mapping. So, DNS can provide both the mapping for example to find the ip addresses
of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type nslookup www.geeksforgeeks.org.

Figure 3 Organization of Domain

It is very difficult to determine the IP address associated with a website and there are millions of
them. With all of those websites, we should be able to produce the IP address almost instantly; there
should be no significant delay. Database organisation is critical.

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DNS Record
What is the validity of a domain name and an IP address? What time is it to live? as well as other
details pertaining to the domain name These documents are organised in a tree-like format.

Namespace
A list of titles that can be either flat or hierarchical. A naming scheme retains a list of name-to-value
bindings – given a name, a resolution function returns the value that corresponds to it.

Name Server
It's a resolution process that's been put into action. DNS (Domain Name System) is an Internet name
service. A zone is an administrative entity, and a domain is a subtree.

Name to Address Resolution

The host requests that the domain name be resolved by the DNS name server. The name server then
returns to the host the IP address that corresponds to that domain name, allowing the host to bind to
that IP address in the future.

Figure 4 Name Address Resolution

Hierarchy of Name Servers

Root name servers: Name servers that are unable to address the name touch it. If the name mapping
is unknown, it contacts the authoritative name server. The mapping is then obtained, and the IP
address is returned to the host.
Top level server: It's in charge of com, org, and edu, as well as all top-level country domains like
uk, fr, ca, and in. They have information on authoritative domain servers and know the names and
IP addresses of each second-level domain's authoritative name server.
Authoritative name servers: This is the DNS registry for the enterprise, and it provides
authoritative hostname to IP routing for the organization's servers. It can be kept up to date by a
company or a service provider. To get to cse.dtu.in, we must first query the root DNS server, which
will then direct us to the top-level domain server, and finally to the authoritative domain name
server, which contains the IP address. As a result, the associative ip address will be returned by the
authoritative domain server.

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Figure 5 Domain name server

The client computer sends a request to the local name server, which, if root cannot locate the address
in its database, sends a request to the root name server, which then routes the request to an
intermediate or authoritative name server. Any hostName to IP address mappings can also be found
on the root name server. The definitive name server is still known to the intermediate name server.
Finally, the IP address is returned to the local name server, which then forwards it to the host.

12.6 World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web, also known as the web, is abbreviated as WWW. In 1989, CERN (European
Library for Nuclear Research) launched the World Wide Web.

History
It's a project started in 1989 by Timothy Berner's Lee to help CERN researchers collaborate more
efficiently. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is a non-profit organisation dedicated to
furthering web growth. Tim Berners-Lee, dubbed the "Father of the Internet," is in charge of this
organisation.

System Architecture
From the user's perspective, the internet is a large, global network of documentation or web sites.
Each page can provide links to other sites on the internet. The pages can be retrieved and accessed
using a variety of browsers, including Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome, and
others. The browser retrieves the requested page, interprets the text and formatting commands on it,
and shows the page on the screen, correctly formatted.
The fundamental model of how the internet operates is shown in the Figure 6 below. On the client
computer, the browser is viewing a web address. When a user clicks on a line of text that links to a
page on the abd.com site, the browser follows the hyperlink by requesting the page from the abd.com
server.

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Figure 6 Basic model of web

The browser is now viewing a web page from the client computer. When a user clicks on a line of
text that links to an abd.com website, the vbrowser supports the hyperlink by submitting a request
to the abd.com server for the page.

Working of WWW
Web servers, Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) are
among the technologies that make up the World Wide Web (HTTP).
To view webpages, you'll need a Web server. Web browsers are applications that use the Internet to
view text, documents, images, animation, and video.
Web browsers provide a software interface for accessing hyperlinked resources on the World Wide
Web. Initially, Web browsers were mainly used for browsing the Internet, but they have since been
more widely used. Web browsers can be used for a variety of functions, including searching, mailing,
and uploading files, among others. Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google chrome are some of
the most popular browsers.

Features of WWW

• HyperText Information System

• Cross-Platform
• Distributed
• Open Standards and Open Source
• Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services
• Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
• “Web 2.0”

Components of Web
The site is made up of three parts:
Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a web-based resource management system.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and server.
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines structure, organization and content of webpage.

12.7 Hypertext transfer protocol

The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol. Tim Berner is the
one who came up with the idea. HyperText is a particular category of text that is coded using a
common coding language known as HyperText Markup Language (HTML). HTTP/2 is the most
recent version of HTTP, released in May 2015. HyperText Transmission Protocol is a collection of
protocols for transferring hypertext between two computers.

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HTTP establishes a networking protocol between a web browser and a web server. It's a series of
guidelines for moving data from one device to another. On the World Wide Web, data such as text,
photographs, and other multimedia files are exchanged. When a computer user opens their tab, they
are inadvertently using HTTP. It's an implementation protocol for hypermedia knowledge systems
that are distributed and interactive.

How it works
To begin, if we want to access a website, we must first open a web browser and then enter the
website's URL (e.g., www.facebook.com ). This URL has now been forwarded to the Domain Name
Server (DNS). The DNS server will then search their cache for records for this URL, and then return
an IP address to the web browser that corresponds to this URL. The browser will now send requests
to the actual server as seen in Figure 7.
The link will be closed until the server has sent data to the device. If we want something different
from the server, we must re-establish the relationship between the client and the server.
The connection will be ended once the server has sent data to the client. If we want anything different
from the server, we must re-establish the connection between the client and the server.

Figure 7 HTTP Connection

History
Tim Berners-Lee and his CERN team are credited with creating HTTP and related technologies.

1. HTTP version 0.9 –

This was the original version of HTTP, released in 1991.

2. HTTP version 1.0 –

RFC 1945 (Request For Comments) was included to HTTP version 1.0 in 1996.

3. HTTP version 1.1 –

RFC 2068 was introduced in HTTP version 1.1 in January 1997. In June 1999, RFC 2616 was published,
which included improvements and modifications to the HTTP version 1.1 standard.
HTTP version 2.0 –
On May 14, 2015, the HTTP version 2.0 standard was published as RFC 7540.
HTTP version 3.0 –
Version 3.0 of HTTP is based on an earlier RFC draught. It has been renamed HyperText Transfer
Protocol QUIC, which is a Google-developed transport layer network protocol.

