Introduction to Computer Networks 1

Unit 1: Introduction to Computer Networks

Notes
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 History of Computer Networks
1.3 Defining Network
1.4 Characteristics of Computer Network
1.5 Properties of Computer Network
1.6 Networking Goals
1.7 Why Computer Network Needed?
1.8 Network Hardware
1.8.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)
1.8.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
1.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
1.8.4 Wireless Networks
1.8.5 Internetworks
1.9 Uses of Computer Networks
1.9.1 Network for Companies
1.9.2 Networks for People
1.9.3 Business Use
1.9.4 Scientific Use: Computer Enhanced Collaborative Work (CECW)
1.9.5 Complexity in Network Systems
1.9.6 Computer Network Concept
1.10 Data Communication
1.11 Communication Model
1.11.1 Data Communications
1.12 Network Examples
1.12.1 Novell NetWare
1.12.2 ARPANET
1.12.3 NSFNET
1.13 Summary
1.14 Check Your Progress
1.15 Questions and Exercises
1.16 Key Terms
1.17 Further Readings

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Objectives
Notes
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the various uses of computer networks.
 Discuss different technologies involved in defining the network hardware
 Explain concept of process network software and the significance of
layering the communication process and related design issues for the layers

1.1 Introduction
The merging of computers and communications has a profound influence on the way
systems are organized. The concept of computer center as a room with a large
computer to which the users bring their work for processing is now obsolete. The old
model of a single computer servicing all the computational needs of an organization has
been replaced by the one in which a large system of separate but interconnected
computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks. The two
computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The
connection between the computers need not be only via a copper wire or fiber optics or
microwaves. A communication satellite can be used for networking the computers.

1.2 History of Computer Networks

Following is a brief history of computers, networking and telecommunication milestones:
1897: CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) credited to Braun.
1900–1915: Teletype (telegraph 5 bit).
1915–1020: ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) credited to Van Duuren.
1930–1940: ENIAC credited to DOD/MIT.
1950s: SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) MIT 1950s.
1960s: Transistorized Computers–2nd Generation.
1961: CTSS (Compatible Time Sharing System) credited to Cobato/MIT.
1965: Auto Equalization Techniques of Phone lines credited to Lucky et al.
1966: Fiber Glass credited to Kao & Hockman.
1967: Integrated Circuits Computers–3rd Generation.
1968: Carterfone–FCC Decision in.
1969: A group of DoD researchers linked four computers at UCLA, SRI, University
of Utah and the UCSB. They created a network to communicate with one another about
government projects. The network was part of the DoD’s Advanced Research Project
Agency, and was dubbed ARPAnet.
1972: More than 50 universities and military agencies were linked together on the
network. For a short period of time, it was a top secret defence project, ensuring that
computers could talk to each other in the event of a nuclear attack. The communication
system between the sites was called email and was invented by Ray Tomlinson of Bolt,
Berank and Newman.
1973: The defence project links were extended to Norway and England.
1974: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was published and the military and
educational links diverged. Organizations like NASA began to experiment with computer
networks, and the networks began to interconnect and the name Internet was coined.

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Introduction to Computer Networks 3
1976: The Queen sends an email from RSRE Malvern.
1983: TCP/IP become the protocol standard for ARPAnet. Scott Fahlman invents Notes
the smiley to convey emotions in email.
1984: In the US, the NSF built high speed, long distance lines that connected
supercomputer sites across the USA. These eventually replaced the original ARPAnet.
In time, NSFnet was joined by other networks at dozens of universities, research
laboratories and high-tech companies. The system for assigning names to computers
on the network was introduced — DNS. JANet was launched to connect British
Universities.
1986: The NSF established its own faster network NSFnet and Network News
Transfer Protocol (NNTP) was introduced making on-line interactive discussion a
reality. Backbone speed was 56 Kbps.

1987: 1000th RFC and 10,000th host.

1988: Robert Tappan Morris releases the first Internet Worm and CERT was set up
in response to this. Backbone speed upgraded to 1.544 Mbps. IRC developed.

1989: 100,000th host. Cuckoo’s Egg released by Cliff Stoll telling true story of East
German cracker accessing US installations.
1990: ARPAnet ceased to exist and the Internet effectively took its role.
1991: Gopher, a software program for retrieving information from servers on the
Internet was made available by the University of Minnesota. The US Government
announced that it no longer intended to restrict activity on the Internet to research. This
policy shift was sufficient for 12 companies to co-operate and produce CIX. Phil
Zimmerman released PGP. Backbone speed upgraded to 44.736 Mbps.
1992: The World Wide Web became a possibility after CERN, in Switzerland,
th
released hypertext. 1,000,000 Host. The author gets his first dialup email account with
Demon Internet (Nov. 1992).
1993: Mosaic, a software program to browse Web sites written by Marc Andreesen,
was released followed by Netscape.
1994: Shopping Malls arrive on the Internet. The UK Treasury goes on line and the
first cyberbank opens. The first banner adverts appeared for Zima (a drink) and AT&T.
1995: Traditional dialup services (AOL, CompuServe etc) start to provide dialup
services. The Vatican goes on line. A number of Internet companies go public.
Netscape leads the field with the largest ever IPO on NASDAQ. DEC launches
AltaVista, which claims to index every HTML page there is. Jeff Bezos launches
Amazon.com. eBay is launched.
1996: 9,272 organizations find themselves unlisted after the InterNIC drops their
name service as a result of not having paid their domain name fee. Various ISPs suffer
extended service outages, bringing into question whether they will be able to handle the
growing number of users. AOL (19 hours), Netcom (13 hours), AT&T WorldNet (28
hours – email only). China requires users of the Internet to register with the Police.
Saudi Arabia restricts use to universities and hospitals. Domain name tv.com sold to
CNET for US$15,000. Backbone speed upgraded to 622 Mbps.

1997: 2000th RFC. 16 Million hosts. 1,000,000th Domain name registered (March
th
6 for Bonny View Cottage Furniture Company).

1998: 3,000,000th Domain name registered. US Postal authorities allow purchase

of postage stamps on line for downloading and printing. Gigabit Ethernet standard
ratified. Google is launched.

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1999: First full service bank opens on the Internet (First Internet Bank of Indiana).
First forged web page, looking like Bloomberg, raises the shares of a small company by
Notes 31% (7th April). Melissa strikes. 5,000,000th Domain name registered. First Cyberwar
starts between Serbia and Kosovo. Shawn Fanning Launches Napster — record labels
are furious.

2000: 10,000,000th Domain name registered. French Courts require that ‘hate’
memorabilia for sale on Yahoo’s auction site must be removed. Gnutella is launched.
ICANN selects new top level domains. Backbone is upgraded to IPv6.
2001: Forwarding email becomes illegal in Australia (Digital Agenda Act). Napster
forced to suspend service after legal action. Taliban bans the Internet in Afghanistan.
Nimda released on the Internet.
2002: Distributed denial of Service attack hits 13 DNS root servers, causing
national security concerns.
2003: The first official Swiss online election takes place in Anières (7 Jan), SQL
Slammer (goes round the world in 10 minutes and takes out 3 of the 13 DNS Servers).
Followed by SoBig.F (19 Aug) and Blaster (11 Aug).
2004: Lycos Europe releases a screen saver to help fight spam by keeping spam
servers busy with requests (1 Dec). The service is discontinued within a few days after
backbone providers block access to the download site and the service causes some
servers to crash.