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Characteristics of HTTP:

• HTTP is an IP-based communication protocol for transferring data from a server to a client
and vice versa:
• The server handles a client request, and the server and client are only aware of each other
for the present request and response time.
• Any sort of data may be transmitted as long as the server and client are both compliant.
• Once data has been shared, the servers and clients are no longer linked.
• It's a client-server-based request-and-response protocol.
• It is a connection-less protocol because the server does not remember anything about the
client when the connection is ended, and the client does not remember anything about the
server.
• It's a stateless protocol since neither the client nor the server expects anything from the other,
yet they can still interact.

Advantages

• Because there are fewer simultaneous connections, memory and CPU utilisation are
minimal.
• Because there are fewer TCP connections, network congestion is reduced.
• Since handshaking is done at the beginning of the connection, latency is minimised because
future requests do not require handshaking.
• Reports without disconnecting the connection might be the cause of the problem.
• HTTP provides request or response pipelining.

Disadvantages

• To establish communication and transport data, HTTP demands a lot of electricity.

• HTTP is less secure, because it does not employs any encryption mechanism like https
utilises TLS to encrypt typical http requests and answer.
• HTTP is not suited for mobile devices and is excessively chatty.
• HTTP does not allow for true data exchange since it is insecure.
• Clients do not stop connections until they have received all of the data from the server; as a
result, the server must wait for the data to be completed and is unavailable to new clients
during this period.

Summary
• The Domain Name System (DNS) allows for rapid translation of IP address text from a
directory of billions of addresses in a fraction of a second. Domain ideas, which employ
hierarchical structures of text addresses translation, might make this possible. The servers
that keep track of addresses are dispersed throughout the globe.
• To send data, HTTP employs the TCP transport service via sockets. The HTTP client
establishes a TCP connection with the HTTP server by utilising sockets on port 80. The
server responds to client queries with HTML pages and objects after accepting the
connection from the client. HTML pages and other objects are therefore sent back and forth
between the client browser and the web server.
• The World Wide Online, or Web, is an information system in which documents and other
web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), which may be
connected together via hyperlinks, and are accessible over the Internet.

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• Electronic mail is one of the most widely used network services, and it employs a user agent
and a message transfer agent to transmit messages from a user's inbox to remote mailboxes.
Websites have been given a new lease on life thanks to multimedia apps, which have made
them more dynamic. The amalgamation of many media such as text, images, video, and
sound into a single medium has made a significant contribution.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard communication protocol for transferring
computer files over a computer network from a server to a client. FTP is based on a client–
server architecture, with the client and server having independent control and data
connections.
• Electronic mail (often known as e-mail) is a technique of sending and receiving messages
("mail") between persons who use electronic equipment.

Keywords
Browser: A browser is a piece of software that your computer uses to access the Internet and view
WWW content.
Domain Name System (DNS): It is responsible for defining the protocol that allows clients and
servers to interact with one another. DNS allows a system to employ a resolver, which converts the
host name to an IP address that the server can comprehend.
Electronic mail: It refers to the electronic form of postal mail that employs a user agent and a
message transfer agent to deliver the message to the appropriate mailbox. Multimedia
HTTP: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a network protocol that is used to visit any website.
World wide web (WWW): The World Wide Web (WWWW) is a system for displaying text,
graphics, and audio that has been downloaded from the internet. The content and hyperlinks in a
hypertext page are written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML), and the page is given an
Internet address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) (URL).
E-mail: E-mail, in full electronic mail, messages transmitted and received by digital computers
through a network.
FTP: Files are either uploaded or downloaded to the FTP server when you provide them over FTP.
The files are transmitted from a personal computer to the server when you upload them. The files
are transmitted from the server to your own computer when you download them.
POP: For transmitting messages from an e-mail server to an e-mail client, the post office protocol
(POP) is the most widely used message request protocol on the Internet. POP3 is an e-mail protocol
in which the client requests new messages from the server, and the server “pops” all new messages
to the client.
IMAP: The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is an Internet standard protocol for retrieving
email messages from a mail server via a TCP/IP connection by email clients. RFC 3501 is the standard
that defines IMAP.

Review Questions
1. What is FTTP?
2. Write advantages and disadvantages of HTTP.
3. Write down components and features of WWW.
4. Write down most commonly used telnet commands.
5. Explain E-mail. Write down components of E-mail.
6. What is domain name system?
7. Write down hierarchy of DNS.
8. Write down difference between POP3 and IMAP.

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Self-Assessment
1. The default connection type used by HTTP is _________
a. Persistent
b. Non-persistent
c. Can be either persistent or non-persistent depending on connection request
d. None of the mentioned
2. The HTTP request message is sent in _________ part of three-way handshake.
a. First
b. Second
c. Third
d. Fourth
3. The first line of HTTP request message is called _____________
a. Request line
b. Header line
c. Status line
d. Entity line
4. Dynamic web page ______
a. is same every time whenever it displays
b. generates on demand by a program or a request from browser
c. both is same every time whenever it displays and generates on demand by a
program or a request from browser
d. is different always in a predefined order
5. What is a web browser?
a. a program that can display a web page
b. a program used to view html documents
c. it enables user to access the resources of internet
d. all of the mentioned
6. Expansion of FTP is __________
a. Fine Transfer Protocol
b. File Transfer Protocol
c. First Transfer Protocol
d. Fast Transfer Protocol
7. The data transfer mode of FTP, in which all the fragmenting has to be done by TCP is
________
a. Stream mode
b. Block mode
c. Compressed mode
d. Message mode
8. Which of these is not a medium for e-mail?
a. Intranet
b. Internet
c. Extranet
d. Paper
9. If the sender wants an option enabled by the receiver, it sends a ______ command.
a) WILL
b) DO

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c) WONT
d) None of above
10. FTP uses the srvices of
a) UDP
b) IP
c) TCP
d) None of above
11. Which of these do not provide free E-mail?
a. Hotmail
b. Rediff
c. WhatsApp
d. Yahoo
12. Telnet protocol is used to establish a connection to __________
a. TCP port number 21
b. TCP port number 22
c. TCP port number 23
d. TCP port number 25

Answers
1. a 2. c 3. a 4. b

5. d 6. b 7. a 8. d

9. b 10. c 11. c 12. c

Further Readings

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall.

Behrouz A. Forouzan, Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,

McGraw-Hill Companies.

Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill Osborne Media.