1.3 Defining Network

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites or infrared light beams.
The term of ‘computer network’ means an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers.
(a) Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange
information.
(b) The requirement for computers to be autonomous excludes from our definition
systems in which there is a clear master/slave relation.
The key difference between a computer network and a distributed system:
1. In a distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous computers is
transparent to the user. A distributed system looks like a virtual uni-processor to its
users.
2. With a network, a user must explicitly do the followings:
 log onto one machine (e.g., rlogin),
 submit jobs remotely (e.g., rsh),
 move files around (e.g., rcp, ftp, uucp), and
 generally handle all the network management personally.
In effect, a distributed system is a special case of a network, one whose software
gives it a high degree of cohesiveness and transparency.
So, one can say that, Network is an interconnected collection of autonomous
computer. When a number of users work together with a single computer, using their
independent terminals to share resources and information the system is called
networking.

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Introduction to Computer Networks 5
Two devices (Computer) are said to be networked or connected, when a process in
one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device. Networks
may be classified by various characteristics, such as the media used to transmit signals, Notes
the Communication protocol used to organize network traffic, network scale, network
topology, benefits, and organizational scope. The best known computer network is the
Internet.

Figure 1.1: Computer Network

Advantages of Computer Network

 File sharing
 Resource sharing
 Increased storage capacity
 Flexible handling

Disadvantages of Computer Network

 Security concern
 Virus and malware
 Lack of robustness
 Lack of independence

1.4 Characteristics of Computer Network

The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources:
(a) You can play CD music from one computer while sitting on another computer.
(b) You may have a computer with a CD writer or a backup system but the other
computer does not have it; In this case, you can burn CDs or make backups on a
computer that has one of these but using data from a computer that does not have
a CD writer or a backup system.
(c) You may have a computer that does not have a DVD player. In this case, you can
place a movie DVD on the computer that has a DVD player, and then view the
movie on a computer that lacks a DVD player.
(d) You can connect a printer (or a scanner or a fax machine) to one computer and let
other computers of the network print (or scan, or fax) to that printer (or scanner, or
fax machine).
(e) You can place a CD with pictures on one computer and let other computers access
those pictures.
You can create files and store them in one computer, then access those files from
the other computer(s) connected to it.

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1.5 Properties of Computer Network

Notes A computer network has the following properties:
 Facilitates interpersonal communications
People can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat
rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
 Allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information
Authorized users may access information stored on other computers on the
network. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important
feature of many networks.
 Allows sharing of network and computing resources
Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as
printing a document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses
computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.

1.6 Networking Goals

(a) The main goal of networking is Resource sharing, and it is to make all the
programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network without the
regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
(b) A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of
supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if
one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be available.
(c) Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better
price/performance ratio than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten
times faster than the fastest single chip microprocessors, but they cost thousand
times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to build systems
consisting of powerful personal computers, one per user, with data kept on one or
more shared file server machines. This goal leads to networks with many
computers located in the same building. Such a network is called a LAN (local
area network).
(d) Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as the work
load increases by just adding more processors. With central mainframes, when
the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense
and with even greater disruption to the users.
(e) Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A file that has
been updated/ modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the
network immediately.

1.7 Why Computer Network Needed?

Computer networks help users on the network to share the resources and in
communication.
The following are the important benefits of a computer network.
 File sharing: Networking of computers helps the users to share data files.
 Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM
drives, hard drives etc.
 Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows
to implement client/server applications.
 User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.
 Network gaming: Lot of games are available, which are supports multi-users.
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Introduction to Computer Networks 7
1.8 Network Hardware
There are two important dimensions for classifying networks — transmission Notes
technology and scale.
Transmission technology can be classified into two types:
1. Broadcast networks.
2. Point-to-point networks.
(a) Broadcast networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network. They work as follows:
 All the others receive packets sent by any machine.
 An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended.
 Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If it is intended for
itself, it processes the packet; otherwise, it is just ignored.
It is also possible to address all broadcasting or multicasting a subset of the
machines.
A common scheme:
(i) The address consisting of all 1 bits is reserved for broadcast.
(ii) All addresses with the high-order bit set to 1 are reserved for multicasting.
(iii) The remaining addresses bits form a bit map corresponding to groups.
(iv) Each machine can subscribe to any or all of the groups.
(b) Point-to-point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of
machines.
 Multiple routes and intermediate machines may exist between a pair of
machines; so routing algorithms play an important role here.
 A general rule (with many exceptions): smaller and localized networks tend to
use broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually are point-to-point.
 An alternative criterion for classifying networks is their scale, which is as
follows:

1.8.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)

Three distinguishable characteristics for LANs:
(a) Size: usually a diameter of not more than a few kilometers, with bounded and
known worst-case transmission time, making special design and simple
management possible.
(b) Transmission technology: usually a shared cable running at speeds of 10 to 100
Mbps (and even higher), with delay of tens of microseconds and few errors.

Allocation of the shared channel:

 Each machine is statically allocated a time slot to transmit, and gets its turn by
round robin.
 Each machine is dynamically allocated a time slot on demand.
 Centralized method uses an arbitration unit to determine who goes next.
 Decentralized method allows each machine to decide for itself.

1.8.2 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

MAN is a bigger version of a LAN and uses similar technology. It uses one or two
cables but does not contain switching elements. It covers an entire city and may be
related to the local cable TV network.

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A MAN standard - DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) IEEE 802.6.

(a) Two unidirectional buses.
Notes
(b) Each bus has a head-end, which initiates transmission activity.
(c) Traffic to the right uses the upper bus.
(d) Traffic to the left uses the lower bus.

1.8.3 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

A WAN spans a large area, often a country or continent. A WAN consists of two parts:
(a) Application part: Machines for running user programs are called hosts.
(b) Communication part: The hosts are connected by the communication subnet, or
just subnet, whose job is to carry messages from host to host.
The subnet consists of two components:
 Transmission lines (circuits, channels or trunks) move bits between machines.
 Switching elements (routers) are specialized computers used to connect two or
more transmission lines.

Main Characters
(i) A WAN contains numerous cables or telephone lines, each one connecting a pair of
routers.
(ii) For those without direct connection, communication takes place indirectly via other
routers.
(iii) When a message (a packet) is sent from one router to another, it is received at
each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is
free, and then forwarded.
A subnet using this principle is called point-to-point, store-and-forward or packet-
switched subnet.
WANs may also use broadcast channels, such as satellites or ground radio systems.

1.8.4 Wireless Networks

Mobile computers, such notebook computers and Personal Digital Assistants (PDSs),
are the fastest-growing segment of the computer industry.
Applications using wireless networks:
(a) Portable offices which allow people to send and receive phone calls, faxes and
emails, to read remote files or login remote machines, etc., and to do this from land,
sea or air.
(b) Of great value to fleets of trucks, taxis and repair-persons for keeping in contact
with home.
(c) Important to rescue workers at disaster sites and to the military.
Wireless networking and mobile computing are related but not identical, It is
possible to have different combinations of wired and wireless networking.

1.8.5 Internetworks
A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just Internet.
The Internet refers to a specific worldwide Internet that is widely used to connect
universities, government offices, companies and private individuals.

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1.9 Uses of Computer Networks
There are many uses of computer network. Depending upon the users’ network has the Notes
following uses.