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University

Unit 13 : Internet and WWW

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 IP security (IPSec)
13.2 Email-Security
13.3 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
13.4 Difference between Free VPN and Paid VPN
13.5 Digital Signature
13.6 Digital Signature
13.7 Digital certificate vs Digital signature
Summary
Keywords
Review Questions
Self- Assessment
Answers
Further Readings

Objectives
• understand IP security (IPsec)
• understanding Email Security
• understand VPN
• VPN Privacy
• difference between Paid VPN and Free VPN
• understand digital signature.
• understand digital certificate.

Introduction
13.1 IP security (IPSec)
IP security (IPSec) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard suite of protocols that offer
data authentication, integrity, and secrecy between two communication points over an IP network.
It also specifies how packets are encrypted, decrypted, and authenticated. It specifies the protocols
for safe key exchange and key management.

Uses of IP Security:
The following are some of the things IPsec may be used for.

• To encrypt data at the application layer.

• To ensure that routers delivering routing data across the public internet are secure.
• To give authentication without encryption, such as confirming that data comes from a
recognized sender.

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• To safeguard network data by establishing circuits utilizing IPsec tunnelling, in which all
data transported between the two endpoints is encrypted, similar to a VPN connection.

Components of IP Security
It consists of the following elements:

1. Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) –

Data integrity, encryption, authentication, and anti-replay are all included. It also supports
payload authentication.

2. Authentication Header (AH) –

It also has data integrity, authentication, and anti-replay capabilities, but no encryption.
Anti-replay protection guards against unwanted packet transfer. It does not ensure the
privacy of data.

IP HDR AH TCP DATA

3. Internet Key Exchange –

It's a network security protocol that allows two devices to dynamically exchange encryption
keys and discover a means to communicate across a Security Association (SA). To facilitate
secure communication, the Security Association (SA) creates common security properties
between two network entities. The Internet Security Association (ISAKMP) and the Key
Management Protocol (ISAKMP) offer a framework for authentication and key exchange.
ISAKMP describes how Security Associations (SAs) are created and how direct connections
between two IPsec-enabled hosts are established.
IKE (Internet Key Exchange) protects the content of messages and serves as an open
framework for implementing common algorithms like SHA and MD5. Each packet is
assigned a unique identification by the algorithm's IP sec users. The device may then
determine if a packet is valid or not using this identification. Unauthorized packets are
deleted and not delivered to the intended recipient.

IP HDR TCP DATA

Original Packet

IP ESR TCP Data ESP ESP

HDR HDR Trailer Authentication

--------- Encryption ----→

--------- Authentication ---------→

Working of IP Security

• The host determines whether or not the packet should be sent via IPsec. These packets
activate the security policy on their own. When the system transmitting the packet uses
adequate encryption, this is accomplished. The host additionally verifies whether or not the
incoming packets are correctly encrypted.
• Then there was IKE. Phase 1 begins with the two hosts (using IPsec) authenticating
themselves to begin a secure communication. It has two different modes.

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• The Main mode, which provides additional security, and the Aggressive option, which
allows the host to quickly construct an IPsec circuit.
• Now, IKE Phase 2 takes place via a secure channel, with the two hosts negotiating the sort
of cryptographic algorithms to employ and agreeing on secret keying material to use with
those methods.
• The data is then sent via the newly established IPsec encrypted tunnel. The hosts use IPsec
SAs to encrypt and decode these packets.
• When the communication between the hosts is finished or the session expires, the IPsec
tunnel is ended by both hosts discarding the keys.

13.2 Email-Security
Email hacking may be accomplished in a variety of ways. Whether it's a spam virus or phishing.
What exactly is spam? Sending unwanted mass emails to those who have not requested for them is
known as email spamming.

Spam
Spam is junk mail delivered by commercial businesses as an advertising for their products and
services. For such mails, we don't have an address. As a result, they are infected with the spam virus.
Some emails may contain files containing harmful script, which, when performed on your computer,
will mostly damage your vital data.

Phishing email
Phishing is when someone sends an email to a user that claims to be authentic but isn't. Its main goal
is to steal sensitive data such as usernames, passwords, and credit card numbers.
Search emails contain a link to a malware-infected website that directs the user to input information
on a phoney website that looks and feels real. So, kids, keep in mind one very crucial point:

Spams can cause a slew of issues:

• It floods your email account with unwanted emails, which may result in the loss of
information emails; it consumes bandwidth, slowing the speed at which mails are delivered;
some unsolicited emails may include viruses, which may harm your computer; it costs time
and energy in reviewing and deleting junk emails or spam; it consumes bandwidth, slowing
the speed at which mails are delivered; and it spends time and energy in reviewing and
deleting junk emails or spam; and it consumes bandwidth, slowing the speed at which mail.

Blocking Spams
Use a different email address for sending messages to a newsgroup or mailing list than the one you
use for personal correspondence. Your email address should not be posted on the internet since it
might be easily spammed. Avoid responding to emails from unknown senders, and never buy
anything in response to spam that promises a product, since these are all variables that might lead to
identity theft.

How to clear up and archive your emails

You may go to the File tab and find the cleaning tools there, and if you click on the drop-down arrow,
you'll see the choice of archives. Choose the option to archive this folder and all subfolders. Then,
select the folder you wish to archive by clicking on it as seen in Figure 1. Choose an older date from
the archived items. a list Now, select Browse to name and save a new dot PST file, and then click OK.
As a result, you will be able to clean up and archive in this manner.

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Figure 1 Email Cleanup

13.3 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A virtual private network is the full version of the term VPN. What is a home network? You have an
internet connection that you will use either to connect to the internet or to connect to the internet
using a model or a router. Let's look at how we are actually connecting to the internet.

Figure 2 Internal Network

Assume we have a laptop, a television, and a cell phone. These three gadgets are present. Assume
you want to send anything to your television, or you're working on your laptop. You're
communicating by using a wireless connection that's connected to your phone and laptop as shown
in Figure 2.
In a nutshell, these two types of networks are referred to as internal networks. This is your internal
network if you're working on a laptop with a phone. Assume that any video you're seeing, such as
the one you're seeing right now, is stored in a data centre. And that data centre may be in the United
States, Canada, France, Germany, or somewhere else, so you could watch this movie from there. So
any location implies you may access that movie; for example, if you are in India and want to view a
film that is in Canada, Germany, or another country, you may do so. Let's look at Google as an
example. Consider how they really request going to Google.com. Now you'll submit a request via a
router, modem, or hub. Everyone has been given an address and will be working from that place.
If you wanted to open a google.com, you would send a request to the server, which would then be
routed through the router. So the router has an address, and you can connect to the server, and the
server responds to you, and you can sink the google.com domain.

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What are the benefits of this sort of network in which IP addresses are routed to the
server?
You will be able to connect to the Internet using this address.
As a result, the downsides include that your ISP service provider can track which websites you visit
and what you track. Because your IP address is known by internet service providers. It's possible that
your government is keeping an eye on you as well. When you're receiving anything from the server
or uploading anything to the server, your data might be stolen. As a result, it's conceivable that your
information will be stolen. We're relieved that we were able to connect to the open Wi-Fi networks.
Your data may be encrypted at times. Hackers can access your data at any moment. A lot of stuff on
the internet is confined to a specific region or nation. Assume you're sitting in India and you notice a
video that's available in the United States or Canada, and you want to watch it. And such videos are
banned on the internet, so you won't be able to see them if you're in a different nation.
In China, for example, you cannot access the Facebook website. You won't be able to register a
Facebook account since China has already blocked it as seen in Figure 3. What is the greatest solution
if you wish to utilise the Facebook site? As a result, we have a solution in the form of a VPN.

Figure 3 Banned in China

You may access any other site or programme that is on separate places on your machine by utilising
a virtual private network. This is where you'll find the VPN box, and anything you're sending will
be secured as well. Neither your internet service provider nor the government have any idea what
you're talking about. If you make a request, the server assumes that you are both from the same
country. It signifies you are receiving the response in accordance with the request. If someone tried
to sniff your packet, it would be impossible for them to read it since it is encrypted. You can utilise
content from another region as well as any website that is written in your area. You may also view
using a virtual private network. It means you'll be able to access and utilise all information safely.

Definition of VPN
A virtual private network (VPN) is a sort of private network that communicates via public
telecommunications, such as the Internet, rather than leased lines. It grew in popularity as more
people worked in remote places and needed to learn how VPNs function.

Let’s understand VPN by an example:

Consider a scenario in which a bank's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. This workplace has a
local network with about 100 machines on it. Assume the bank has additional branches in Mumbai,
India, and Tokyo, Japan. The old technique of creating a secure connection between the head office
and the branch was to use a leased line between the branches and the head office, which was both
expensive and inconvenient. We were able to effectively solve this problem thanks to VPN.

Some fantastic attributes are highlighted here:

• VPN also guarantees security by establishing a secure connection between the client and the
VPN server.
• Many banned websites may be accessed with a VPN.

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• VPN allows you to browse anonymously by masking your IP address.

• Also, the best Search engine optimization (SEO) is done by evaluating data from VPN
providers that give country-by-country statistics on how people are using a given product.
Many online marketing managers utilise this strategy of SEO to develop fresh ideas.

VPN and its legality

In most nations, using a VPN is legal. The legality of utilising a VPN service is determined by the
country in question, as well as its geopolitical connections with other countries. A trustworthy and
secure VPN is always lawful if you're not planning on using it for any unlawful purposes, such as
online fraud, cyber theft, or downloading copyrighted information in some countries.
According to Bloomberg, China has determined to shut all VPNs (virtual private networks) starting
next year. VPNs are used by many Chinese Internet users to access websites that are prohibited by
China's so-called "great firewall." This is done to prevent information from being leaked to competing
governments and to improve information security.

13.4 Difference between Free VPN and Paid VPN

The difference between Free VPN and Paid VPN is shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Difference between Paid VPN and Free VPN

Free VPN Paid VPN

Cost Free From USD 7 per month

Number of VPN Servers Generally, up to 5-7 Generally, more than 40

Advertising Yes No

Connection speed Low High

Monthly Traffic Volume Limited Not Limited

Technical Support No support or it is too low Quick support, 24/7

Security gurantees No Yes

Personal servers Never Some developers provide

No logs policy No guarantees Yes

13.5 Digital Signature

Encryption: Process of transforming electronic data into cypher text, which is incomprehensible to
everyone but authorised individuals. This ensures the safety of the data.
Decryption: The procedure for converting code into data.

• The message is encrypted at the sender's end using various encryption techniques, and then
decoded at the receiver's end using decryption methods.
• Encryption and decryption techniques are employed to ensure data security when certain
messages, such as usernames and passwords, must be kept secure.

Types of Encryption

1. Symmetric Encryption: A key is used to encrypt data, and the same key is used to decode
it.

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2. Asymmetric Encryption: Public key cryptography is another name for asymmetric

cryptography. It encrypts and decrypts data using public and private keys. The public key
is the one of the pair of keys that may be shared with anybody. The private key is the other
key in the pair that is kept secret and only known by the owner. A message can be encrypted
using one of the keys; The decryption key is the polar opposite of the one used to encrypt
the communication.

Public Key
Everyone is aware of the key. The ex-public key of A is 7, and this fact is well known.

Private Key
Only the person whose private key it is is aware of it.

Authentication
Any procedure by which a system confirms the identity of a person who seeks to access it is known
as authentication.

Non-repudiation
Non-repudiation refers to the process of ensuring that a transmitted communication was transmitted
and received by the parties claiming to have transmitted and received it. Non-repudiation is a
method of ensuring that the sender of a communication cannot later dispute sending it, and that the
recipient cannot later dispute receiving it.

Integrity
to be sure the message wasn't tampered with during transmission

Message Digest
The representation of text as a single string of numbers, achieved with the use of a formula known
as a one-way hash function. A digital signature is an electronic mechanism of authentication that is
created by encrypting a message digest with a private key.

13.6 Digital Signature

A digital signature is a mathematical approach for verifying the integrity and validity of a
communication, software, or digital document.

Key Generation Algorithms

Digital signatures are digital signatures that guarantee that a communication was transmitted by a
certain sender. Authenticity and integrity should be ensured while conducting digital transactions;
otherwise, data might be tampered with, or someone might pretend to be the sender and expect a
response.

Signing Algorithms
Signing algorithms, such as email programmes, establish a one-way hash of the electronic data to be
signed to establish a digital signature. The hash value is subsequently encrypted using the private
key by the signing algorithm (signature key). The digital signature consists of this encrypted hash, as
well as other information such as the hashing algorithm.
The data is appended with the digital signature and delivered to the verifier. Because a hash function
turns any arbitrary input into a much shorter fixed length result, it's better to encrypt the hash rather
than the full message or document. This saves time since a shorter hash value must now be signed
instead of a big message, and hashing is significantly quicker than signing.