1.9.1 Network for Companies

Resource Sharing: A network is needed because of the desire to make all programs,
data, and equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical
location of the resource and the user. Load sharing is another aspect of resource
sharing.
High Reliability: A network may have alternative sources of supply (e.g., replicated
files, multiple CPUs, etc.). In case of one resource failure, the others could be used and
the system continues to operate at reduced performance. This is a very important
property for military, banking, air traffic control and many other applications.
Saving Money: A network may consist of many powerful small computers, one per
user, with data kept on one or more shared file server machines, which offers a much
better price/performance ratio than mainframes.
Scalability: The ability to increase system performance gradually by adding more
processors (incremental upgrade).
Powerful Communication Medium: Networks make cooperation among far-flung
groups of people easy where it previously had been impossible.
In the long run, the use of networks to enhance human-to-human communication
may prove more important than technical goals such as improved reliability.
CSCW (Computer-Supported Cooperative Work) is a rapidly expanding
multidisciplinary area based on communication networks.

1.9.2 Networks for People

Starting in the 1990s, computer networks began to start delivering services to private
individuals at home.

Access to Remote Information

(a) Home reservations for airplanes, trains, hotels, restaurants, theaters and so on,
anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
(b) Home banking and shopping.
(c) On-line and personalized electronic newspapers, journals and libraries.
(d) Access to WWW (World Wide Web) which contains information about many topics -
too many to mention!
All these applications involve interactions between a person and a remote database.
 Person-to-person communication: The 21st Century’s answer to the 19th
Century’s telephone.
 Electronic mails or emails for everyone. Emails may contain digitized voice,
pictures, moving TV and video images (and even smell!). \
 Worldwide newsgroups for the population at large, and cover every conceivable
topics.
 Real-time CSCW systems, such as videoconferencing and virtual meeting
environments, allow remote users to communicate with no delay, possibly seeing
and hearing each other’s as well.
It is sometime said that transportation and communication are having a race, and
whichever one wins will make the other obsolete.

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Interactive entertainment is a huge and growing industry.
(i) Video on demand (the killer application): The user can select any movie or TV
Notes program ever made, in any country, and have it displayed on his screen instantly.
(ii) Interactive films: The user may choose alternative scenarios for the story
direction.
(iii) Live and interactive TV: Audience may participate in quiz shows and so on.
(iv) Multiperson real-time games (maybe the alternative killer application): Hide-
and-seek, flight simulators, etc.
If done with goggles and 3-dimensional real-time, photographic-quality moving
images, we have a kind of worldwide shared virtual reality.
The ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will surely give
rise to a massive new industry based on computer networking.
The information revolution may change society as much as the Industrial Revolution
did.

1.9.3 Business Use

The business uses of computer networks include storage and retrieval of information,
reducing the need for paper and moving towards paperless office and rationalizing the
time for producing correspondence and accounts. In the context of business, generally
computer networks provide the following uses:
1. Sharing of resources: Computer networking allows sharing of resources.
Connections of computers in a network will enable you to share files and devices
such as printers, CD-ROM drives, etc. It makes available programs, data, and
equipment available to anyone on the network irrespective of the physical location
of the resource and the user. In case of over capacity utilization of the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) of any one computer in network, the computer networks
helps in transferring loads to another computer in the network. This aspect of load
sharing is the key to the grid computing.
Example: In Today’s world, floppy disks and Cds have taken a back space
whereas networking is taking place to share the files and folders .So people now
share their files and folders with their friends, relatives or their colleagues directly
through computer networks. Now a days file sharing or any resource sharing is
done through internet. Computer networks provide you with more flexible options.
The process of copying files from one computer to another is done using a live
network connection.
2. Reliability: It is also due to sharing of different resources as it provides alternative
sources such as replicated files, multiple CPUs, etc. When one computer breaks
down, you can use other computer available on the network with your replicated
files etc available thereon. Thus, the system continues to operate but at reduced
performance. This could be possible because there is no central computer as in the
case of mainframe. This is very important property for applications of computer
networks in financial services, air traffic control and many other applications.
3. Saving money: Computer networks help in collecting data on either one server or
many servers in the form of file servers in the same network. Thus, a computer
network consisting of many powerful small computers, one per user will be able to
access data collected in file servers. This provides a better price/performance ratio
than mainframes. This model is called the client-server model where the users are
called clients.
Example: Suppose a file is to be shared between employees and their senior head.
So, instead of every employee going to their head by getting their data on
removable media to show the files, the network allows them to share files without
making any effort of moving from their seat. Also networking allows management to

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Introduction to Computer Networks 11
monitor what the employees are doing on their computers, thus reducing wasted
time.
4. Scalability: Use of computer networks facilitates connections of different networks
Notes
at multiple locations to communicate with the computers of other network. This is
accomplished by using phone services and other mode of communication services.
5. Powerful communication medium: Networks make communication among
groups of people easy at remote locations through e-mail, chat, etc. It also
facilitates rapid exchange of information and business data over the company’s
internal network. Use of the computer network and the Internet allows users to
access to data from anywhere in the world.
6. Integration of the business operations: It helps in Integrating the whole business
operation into a networked operation, including sales activity, stock holding,
quotations, ordering raw materials, control the production process, process
invoices, process all the accounts, analyze business performance, quality control,
etc.

1.9.4 Scientific Use: Computer Enhanced Collaborative Work (CECW)

Scientific use of computer networks can be traced back to the beginnings of the Internet
for sharing resources and exchanging data. The Internet, as we know it today, was
created in a laboratory.
In scientific applications, computer networks were useful for sharing data and using
remote computers to carry out large computations. This may include the use of
supercomputers in various locations. Apart from the "outsourcing" of computing power,
the old system of using one powerful computer within a department to carry out large
computations and many small hosts for the creation of reports is very common
application of computer networks. Grid computing is an area in which networked
computers can be used for the parallel processing of large computations using
processors with local memory and shared memory. The distinction between processor
and computer is that a computer is the combination of a processor, memory and
peripheral devices. A processor is an integrated circuit in which the processing takes
place.

Networks for Citizens

Computer network is an important information gathering and transferring tool for
common citizens where interactions between a person and a remote database take
place. They provide access to remote information such as:
 E-governance applications are aimed with the vision of providing citizen services in
an integrated manner. To achieve this mission, the government and private sector
develops citizen centric applications and provides access points in the forms of
Community Information Centers. These services may also be accessed from home.
Some of the applications include land records, agricultural products price, driving
licenses, railway reservations etc.
 Reservations for trains, airplanes, hotels, restaurants, theaters, and so on,
anywhere in the world with instant confirmation.
 Networks have made possible online banking and shopping from home or office.
 Proliferation of computer networks is providing on-line and personalized electronic
newspapers, journals, and libraries at your desktop.
 Networks allow us to be mobile because we can access our own computer while
traveling or transfer files to some remote computer.
 Access to WWW (World Wide Web), which contains information about several
topics, has changed the world into global village.

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Person-to-person Communication

Notes It involves:
 Exchange of message via emails that may contain text, digitized voice, pictures,
video images, etc.
 Newsgroups covering topics for a particular group.
 Real-time collaborative approaches such as videoconferencing and virtual meeting
environments that allow remote users to communicate with negligible delay with
seeing and hearing each other.

Entertainment
It involves:
 Video on demand allows the user to select any movie or TV program available in
the video library for having it displayed on screen instantly.
 Interactive films where the user has an opportunity to select any scene of his/her
choice to create his/her own film.
 Live and interactive TV enables users to participate in quiz shows, and so on.
 Due to all these benefits and other also, computer networking becomes increasingly
more important.