Signature Verification Algorithms

Along with the data, the Verifier obtains a Digital Signature. It then processes the digital signature
and the public key (verification key) using the Verification algorithm and generates a value. It also
creates a hash value by applying the same hash algorithm to the incoming data. The hash value and
the verification algorithm result are then compared. If they're both equal, the digital signature is
genuine; otherwise, it's not.

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The steps for establishing a digital signature are as follows:

• Message digest is computed by applying hash function on the message and then message
digest is encrypted using private key of sender to form the digital signature. (digital
signature = encryption (private key of sender, message digest) and message digest =
message digest algorithm(message)).
• The message is then sent with a digital signature. (A message with a digital signature is
sent).
• The digital signature is decrypted by the receiver using the sender's public key. (As only the
sender possesses his private key, only the sender may encrypt using his private key, which
can then be decrypted by the sender's public key, ensuring authenticity.)
• The message digest has now been delivered to the recipient.
• The message digest can be computed by the receiver from the message (actual message is
sent with the digital signature).
• For integrity, the message digest calculated by the receiver and the message digest (obtained
by decrypting a digital signature) must be the same.
• The message digest is calculated using a one-way hash function, which is a hash function in
which computing the hash value of a message is simple but computing the message from
the hash value is complex.

Figure 4 Digital Certificate

A trustworthy third party issues a digital certificate that validates the sender's identity to the receiver
and the recipient's identity to the sender.
A certificate issued by a Certificate Authority (CA) to validate the identity of the certificate holder is
known as a digital certificate. The CA creates an encrypted digital certificate that includes the
applicant's public key and other identifying information. A digital certificate is used to associate a
public key with a specific person or business.

Digital Certificate contains

1. Name of certificate holder.

2. Serial number which is used to uniquely identify a certificate, the individual or the entity
identified by the certificate
3. Expiration dates.
4. Copy of certificate holder's public key.(used for decrypting messages and digital signatures)
5. Digital Signature of the certificate issuing authority.
Digital certificate is also sent with the digital signature and the message.

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13.7 Digital certificate vs Digital signature

The difference between digital signature and digital certificate is shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Digital signature vs Digital certificate

Digital signature Digital certificate

A digital signature is a string of decimals that is A digital certificate is itself a file that is used to
affixed to a file to assist with identifying the assert identity and to facilitate encrypted
signer and ensuring its integrity connections.

Digital signature must ensure that the data or Digital certificate is that the certificate binds the
information remains secure from the moment it digital signature to the object
is sent

Digital signatures are used to validate the sent Digital certificates are used to validate the
data. identity of the sender,

It follows Digital Signature Standard (DSS). It follows X.509 Standard Format

Summary
• Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a secure network protocol suite that authenticates and
encrypts data packets to offer safe encrypted communication between two computers over
an IP network. It's a protocol that's utilised in virtual private networks.
• Any technique that secures email content and accounts from unwanted access is referred to
as email security. Email security procedures are in place at email service providers to protect
customer accounts and information from hackers.
• A virtual private network (VPN) creates a secure connection between you and the internet.
All of your data traffic is routed over an encrypted virtual tunnel via the VPN. When you
access the internet, this masks your IP address, making its location opaque to everyone.
External assaults are also protected by a VPN connection.
• A digital signature is a mathematical approach for verifying the integrity and validity of a
communication, software, or digital document. It's the digital counterpart of a handwritten
signature or a stamped seal, but it has a lot more security built in.
• A public key certificate is an electronic document used to confirm the ownership of a public
key in cryptography. It is also known as a digital certificate or an identity certificate.
• Encryption is the process of encoding data in cryptography. This technique transforms
plaintext into ciphertext, which is an alternate representation of the information.
• Decryption is the process of restoring encrypted data to its original state. In most cases, it's
a reversal of the encryption process. Because decryption requires a secret key or password,
it decodes the encrypted information so that only an authorised user may decrypt the data.
• Spamming is the practise of sending many unsolicited messages to a large number of people
for the purpose of commercial advertising, non-commercial preaching, or any other
unlawful purpose, or just sending the same message to the same user over and over again.

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Keywords
IP security: In IPv4 and IPv6 network packets, the IP security architecture (IPsec) offers
cryptographic protection for IP datagrams.
internet key exchange: The mechanism used to establish up a security association in the IPsec
protocol suite is known as Internet Key Exchange (IKE).
Email security: Any technique that secures email content and accounts from unwanted access is
referred to as email security. Email security procedures are in place at email service providers to
protect customer accounts and information from hackers.
Phishing: Phishing is a type of cybercrime in which a person acting as a genuine organisation
contacts a target or targets by email, phone, or text message to persuade them to provide sensitive
data such as personally identifying information, banking and credit card information, and
passwords.
VPN: The term "virtual private network" refers to the ability to create a secure network connection
while using public networks.
Digital signature: A digital signature is exactly what it sounds like: an electronic version of the
traditional paper and pen signature.
Encryption: Encryption is the process of converting data into a secret code that hides the real
meaning of the data.
Decryption: Decryption is the process of turning encoded/encrypted data into a form that a person
or a machine can read and understand.
Public key: A public key is a huge numerical number used to encrypt data in cryptography. A
software programme can produce the key, but it's more common for it to be issued by a trusted,
recognised authority and made public through a publicly accessible repository or directory.
Private key: The owners keep their private keys hidden. Public keys are disseminated and used to
validate credentials and authenticate nodes.
Authentication: The process of ascertaining if someone or something is who or what it claims to be
is known as authentication.

Review Questions
1. Difference between Free VPN and paid VPN.
2. What is IP Security?
3. What is E-mail security?
4. Explain components of IP Security.
5. Write down steps for establishing a digital signature.
6. Write down difference between digital signature and digital certificate.
7. Explain types of signature.
8. What are the benefits of this sort of network in which IP addresses are routed to the server?
9. Explain working of IP Security
10. Difference between private key and public key.