1.9.5 Complexity in Network Systems

 Viruses can easily attack the system. A system can easily be destroyed through
viruses that appears easily in network systems. It takes much time to remove any
virus, so its very important to keep your systems away from viruses.
 Also a system can be attacked by hackers. They can hack your passwords and may
affect the security of the system.
 Expensive to install: Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software
are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.
 Requires administrative time: Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to
find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
 File server may fail: Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than
any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may
come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary
programs and files.
 Cables may break: The Topology chapter presents information about the various
configurations of cables. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can
stop the entire network.

1.9.6 Computer Network Concept

The development of computer networks took place in gradual manner and is built in a
highly structured way. They are designed in such a way so that the network architecture
and structure could reduce the design complexity and enable the system designer to
scale up and upgrade the networks.

Network Architecture
Network architecture defines the communications products and services, which ensure
that the various components can work together. In the early days of data
communication systems, the majority of communications were between the DTE and
the host computer. Therefore, transmission control procedures were alone enough as
communication protocols. However, recent computer systems link with other systems to

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Introduction to Computer Networks 13
form a network, resulting in a situation where in different protocols serving different
purposes are required. Hence, the network architecture represents a systemization of
the various kinds of protocols needed to build a network. Notes
Computer manufacturers have developed different protocols as needed. This
means that each type of computer needed to support different protocols. This also
necessitated large development and maintenance costs. All computer manufacturers,
therefore worked together to standardize and systemize protocols to link their models
and thereby reduce the development and maintenance costs. This was how each
manufacturer built own network architecture. Since the concept of the network
architecture was first introduced to connect the computers of the same manufacture, the
process has become easier. However, from user's perspective, the ideal form of
network architecture is one, which enables machines of all manufacturers to connect to
each other. Therefore, the need of standardization of network architecture arose.
Table 1.1: Network Architecture by Vendor
Manufacturer Network Architecture
IBM System Network Architecture (SNA)
DEC Digital Network Architecture (DEC)
Borroughs Borroughs Network Architecture (BNA)
UNIV AC Distributed Communication Architecture (DCA)
Toshiba Advanced Network System Architecture (ANSA)
NEC Distributed Information Processing Architecture (DINA)
Honeywell Distributed System Environment (DSE)

Following are the ways to achieve connection between different manufacturers:

1. Protocol Converters: These are devices that translate from one native protocol
into another, for example, from ASCII to IBM SNA/SDLC
2. Gateways: These are hardware/software combinations that connect devices
running different native protocols. In addition to protocol conversion, gateways
provide a gateway connection between incompatible networks. Examples include
Ethernet-to-Token Ring gateways, X.25-to-Frame Relay gateways, and T-carrier-to-
E-Carrier International Gateway Facilities (IGFs).
3. In addition to the above, Protocol Analyzers are available as diagnostic tools for
displaying and analyzing communications protocols. Analyzers allow technicians,
engineers and managers to test the performance of the network to ensure that the
systems and the network are functioning according to specifications. LAN
managers, for instance, use protocol analyzers to perform network maintenance
and troubleshooting and to plan network upgrades and expansions.

OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was set up as an international standard for
network architecture. OSI Reference Model developed by the International standard
organization deals with connecting open systems. Open systems are open for
communication with other systems. The OSI model contains seven layers. A detailed
discussion of the network architecture has been provided under the topic network
software in this Unit only. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) took
the initiative in setting up OSI. OSI has two meanings. It refers to the protocols that are
authorized by ISO.

OSI Basic Reference Model

OSI reference model divides the required functions of the network architecture into
several layers and defines the function of each layer. Layering the communications
process means breaking it down the communication process into smaller and easier to
handle interdependent categories, with each solving an important and somehow distinct

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aspect of the data exchange process. The objective of this detail is to develop an
understanding of the complexity and sophistication that this technology has achieved, in
Notes addition to developing the concept for the inner workings of the various components
that contribute to the data communications process.

1.10 Data Communication

Data Communication is defined as a process of exchanging information or data. In
computer networks, this exchange is exercised among two devices over a transmission
medium. This process includes a communication system which consists of hardware as
well as software. The hardware part includes the sender devices, receiver devices, and
the intermediate devices through which the data passes. The software part includes
certain rules which define what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated
and when.

1.11 Communication Model

The communication model consists of five sub systems: user, transmitter,
communication channel, receiver and destiny. You can see the block diagram of a
typical communication model in figure 1.2(a). The five sub systems are discussed
below.
 User: There will be a source that produces the message and a transducer that
transforms the message into an electrical signal. The source can be considered as
an individual in front of a microphone or a computer itself sending a file. The user
terminal is called DTE (data terminal equipment).
 Transmitter: It can be a radio frequency modulator which combines the signal
coming out of the DTE. You can consider radio frequency as the carrier for the data
signal. Or in case of direct digital transmission, you can consider transmitter as the
Manchester encoder transmitting digital signals directly.
 Communication channel: Communication channel can be guided media or
unguided media. Communication, in both the cases, is in the form of
electromagnetic waves. By means of guided media, the electromagnetic waves are
guided along a physical path. With unguided media, the transmitting
electromagnetic waves are not guided along with a physical path. They are
released through vacuum/air/water., etc.
 Receiver: The receiver is used to amplify the received signals. It removes any
unwanted signals (such as noise) introduced by the communication channel during
the signal propagation and feeds to the destiny.
 Destiny: Finally, the user at the other end receives the message via the data
terminal equipment (DTE) positioned at the other side.

Figure 1.2: (a) Block Diagram of a Data Communication Model

(b) A Typical Dial-up Network
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Introduction to Computer Networks 15
Example
You can see a typical dial-up network setup in figure 1.2(b). The data communication Notes
equipment (DCE) which is positioned at the transmitting end transforms the digital
signals into modulation (audio tones so that the voice grade telephone lines can be
utilised as guided media throughout transmission. At the other end, the receiving audio
tones are converted back to digital signals (Demodulation). This is done by means of
data communication equipment (DCE) positioned at the other end. Finally, these digital
signals are fed to the far end DTE (data terminal equipment).
Now, you will understand the concept of data communications and networking.

1.11.1 Data Communications

A data communication system is a computer system that collects data from remote
locations through data transmission circuits, and then outputs processing results to
remote locations. The different data communication techniques, which are in
widespread use today evolved gradually either to improve the data communication
techniques already existing or to replace the same with better options and features.
Hence, it becomes necessary to review and understand the gradual development of
data communication methods.
Human beings have evolved through communication with other human beings.
They invented spoken and written language as a means of communication, as well as
the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television to conquer time and distance. As we act
in broader areas, supported by these technologies and other transport facilities, we
handle greater amounts of information in increasingly varied forms.
However, human beings can handle just a limited amount of information. A system
is therefore required to collect, store and process information for us. Such a system is a
computer. In addition to this, computer systems along with data transmission circuits
enhance its capability for data communication. In this process they can collect data from
remote locations and output processing results to remote locations. This system is
known as data communication.
A data communication system consists of data terminal equipment, a data
communication circuit, and an information-processing unit. A data communication circuit
transmits information input from the data terminal equipment to the remote information-
processing unit or transmits processing results to the data terminal equipment. The
information-processing unit processes the data. You can see this in Figure 1.3.
HOST SYSTEM
DTE

DCE DCE
(3) (1) (3) CC CPU
P
(4) (2) (2)
(5)

Transmission Control

Data Processing

Figure 1.3: Data Communication Systems

In data communication system, data is transmitted from terminals to the information-
processing unit through data communication circuits. Following are the two types of
data transmission methods that are used to carry data from its origin to the information-
processing unit.