Self- Assessment
1. IPSec is designed to provide security at the _________
a) Transport layer
b) Network layer
c) Application layer
d) Session layer
2. In tunnel mode, IPSec protects the ______
a) Entire IP packet

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b) IP header
c) IP payload
d) IP trailer
3. Which component is included in IP security?
a) Authentication Header (AH)
b) Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
c) Internet key Exchange (IKE)
d) All of the mentioned
4. Which of them is not a major way of stealing email information?

a) Stealing cookies
b) Reverse Engineering
c) Password Phishing
d) Social Engineering
5. The process of transforming plain text into unreadable text.

a) Decryption
b) Encryption
c) Network Security
d) Information Hiding
6. A process of making the encrypted text readable again.
a) Decryption
b) Encryption
c) Network Security
d) Information Hiding
7. A digital signature is a mathematical technique which validates?
a) authenticity
b) integrity
c) Non-repudiation
d) All of the above
8. Which algorithm algorithm provides the private key and its corresponding public key?
a) Key generation algorithm
b) Signature verifying algorithm
c) Signing algorithm
d) None of the above
9. The field that covers a variety of computer networks, both public and private, that are used
in everyday jobs.
a) Artificial Intelligence
b) ML
c) Network Security
d) IT
10. The process of verifying the identity of a user.
a) Authentication
b) Identification
c) Validation
d) Verification
11. An algorithm in encryption is called _____________

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a) Algorithm
b) Procedure
c) Cipher
d) Module
12. The information that gets transformed in encryption is ____________
a) Plain text
b) Parallel text
c) Encrypted text
d) Decrypted text

Answers
1(b) 2(a) 3(d) 4(b)

5(b) 6(a) 7(d) 8(a)

9(c) 10(a) 11(c) 12(a)

Further Readings

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall

Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Companies

Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill, Osborne Media

Dale Tesch/Greg Abelar, Security Threat Mitigation and Response: Understanding CS-
MARS, Cisco Press, Sep. 26, 2006.

Gary Halleen/Greg Kellogg, Security Monitoring with Cisco Security MARS, Cisco Press,
Jul. 6, 2007.

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Dr. Rajni Bhalla, Lovely Professional University Unit 14: Network Security Notes

Unit 14: Network Security

CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
14.1 Basics of Network security terms
14.2 Network Security Issues
14.3 Security Goals
14.4 Security Services
14.5 Approaches to network security
14.6 Difference between private key and public key
Summary
Keywords
Self Assessment
Answers for Self Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings

Objectives
• understand basic of network security.
• understand network security issues
• learn security goals
• understand security services
• approaches of network security

Introduction
To begin, let's define some fundamental concepts in network security, such as plaintext, ciphertext,
encryption, decryption, cryptography, and cryptanalyst as seen in Figure 1. And there's the key. So,
what do all of them imply? I'll explain you what they imply in a very easy way so you can
comprehend what plaintext ciphertext encryption decryption means.

Figure 1 Basics of Network Security

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14.1 Basics of Network security terms

A mono alphabetic substitution is a type of keyword encryption. The letter matchings of the cypher
alphabet to the plain alphabet are determined by a keyword that serves as the key.The cypher
alphabet is formed with the keyword matching to A, B, C, and so on until the keyword is
exhausted, at which point the remaining cipher text letters are utilised in alphabetical sequence,
omitting those previously used in the key.

Encryption
The first line of input includes the keyword you want to use. The string you must encrypt is on the
second line of input.

Plain text : A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Encrypted : K R Y P T O S A B C D E F G H I J L M N Q U V W X
Z
All As become Ks, all Bs become Rs, and so on when the keyword is KRYPTOS. Using the keyword
"kryptos" to encrypt the message "knowledge is power."
Encrypting the message: Knowledge is Power
Encoded message: IlmWjbaEbgqNmWbp

Few points to be noted in this method:

• All of the messages are written in capital letters.

• Although you can use whitespace, special characters, and digits in your keyword, they
will not be considered.
• Whitespace, special characters, and integers are unaffected by the encryption process.

Decryption
To decode the message, compare the provided message's location in the encrypted text to the plain
text.

Plain text : A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Encrypted : K R Y P T O S A B C D E F G H I J L M N Q U V W X
Z
Message: PTYBIATLEP
Deciphered Text : DECIPHERED
Now, how we generate the deciphered string?
We search for ‘P’ in Encrypted Text and compare its position with plain text letter and generate that
letter. So ‘P’ becomes ‘D’, ‘T’ becomes ‘E’, ‘Y’ becomes ‘C’ and so on.

Cryptography
Cryptography is a method of safeguarding information and communications by encoding it in a
way that only the people who need to know can interpret and interpret it. As a result, unwanted
access to information is prevented. The word "crypt" stands for "hidden," and the suffix "graphy"
stands for "writing."The procedures used to safeguard information in cryptography are derived
from mathematical principles and a set of rule-based calculations known as algorithms that change
signals in ways that make them difficult to decipher.These algorithms are used to generate
cryptographic keys, digitally sign documents, verify data privacy, browse the internet, and secure
sensitive transactions like as credit card and debit card transactions.

Techniques used For Cryptography:

In today's computer era, cryptography is generally connected with the process of converting plain
text to cypher text, which is text encoded in such a way that only the intended receiver of the
information can decode it, a process known as encryption. Decryption refers to the process of
converting encrypted text to plain text.

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 Unit 14: Network Security Notes
Features of Cryptography are as follows:
Confidentiality:Only the individual for whom the information is meant has access to it, and no one
else has access to it.
Integrity:Information cannot be changed in storage or in transit between the sender and the
intended receiver without being noticed.
Non-repudiation:The information creator/sender cannot dispute that he or she intends to convey
information at a later time.
Authentication:The sender's and receiver's identities have been verified. The information's
destination/origin is also confirmed.

Types of cryptography
There are three forms of cryptography in general:

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography

It is an encryption scheme in which the sender and receiver of a message encrypt and decode
messages using a single shared key. Symmetric Key Systems are quicker and easier to use, but they
have the drawback of requiring the sender and receiver to exchange keys in a safe way. Data
Encryption Technology is the most widely used symmetric key encryption system (DES).

2. Hash functions
This algorithm does not make use of any keys. A hash value with a defined length is computed
based on the plain text, making it difficult to reconstruct the plain text's contents. Hash functions
are used by several operating systems to encrypt passwords.

3. Asymmetric key cryptography

A pair of keys is used to encrypt and decode data in this system. Encryption is done using a public
key, while decryption is done with a private key. The terms "public key" and "private key" are not
interchangeable. Even though everyone knows the public key, the intended receiver can only
decode it since he is the only one who knows the private key.

Cryptanalyst
The decoding and examination of codes, cyphers, or encrypted text is known as cryptanalysis.
Cryptanalysis is a method of searching for algorithm flaws and breaking into cryptography or
information security systems using mathematical formulae.

The following are examples of cryptanalysis attacks:

Known-Plaintext Analysis (KPA): With knowing partial plaintext, the attacker decrypts
ciphertexts.
Chosen-Plaintext Analysis (CPA):Using the same mathematical methodology, the attacker
creates ciphertext that matches any picked plaintext.
Ciphertext-Only Analysis (COA): The attacker employs ciphertext collections that are well-
known.
Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack: When two parties utilise message or key sharing to
communicate through a channel that appears to be secure but is really compromised, an attack
occurs. This technique is used by the attacker to intercept messages as they move across the
communications channel. MITM attacks are avoided by using hash functions.
Adaptive Chosen-Plaintext Attack (ACPA):This attack employs selected plaintext and
ciphertext depending on data learnt from previous encryptions, similar to a CPA.

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Data Communication and Networking
14.2 Network Security Issues

14.3 Security Goals

Data is extremely vulnerable to assaults during transmission. To fulfil his malicious goals, an
attacker can target the communication channel, collect the data, and read or re-insert a bogus
message.Network security is concerned not only with the security of the computers at each end of
the communication chain, but also with the security of the entire network.

Figure 2 Security Goals

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Protecting the usefulness, dependability, integrity, and safety of a network and its data is what
network security is all about. Effective network security prevents a wide range of dangers from
infiltrating and propagating throughout a network.
Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability are the three main goals of network security as seen in
Figure 2. The CIA triangle is widely used to depict these three pillars of network security as seen in
Figure 3.

Figure 3 CIA Triangle

Confidentiality: The purpose of secrecy is to keep sensitive company information safe from
prying eyes. The confidentiality component of network security ensures that data is only accessible
to those who are authorised to see it.
Integrity:This aim entails ensuring and maintaining data correctness and consistency. The purpose
of integrity is to ensure that data is accurate and not tampered with by unauthorised individuals.
Availability: The purpose of availability in Network Security is to ensure that data, network
resources, and services are always available to authorised users when they need them.

14.4 Security Services

Figure 4 Security Services

Data confidentiality
The safeguarding of data from unlawful disclosure.
Connection Confidentiality: The protection of all user data on a connection. Connectionless
Confidentiality: The protection of all user data in a single data block.
Selective-Field Confidentiality: The confidentiality of selected fields within the user Data on a
connection or in a single data block.
Traffic Flow Confidentiality: The protection of the information that might be Derived from
observation of traffic flows.

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Data Communication and Networking
Data Integrity
The assurance that data received is identical to what was sent by an entity.authorised entity (i.e., no
changes, additions, or deletions)or a rerun).

Authentication
The act of verifying a claim, such as a computer system user's identity, is known as authentication.
Authentication is the process of validating a person's or thing's identity, as opposed to
identification, which is the act of indicating that person's or thing's identity.

Non-repudiation
The term "non-repudiation" refers to a circumstance in which the author of a statement is unable to
effectively contest the statement's authorship or the validity of an associated contract. When the
legitimacy of a signature is being questioned in court, the word is frequently used. The genuineness
is "repudiated" in this situation.

Access control
Individuals are authenticated and authorised to access the information they are permitted to see
and use through access restrictions.

14.5 Approaches to network security

The Castillo of San Felipe de Barajas in Cartagena is the Spanish colonies' largest and most
powerful stronghold. The fort, which was built between 1639 and 1657 and subsequently expanded
significantly in 1762, defended the "portal to the new world" against several assault and was never
captured.A fleet of Spanish ships patrolling in concentric "rings of defence" would distract or
distract any opponent approaching the stronghold, preventing any threat to the citadel. If the
adversary were to battle through these rings, the opponent would be protected from cannon fire
and ground attack by the high, thick walls, while a sequence of batteries and parapets placed to
cover each other would eliminate attack.
The fortress's vast maze of tunnels deep within its core is perhaps the most fascinating aspect. If the
fort was ever taken, the defenders would escape into this maze, reorganise, and retake the citadel
from within.These multiple levels of defence, though not a perfect parallel, highlight three unique
approaches to security. Preventing a danger from forming in the first place, particularly through
addressing its underlying causes, is one security strategy.
When a hazard cannot be avoided, security as protection seeks to mitigate, if not completely
eradicate, the hazard. However, if we are unable to totally shield ourselves from the danger,
security as resilience analyses our capacity to "bounce back" and change the manner in which it
impacts our social systems - our capacity to adapt to genuine dangers.
What they target: the fundamental causes of threats, the threats themselves, or the qualities of the
referent that is endangered is the essential component that distinguishes the three methods.
However, as shown in the table below, the three techniques can be separated in a variety of
additional ways.
Table 1 Approaches to network security

Security Approach: Security as Security as Control Security as

Prevention (Protection) Resilience

Definition This strategy aims to This strategy aims to Security as resilience

prevent dangers from manage, defend focuses on the ability
forming in the first against, or remove a of social systems to
place by addressing clear threat. "bounce back" and
the root issues that recover from shocks
lead to their when dangers cannot
emergence. be managed or
removed.It is about a
society's flexibility
and adaptation, as
well as its rigidities

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 Unit 14: Network Security Notes
and how to lessen its
vulnerability to
disturbance and
collapse.

Focus/Target of the Threats and their The dangers they The endangered
Approach underlying causes pose referent's capacity to
recover or adapt in
the face of threats, in
particular.

Ontology The combination of A Newtonian- A complicated

broad underlying mechanistic cosmos cosmos with too
structural reasons with a reasonable many variables to
and proximate factors number of variables count, emergent
that mobilise these and reasonably features, non-linear
foundations into straightforward and causality, phase
tangible threats predictable causality. shifts, limited
produces threats. Problems may be predictability, and
broken down and unexpected shocks.
isolated into their Threats originate
constituent elements. from the interplay of
several variables and
are not reducible to
individual
components.

Threat Type Economic disparity, Best suited to threats Complex adaptive

relative deprivation, that can be reduced to systems that can self-
poor governance, and specific persons, organize (not
political exclusion as organisations, and reducible to
underlying causes of events and then individual players)
civil war are best defended against or and adapt to
suited. removed, such as a defensive measures
rival state developing while eluding
a nuclear programme elimination, such as
or a traditional the drug trade, which
military threat. has confounded four
decades of drug
prohibition, are most
adapted to threats.

Example & Reduced demand. The drug war targets Harm reduction
Approach: The Drug prominent drug lords measures that lessen
Trade and organisations the impacts of drug
with military strikes, use; decriminalization
with the ultimate of some drugs to ease
objective of the enforcement
eradicating the drug burden; and
trade by force; crop enforcement
eradication; and drug measures that target
interdiction. only the most violent
traffickers.