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 Offline: Computers are not connected by communication circuits. Data is
transmitted between a terminal and information-processing unit through a magnetic
Notes tape and magnetic disk packs.
 Online: Computers are connected by communication circuits. Data can be instantly
transmitted between a terminal and information-processing unit.
Communications can be classified in two categories- analog and digital. These are
discussed as below:

Analog
In the analog form of electronic communications, information is represented as a
continuous electromagnetic wave form. Analog is best explained by the transmission
signal such as sound or human speech, over an electrified copper wire.
Example: A good example of an analog signal is the loud-speaker of a stereo
system. When the volume is turned up, the sound increases slowly and constantly.
In its native form, human speech is an oscillatory disturbance in the air as shown in
Figure 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6, which varies in terms of its volume, or power (amplitude), and
its pitch or tone (frequency). Analogous variations in electrical or radio waves are
created in order to transmit the analog information signal for video or audio or both over
a network from a transmitter (TV station or CATV source) to a receiver (TV set,
computer connected with antenna). At the receiving end an approximation (analog) of
the original information is presented.
y

Figure 1.4: Waveform in the form of Sine Wave

y

Amplitude t

Figure 1.5: Amplitude

Figure 1.6: Frequency Representation

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Information which is analog in its native form (audio and image) can vary
continuously in terms of intensity (volume or brightness) and frequency (tone or colour).
Those variations in the native information stream are translated in an analog electrical Notes
network into variations in the amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal.
Notes: The carrier signal is modulated (varied) in order to create an analog of the
original information stream.
The electromagnetic sinusoidal wave form, or sine wave as shown in Figure 1.4,
can be varied in amplitude at a fixed frequency, using Amplitude Modulation (AM).
Alternatively, the frequency of the sine wave can be varied at constant amplitude, using
Frequency Modulation (FM). Additionally, both frequency and amplitude can be
modulated simultaneously.
 Voice: A voice grade channel is approximately 4,000 Hz, or 4 kHz. Approximately
3.3 kHz (200 Hz to 3,500 Hz) is used for the voice signal itself. The remaining
bandwidth is used for the purposes of network signalling and control in order to
maintain separation between information channels. While human speech
transmission and reception encompasses a much wider range of frequencies, 3.3
kHz is considered to be quite satisfactory and is cost-effective.
 Video: A CATV video channel is approximately 6 MHz. Approximately 4.5 MHz is
used for information transmission, while the balance is used for guard bands to
separate the various adjacent channels using the common, analog coaxial cable
system.

Advantages of Analog transmission are discussed below:

Analog transmission offers advantages in the transmission of analog information.
Additionally, it is more bandwidth-conservative and is widely available.
 Cost-effective: Analog has an inherent advantage as voice; image and video are
analog in nature. Therefore, the process of transmission of such information is
relatively straightforward in an analog format, whereas conversion to a digital bit
stream requires conversion equipment. Such equipment increases cost, is
susceptible to failure, and can negatively affect the quality of the signal through the
conversion process, itself.
 Bandwidth: A raw information stream consumes less bandwidth in analog form
than in digital form. This is particularly evident in CATV transmission, where 50 or
more analog channels routinely are provided over a single coaxial cable system.
 Presence: Finally, analog transmission systems are already in place, world-wide.
The interconnection of those systems is very common and all standards are well
established. As the majority of network traffic is voice and as the vast majority of
voice terminals are analog devices, therefore, voice communications largely depend
on analog networks. Conversion to digital networks would require expensive,
wholesale conversion of such terminal equipment.

Digital
Computers are digital in nature. Computers process, store, and communicate
information in binary form i.e. in the combination of 1s and 0s which has specific
meaning in computer language. A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or 0. Multiple bit
streams are used in a computer network.
Contemporary computer systems communicate in binary mode through variations in
electrical voltage. Digital signalling, in an electrical network, involves a signal which
varies in voltage to represent one of two discrete and well-defined states as depicted in
Figure 1.7 such as either a positive (+) voltage and a null or zero (0), voltage (unipolar)
or a positive (+) or a negative (-) voltage (bipolar).

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1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Notes +5 1 0 0 0
V
-5V

Figure 1.7: Binary Representation Forming Digital Signal

Example
Modern electronic products like computers and mobile phones rely on digital signals.
However, Morse Code is a good example of a digital signal. The signal is sent as a
series of ‘on’ and ‘off’ pulses. The signal is either present or it is not. Morse code was
introduced in 1837 by Samuel Morse, as a method of communication.
Although analog voice and video can be converted into digital, and digital data can
be converted to analog, even then each format has its own advantages.
Advantages of Digital transmission are discussed below:
 Digital Data: Digital transmission certainly has the advantage where binary
computer data is being transmitted. The equipment requires converting digital data
to an analog format and sending the digital bit streams over an analog network can
be expensive, susceptible to failure, and can create errors in the information.
 Compression: Digital data can be compressed relatively easily, thereby increasing
the efficiency of transmission. As a result, substantial volumes of voice, data, video
and image information can be transmitted using relatively little raw bandwidth.
 Security: Digital systems offer better security. While analog systems offer some
measure of security through the scrambling, or intertwining of several frequencies,
scrambling is fairly simple to defeat. Digital information, on the other hand, can be
encrypted to create the appearance of a single, pseudo-random bit stream.
Thereby, the true meaning of individual bits, sets of bits, or the total bit stream
cannot be determined without having the key to unlock the encryption algorithm
employed.
 Quality: Digital transmission offers improved error performance (quality) as
compared to analog. This is due to the devices that boost the signal at periodic
intervals in the transmission system in order to overcome the effects of attenuation.
Additionally, digital networks deal more effectively with noise, which always is
present in transmission networks.
 Cost: The cost of the computer components required in digital conversion and
transmission has dropped considerably, while the ruggedness and reliability of
those components has increased over the years.
 Upgradability: Since digital networks are comprised of computer (digital)
components, they are relatively easy to upgrade. Such upgrades can increase
bandwidth, improve error performance, and enhance functionality. Some upgrades
can be effected remotely over a network, eliminating the need to dispatch
expensive technicians for that purpose.
 Management: Generally speaking digital networks can be managed much more
easily and effectively due to the fact that such networks consist of computerized
components. Such components can sense their own level of performance, isolate
and diagnose failures, initiate alarms, respond to queries, and respond to
commands to correct any failure. Further, the cost of so enabling these components
continues to drop.

1.12 Network Examples

Types of networks in operation:
 Public networks run by common carriers or PTTs.

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 Research networks.
 Cooperative networks run by their users.
Notes
 Commercial or corporate networks.
Networks differ in the following aspects:
 History and administration – from well-planed and defined networks to ad hoc
collection of machines connected together over the years.
 Facilities – from arbitrary process-to-process communication to email, file transfer,
remote login and remote execution.
 Technical designs – transmission media, the naming and routing algorithms, the
number and contents of the layers and protocols.
 User community – from a single corporation to all the academic computer
scientists in the industrialized world.
We have discussed below some Computer Network Examples that will make you
understand the network concept in a much better manner.
1. The most common example of computer networks is "Internet" that is being used by
people in a wider way. It is defined as a network of computers across the world. In
today’s world, there is no need to have a conference room to attend a particular
meeting. Every participant can attend the meeting through video conferencing just
by sitting at their place in front of their desktop. Every file and folder or any kind of
presentation can be shared easily without any need to upload them.
2. Another example would be a building lan. Let us consider an office building. Here all
the computer systems are connected to each other through LAN and they can be
shared easily such as they could have a common printer that can be used by every
user.
Some other networking packages are discussed below:

1.12.1 Novell NetWare

It is the most popular commercial LAN networking package in the PC world.
IPX is an unreliable connectionless internetwork protocol, similar to IP, except that it
uses 12-byte addresses instead of 4-byte addresses.
NCP (Network Core Protocol) is a connection-oriented transport protocol, plus
various other services besides user data transport.
SPX and TCP are other options for providing transport only.
The client-server binding process:
1. About once a minute, each server broadcasts a packet giving its address and telling
what services it offer, using the SAP (Service Advertising Protocol).
2. The packets are seen and collected by special agent processes running on the
router machines. The agents use the information contained in them to construct
databases of which servers are running where.
3. When a client machine is booted, it broadcasts a request asking where the nearest
server is.
4. The agent on the local router machine sees this request, looks its database of
servers, and matches up the request with the best server. The choice of server to
use is then sent back to the client.
5. The client establishes an NCP connection with the server.
6. The client and server negotiate the maximum packet size.
7. From this point on, the client can access this service using this connection.

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1.12.2 ARPANET

Notes It is the creation of ARPA (later DARPA, now ARPA), the (periodically Defense)
Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense.
Much of our present knowledge about networking is a direct result of the ARPANET
project.
ARPANET technologies:
1. IMP (Interface Message Processor): Originally Honeywell DDP-316 mini. with 12K
16-bit words memory. Replaced several times by more powerful machines.
Some IMPs allow direct terminal connection. They were called TIPs (Terminal
Interface Processors).
IMPs were connected by 56 kbps or 230.4 kbps leased lines. Each IMP could
originally handle only one to four hosts, and subsequently tens of hosts and
hundreds of terminals simultaneously.
2. Protocols: ARPANET did not follow the OSI model at all (it predates OSI by more
than a decade).
The first experimental system consisted of four nodes (Dec. 1969).
The TCP/IP model and protocols were specifically designed to handle the
interconnection of the vast number of WANs and LANs comprising the ARPA
internet.
TCP/IP protocols were then integrated in Berkeley UNIX by a convenient program
interface to the network (sockets), which makes TCP/IP very widespread.
To facilitate finding hosts in the ARPANET, DNS (Domain Naming System) was
created to organize machines into domains and map host names onto IP
addresses.
By 1990, the ARPANET had been overtaken by newer networks that it itself had
spawned, so it was shut down and dismantled.

1.12.3 NSFNET
By the late 1970s, the NSF (National Science Foundation, USA) set up CSNET to
provide networking facilities to the computer science community in USA as a whole
(particularly those without access to ARPANET).
CSNET was centered around a single machine (CSNET-RELAY) at BBN that
supports dial-up lines (PHONENET) and had connections to the ARPANET and other
networks (e.g., X.25, CYPRESS).
Its major services include – emails, file transfer and remote login.
By 1984, NSF began designing a high-speed network, called NSFNET, that would
be open to all university research groups.
NSFNET consists of a backbone network connecting six supercomputer centers,
and about 20 regional networks. Backbone speeds: 56 kbps, 448 kbps, 1.5 Mbps, 45
Mbps (ANSNET).

1.13 Summary
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources
(such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites or infrared light beams. The primary purpose of a computer network is
to share resources. The main goal of networking is Resource sharing. A second goal
is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. Another goal is
saving money. Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as
the work load increases by just adding more processors. With central mainframes,
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Introduction to Computer Networks 21
when the system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense
and with even greater disruption to the users. Computer networks provide a powerful
communication medium. There are two important dimensions for classifying networks Notes
— transmission technology and scale.
Broadcast networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network. Point-to-point networks consist of many
connections between individual pairs of machines. Multiple routes and intermediate
machines may exist between a pair of machines; so routing algorithms play an
important role here.
A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just Internet.
The Internet refers to a specific worldwide Internet that is widely used to connect
universities, government offices, companies and private individuals. A network topology
is the basic design of a computer network. It details how key network components such
as nodes and links are interconnected. There are three primary types of network
topologies which refer to the physical and logical layout of the Network cabling. They
are star, ring and bus topology.

1.14 Check Your Progress

Multiple Choice Questions
1. When collection of various computers seems a single coherent system to its client,
then it is called
(a) Computer network
(b) Distributed system
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of the mentioned
2. Two devices are in network if
(a) A process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in
another device
(b) A process is running on both devices
(c) PIDs of the processes running of different devices are same
(d) None of the mentioned
4. In computer network nodes are
(a) The computer that originates the data
(b) The computer that routes the data
(c) The computer that terminates the data
(d) All of the mentioned
5. Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the network in
(a) Broadcast network
(b) Unicast network
(c) Multicast network
(d) None of the mentioned
6. Bluetooth is an example of
(a) Personal area network
(b) Local area network
(c) Virtual private network
(d) None of the mentioned

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7. Which one of the following extends a private network across public networks?
(a) Local area network
Notes
(b) Virtual private network
(c) Enterprise private network
(d) Storage area network
8. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves ………………
transmission
(a) Automatic
(b) Half-duplex
(c) Full-duplex
(d) Simplex
9. The first Network
(a) CNNET
(b) NSFNET
(c) ASAPNET
(d) ARPANET
10. The ……………… is the physical path over which a message travels
(a) Ppath
(b) Medium
(c) Protocol
(d) Route

1.15 Questions and Exercises

1. What are Broadcast networks? Discuss.
2. Explain the concept of analog and digital form of electronic communications.
3. Classify computer networks on the basis of Transmission technology.
4. What are the various types of network?
5. Write difference between LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN.
6. What is computer network?
7. Why computer network is needed.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of computer network.

1.16 Key Terms

 Binary Digit: A binary digit (bit) is an individual 1 or 0.
 Digital Signaling: Digital signaling, in an electrical network, involves a signal which
varies in voltage to represent one of two discrete and well-defined states
 Analog: In the analog form of electronic communications, information is
represented as a continuous electromagnetic wave form.
 Data Communication: Data Communication is defined as a process of exchanging
information or data.
 Broadcast Networks: These networks have a single communication channel
shared by all the machines on the network.

Check Your Progress: Answers

1. (b) Distributed system

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Introduction to Computer Networks 23
2. (a) A process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in
another device
3. (a) The computer that originates the data
Notes
4. (a) Broadcast network
5. (a) Personal area network
6. (b) Virtual private network
7. (b) Medium
8. (d) ARPANET
9. (d) Simplex
10. (b) Medium

1.17 Further Readings

 Sanjay Sharma, Communication system; analog and digital, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
2012
 Sanjay Sharma, Digital communication, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2010
 Anurag Kumar, D. Manjunath, Joy Kuri, Communication Networking: An Analytical
Approach, Academic Press,Copyright, 2004
nd
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2 edition, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
 By V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, Computer Networks – II, Technical Publications,
Copyright, 2009

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Unit 2: Data Communication

Notes
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology
2.2.1 Transmission Concepts
2.2.2 Transmission Terminology
2.3 Data Encoding Techniques
2.3.1 Digital Data to Digital Signals
2.3.2 Digital Data to Analog Signals
2.3.3 Analog Data to Digital Signal
2.3.4 Analog Data to Analog Signals
2.4 Digital Data Communication Techniques
2.4.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission
2.4.2 Transmission Errors
2.4.3 Error Detection Techniques
2.5 Multiplexing
2.6 Summary
2.7 Check Your Progress
2.8 Questions and Exercises
2.9 Key Terms
2.10 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Describe the digital transmission concept and technology
 Discuss different encoding technique
 Explain digital communication technique

2.1 Introduction
In this lesson, you will study the concept of data transmission. The conveyance, or
transmission, of information across a distance necessarily involves some form of
transmission medium. The selection of physical transmission media that serve to
transport the information is critical to its successful conveyance. You will study data
encoding techniques and digital data communication techniques.
The utilisation of data transmission facilities makes the process of the collection and
dissemination of information faster and allows subscribers with low-cost terminal
equipment in order to enjoy the services provided by huge computer centres.