Example & Addresses both the Drone strikes and Decoupling,

Approach: Terrorism frustrations that drive other counter- contingency
terrorist acts and the terrorism tactics are planning, and
societal factors that used to locate, redundancy ensure
attract recruits. apprehend, or that our social
murder terrorist systems (trade,
leaders, while transport,
intelligence and communications,
enforcement efforts energy, and so on)

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Notes
Data Communication and Networking
disrupt current can bounce back after
terrorist plots. an assault;
heightened security
measures do not
overwhelm social
systems with
complexity,
interruptions,
resource needs, and
rigidities.

14.6 Difference between private key and public key

The difference between private key and public key are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Private key vs Public key

Summary
• Data on the network is not confidential, thus it must be kept safe from unauthorized users
who may be lurking behind networked workstations.
• The malevolent goals might include knocking down network servers, utilizing people's
sensitive information such as credit card details for illegal activities, and disrupting large
corporations' websites. As a result, it aims to protect data and prevent eavesdroppers from
listening in and stealing it.User data on a computer is also safeguarded by granting
password-protected access to data and resources, allowing only authorised users to access
them. Identifying criminals and foiling their attempts to inflict damage to the network and
other resources are also important security considerations.
• Authentication entails validating the antecedents of the person who has requested remote
machine services or access, either physically or over e-mail, before permitting him or her
to do so. The process of authenticating a person's identification to a distant system is
known as authentication.
• The authenticity of a message received by a remote machine is referred to as integrity. In
other words, the message transmitted by the source machine is exactly the same as it was

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 Unit 14: Network Security Notes

before. The cyclic redundancy coding approach will not suffice in this scenario, as
attackers in the system or communication channel may modify the message on purpose.
• Confidentiality: It assures that no one can read the message while it is in transit. This
demands the use of encryption techniques in the future.
• With the use of encryption and decryption techniques, the communication is encrypted at
the sender end and decoded at the receiving end to ensure anonymity. The secret key and
public key procedures are the two options, each with its own set of benefits and
drawbacks.
• Transposition and substitution In traditional cryptography, there are two types of cyphers.
The encryption mechanism handles parts of the message differently in substitution and
transposition.

Keywords
Cipher text: The encrypted message formed by applying the method to the plaintext message
using the secret key is known as ciphertext.
IP-spoofing: IP spoofing, like honey pots, entails a computer successfully impersonating a trusted
server/resource and intercepting data packets.
Maliciously: Maliciously programmed websites generate chartable webpages that allow users to
make donations while also collecting important personal information.
Packet Sniffers: Packet sniffers are devices that intercept data streams over a network in order to
gather sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card numbers.
Password Attacks: A ‘Password Attack’ includes a number of techniques used by hackers tosteal
passwords.
Phishing: Emails with titles such as, “URGENT: Update Account Status” are all attempts by a
spammer to “phish” the account details.
Plain text: It is the text message to be transmitted on which an algorithm is applied.
Private key: The key of a key pair, which is used to create a digital signature. It can be used to sign
a message that only the corresponding public key can verify
Public key:It is the key of a key pair that is used to verify a digital signature. Key pair consists of
private and public key.
Secret Key: They constitute a part of algorithm for encryption and decryption of the message.

Self Assessment
1. In cryptography, what is cipher?

A. algorithm for performing encryption and decryption

B. encrypted message
C. both algorithm for performing encryption and decryption and encrypted message
D. decrypted message

2. In asymmetric key cryptography, the private key is kept by __________

A. sender
B. receiver
C. sender and receiver
D. all the connected devices to the network

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Data Communication and Networking
3. Cryptanalysis is used __________

A. to find some insecurity in a cryptographic scheme

B. to increase the speed
C. to encrypt the data
D. to make new ciphers

4. The process of transforming plain text into unreadable text.

A. Decryption
B. Encryption
C. Network Security
D. Information Hiding

5.A process of making the encrypted text readable again.

A. Decryption
B. Encryption
C. Network Security
D. Information Hiding

6. Public-key cryptography is also known as ?

A. asymmetric cryptography
B. symmetric cryptography
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above

7. Which of the following keys are known only to the owner?

A. public key
B. protected key
C. private key
D. unique key

8. PKI stands for?

A. public key infrastructure

B. private key infrastructure
C. public key instance
D. private key instance

9. In which of the following, a person is constantly followed/chased by another person or group

of several peoples?

A. Phishing
B. Bulling
C. Stalking
D. Identity theft
10.Which of the following refers to the violation of the principle if a computer is no more
accessible?

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 Unit 14: Network Security Notes

A. Access control
B. Confidentiality
C. Availability
D. All of the above

11.The term "TCP/IP" stands for_____

A. Transmission Contribution protocol/ internet protocol

B. Transmission Control Protocol/ internet protocol
C. Transaction Control protocol/ internet protocol
D. Transmission Control Protocol/ internet protocol

12. In the computer networks, the encryption techniques are primarily used for improving the
________

A. Security
B. Performance
C. Reliability
D. Longevity

Answers for Self Assessment

1. A 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. A

6. A 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. C

11. B 12. A .

Review Questions
1. What are different criterions to keep information private when it is sent over a public
network?
2. How does the encryption affect performance of network?
3. There are certain information bases on the Internet that need to be prevented by
undesirable person to get. How can undesirable person be kept from accessing this?
4. How do we keep our own and other people’s computers safe from hackers? Explain with
the help of a hypothetical situation.
5. What is a Cipher? Why are cipher used for large messages?
6. Describe briefly two kinds of security attacks, which can be directed against an Internet
connected computer system
7. What is the difference between secret key and public key encryption?
8. What is cryptography? What are the benefits of using this technique?
9. What do you mean by substitution and transposition ciphers? Differentiate between the
two.

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Further Readings

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, Prentice Hall

Behrouz A. Forouzan and Sophia Chung Fegan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Companies

Burton, Bill, Remote Access for Cisco Networks, McGraw-Hill, Osborne Media

Dale Tesch/Greg Abelar, Security Threat Mitigation and Response: Understanding CS-
MARS, Cisco Press, Sep. 26, 2006.

Gary Halleen/Greg Kellogg, Security Monitoring with Cisco Security MARS, Cisco Press,
Jul. 6, 2007.

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