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2.2 Data Transmission Concepts and Terminology
In this section, you will learn about the data transmission concept and terminology. The Notes
transmission of an electrical signal requires the use of a transmission medium, which
normally takes the form of a transmission line. There are various ways to transmit the
signal. These ways can be broadly categorised into guided and unguided media. The
guided media includes all wired media, also referred to as conducted or bounded
media. The second category includes all traditional wireless media, also referred to as
radiated, or unbounded. In the transmission of signal the data is encoded to energy and
then energy is transmitted. Similarly, at the receiving end the energy is decoded back to
data. This energy can be electrical, light and radio, etc. Therefore this transmitted
energy is carried through some sort of medium, which depends upon the type of energy
being transmitted. Each form of energy has different properties and requirements for
transmission. This requires special hardware for data encoding and connection to
transmission medium. Media can be copper, glass and air, etc.

2.2.1 Transmission Concepts

Before discussing different kinds of transmission medium, it becomes necessary to
know a little about the basic concepts and terminology associated with the transmission
of a signal.

Frequency Spectrum
In the transmission of data the range of carrier frequencies depends on the nature of
the medium and the requirements of the applications supported. Therefore, frequency
spectrum may be defined as the range of frequencies being supported by a particular
transmission medium. The actual range of frequencies supporting a given
communication is known as a pass band.

Bandwidth
You must understand that in a very general way bandwidth may be defined as the
range of frequencies assigned to a channel. In other words, you may say that
bandwidth is the difference, expressed in Hertz, between the highest and the lowest
frequencies of a band. In general, the higher the bandwidth, the more will be the data
transmission rate or throughput. It should be noted that bandwidth and data
transmission rate are very closely interrelated to each other. Clearly, any transmission
system becomes more attractive if the available bandwidth is greater, introduced errors
are fewer, and the maximum distance between various network elements (amplifiers,
repeaters, and antennae) is greater.

Distances
The higher frequency signals offer greater bandwidth; they also generally suffer to a
greater extent from signal attenuation than lower frequencies. This fact results in more
errors in transmission, unless the amplifiers/repeaters are spaced more closely
together. It clearly demonstrates the close and direct relationship between bandwidth,
distance, and error performance.
Bandwidth, in this context, refers to the raw amount of bandwidth the medium
supports. Error performance refers to the number or percentage of errors, which are
introduced in the process of transmission. Distance refers to the minimum and
maximum spatial separation between devices over a link, in the context of a complete,
end-to-end circuit.

Propagation Delay
It is important for you to note that propagation delay refers to the length of time required
for a signal to travel from transmitter to receiver across a transmission system. While
electromagnetic energy travels at roughly the speed of light (30,000 km per second) in
free space. In contrast, the speed of propagation for twisted pair or coaxial cable is a

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fraction of this figure. The nature of the transmission system will have considerable
impact on the level of propagation delay. In other words, the total length of the circuit
Notes directly influences the length of time it takes for the signal to reach the receiver.

Security
Security, in the context of transmission systems, addresses the protection of data from
interception as it transverses the network. Particularly in the case of data networking, it
also is important that access to a remote system and the data resident on it be limited to
authorized users.

Resistance to Environmental Conditions

Resistance to Environmental Conditions applies most especially to wired systems.
Twisted pair, coaxial, and fibre optic cables are manipulated physically as they are
deployed and reconfigured. Clearly, each has certain physical limits to the amount of
bending and twisting (flex strength) they can tolerate, as well as the amount of weight or
longitudinal stress they can support (tensile strength), without breaking (break strength).
Fibre optic cables are notoriously susceptible in this regard. Cables hung from poles
expand and contract with changes in ambient temperature; while glass fibre optic
cables expand and contract relatively little, twisted pair copper wire is more expansive.
The issue of Resistance to Environmental Conditions also applies to airwave
systems, as reflective dishes, antennae, and other devices used in microwave, satellite,
and infrared technologies must be mounted securely to deal with wind and other forces
of nature. Additionally, the towers, walls and roofs on which they are mounted must be
constructed and braced properly in order to withstand such forces.

Physical Dimensions
It will be interesting for you to know that the physical dimensions of a transmission
system must be considered as well. This is especially true, once again, in the case of
wired systems. Certainly, the sheer weight of a cable system must be considered as
one attempts to deploy it effectively. Additionally, the bulk (diameter) of the cable is of
importance, as conduit and raceway space often is at a premium. The physical
dimensions of airwave systems also must be considered, as the size and weight of the
reflective dish and mounting system (e.g., bracket and tower) may require support.

Cost and Ease of Installation

You need to know that cost issues abound in the selection of an appropriate
transmission medium. Such issues include the cost of acquisition, deployment,
operation, and maintenance (O&M), and upgrade or replacement. Without a lengthy
discussion of each cost issue, it is particularly noteworthy to compare the costs of
deployment of wired versus wireless media.
Wired transmission systems require that a right-of-way and this should be secured.
Wired transmission involves a cost component in the form infrastructure. The
infrastructure includes digging of trenches and boring of holes under streets so that
cable can be pulled and poles may be mounted. In addition, amplifiers or repeaters may
be placed. Such costs are not trivial. Unlike wired system, wireless systems require
secured right-of-way and antennae. It may be inferred that the deployment of wired
systems certainly speak to a set of cost issues that often can be more problematic.

2.2.2 Transmission Terminology

You must understand that data transmission takes place between a transmitter and
receiver through some medium. You can classify transmission media as guided or
unguided media. In each case, communication is done in the form of electromagnetic
waves.

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 Guided media: Guided media is the one where you can use any path for
communication such as cables. Example: Guided media are twisted pair, coaxial
cable, and optical fibre. Notes
 Unguided/wireless media: Unguided media is also known as wireless media
where any physical path is not used for transmission. Example: Examples are
propagation through air, vacuum, and seawater.
 Direct link (guided & unguided): The term direct link refers to the path of
transmission between two devices in which signals are propagated directly from
transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, except repeaters or amplifiers
which are used for increasing the strength of a signal.
 Point-to-point (guided): A guided transmission medium is said to be point to point
if it offers a direct link between two devices and the medium is shared by only these
two devices.
 Multi-point: A multipoint guided configuration is the one in which more than two
devices share the same medium.

A transmission may be simplex, half duplex, or full duplex.

 Simplex: It is a communication mode in which signals are transmitted in only one
direction. One station is considered as transmitter and the other is considered as
receiver.
 Half duplex: It is a communication mode in which both stations may transmit, but
only one at a time.
 Full duplex: It is a communication mode in which both stations may transmit at the
same time, and the medium is carrying signals in both the directions
simultaneously.

2.3 Data Encoding Techniques

This section emphasises on the data encoding techniques. Both analog and digital
information can be encoded as either analog or digital signals. The particular encoding
that is chosen depends on the specific requirements to be met and the media and
communications facilities available.

2.3.1 Digital Data to Digital Signals

You may already be aware that a digital signal is defined as a sequence of discrete and
discontinuous voltage pulses. Every pulse is a signal element. Encoding scheme is
considered as a significant factor in how effectively the receiver understands the
incoming signal. The techniques used for converting digital data to digital signals are
discussed below.

Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

Non return to zero (NRZ) codes includes the property that voltage level is constant
throughout a bit interval.
High level voltage = bit 1
and
Low level voltage = bit 0
A problem takes place when a long sequence of 0s or 1s is there and the voltage
level is maintained at the same value for a long period of time. This generates a
difficulty on the receiving end because now, the clock synchronisation is lost as a result
of deficiency of any transitions. Thus, it is problematic to find out the exact number of 0s
or 1s in this sequence.

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You must note that the two variations are discussed below:

Notes 1. NRZ-Level: In this level of encoding, the signal’s polarity changes only when the
incoming signal changes from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. This technique looks just like
the NRZ technique, excluding the first input one data bit. This is because NRZ-L
considers the first data bit to be a polarity change. Where NRZ does not.
2. NRZ-Inverted (NRZ-I): Transition that takes place at the beginning of bit interval is
equal to bit 1 and when no transition takes place at beginning of bit interval is equal
to bit 0 or vice-versa. This technique is called differential encoding.
NRZ-I has a benefit over NRZ-L. Assume a situation where two data wires are
erroneously connected in each other's position. In case of NRZ-L, every bit sequence
will get reversed. This is because voltage levels get swapped. On the other hand, as the
bits in case of NRZ-I are recognised by transition, the bits will be interpreted correctly.
In case of NRZ codes, a drawback is that a string of 0's or 1's will avoid synchronization
of transmitter clock with receiver clock and a separate clock line is required to be
provided.

Biphase Encoding
You need to keep in mind that it consists of the following characteristics:
1. As there is an expectable transition during every bit time, the receiver can perform
synchronization on that transition. That is, clock is extracted from the signal itself.
2. As a transition can take place at the beginning and in the middle of the bit interval,
the clock functions at twice the data transfer rate.
Now you will understand the different types of encoder.
Biphase-manchester: In case of Biphase-manchester, transition from high to low
in middle of interval is equal to 1 and transition from low to high in middle of interval is
equal to 0.
Differential-manchester: This technique is also known as Conditioned Diphase
encoding (CDP). In this type of encoding, data and clock signals are combined to
produce a single self-synchronizing data stream.
4B/5B Encoding: In case of Manchester encoding scheme, there is a transition
after each bit. It signifies that it is must to have clocks with double the speed in order to
send same amount of data as in NRZ encodings. Alternatively, you can say that only
50% of the data is sent. We can improve this performance factor substantially if a better
encoding scheme is used. This method may have a transition after fixed number of bits
rather than every other bit. If you have a transition after every four bits, then it signifies
that you will be sending 80% data of actual capacity. This is considered as a significant
enhancement in the performance.
This method is known as 4B/5B. In this method, we convert 4-bits to 5-bits,
assuring at least one transition in them. Here, the fundamental idea is that the 5-bit
code selected must have:
one leading 0
no more than two trailing 0s
Therefore, it is assured that more than three consecutive 0s cannot exist. Now these
5-bit codes are transmitted by means of NRZI coding. Thus problem of consecutive 1s
is solved.

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The exact transformation is shown below.
Table 1.1: Transformation Information Notes
4-bit Data 5-bit code 4-bit Data 5-bit code
0000 11110 1000 10010
0001 01001 1001 10011
0010 10100 1010 10110
0011 10101 1011 10111
0100 01010 1100 11010
0101 01011 1101 11011
0110 01110 1110 11100
0111 01111 1111 11101

Out of the remaining 16 codes, 7 are unacceptable and others are utilised to send
some control information such as line dead(00000), line idle(11111), Halt(00100) etc.
Other variants for this scheme include 5B/6B, 8B/10B etc. These variants have self-
suggesting names.
8B/6T Encoding: In the schemes discussed above, we have used two/three
voltage levels for a signal. However, more than three voltage levels can be used
altogether. This allows us to send more than one bit over a single signal. If we utilise six
voltage levels and 8-bits, then the scheme is known as 8B/6T. Here, we have 729(3^6)
combinations for signal and 256(2^8) combinations for bits.

Bipolar AIM
In case of Bipolar AIM, there are three voltage levels: middle, upper, lower.
Representation 1: Middle level =0 Upper, Lower level =1 such that successive 1's
will be represented alternately on upper and lower levels.
Representation 2: Middle level =1 Upper, Lower level=0

2.3.2 Digital Data to Analog Signals

A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital data to analog signal. There are
three ways to modulate a digital signal on an analog carrier signal.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): is a form of modulation, which represents digital
data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier wave. Two different amplitudes of carrier
frequency represent ‘0’, '1'.

Figure 1.1: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

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Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): In Frequency Shift Keying, the change in
frequency defines different digits. Two different frequencies near carrier frequency
Notes represent ‘0’,''1'.

Figure 1.2: Frequency Shift Keying (FSK

Phase Shift Keying (PSK): The phase of the carrier is discretely varied in relation
either to a reference phase or to the phase of the immediately preceding signal
element, in accordance with data being transmitted. Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent ‘0’, '1'.

Figure 1.3: Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

2.3.3 Analog Data to Digital Signal

The process is called digitization. Sampling frequency must be at least twice that of
highest frequency present in the signal so that it may be fairly regenerated.
Quantisation – Max. and min. values of amplitude in the sample are noted. Depending
on number of bits (say n) we use the interval (min, max) can be divided into 2(^n)
number of levels. The amplitude is then approximated to the nearest level by 'n' bit
integer. The digital signal thus consists of blocks of n bits. On reception the process is
reversed to produce analog signal.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM): Here intervals are equally spaced. 8 bit PCB uses
256 different levels of amplitude. In non-linear encoding levels may be unequally
spaced.
Delta Modulation (DM): Since successive samples do not differ very much we
send the differences between previous and present sample. It requires fewer bits than
in PCM.

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2.3.4 Analog Data to Analog Signals
Analog data are modulated by a carrier frequency to generate an analogue signal in a Notes
different frequency band, which can be used on an analogue transmission system. The
basic techniques are:
Amplitude modulation: Two different voltage levels are used to represent 0 and 1,
respectively.
Frequency modulation: Two (or more) different tones are used.
Phase modulation: The carrier wave is systematically shifted certain degrees at
uniformly spaced intervals.

2.4 Digital Data Communication Techniques

In this section, you must note the digital data communication techniques. The
transmission of a stream of bits from one device to another across a transmission link
includes a high amount of co-operation and agreement among the two sides. One of the
most significant requirements is synchronization. It is must for the receiver to know the
rate at which bits are being received. This can sample the line at suitable intervals in
order to determine the value of every received bit. For this purpose, two techniques are
in common use. These techniques are Asynchronous transmission and Synchronous
Transmission.

2.4.1 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

You will now understand the concept of asynchronous and synchronous transmission.

Asynchronous Transmission
In asynchronous transmission, small blocks of bits (usually bytes) are sent at a time
with no time relation among consecutive bytes .When no transmission takes place, a
default state is maintained corresponding to bit 1. Because of arbitrary delay between
consecutive bytes, the time incidences of the clock pulses at the receiving end need to
be synchronized for every byte. This is attained by providing two extra bits, that is, start
and stop.
 Start bit: Start bit is prefixed to each byte and equals 0. Therefore, it assures a
transition from 1 to 0 at onset of byte transmission. You can use the leading edge of
start bit as a reference for generating clock pulses at necessary sampling instants.
Therefore, every onset of a byte leads to resynchronization of receiver clock.
 Stop bit: To assure that the transition from 1 to 0 is always available at the
beginning of a byte, it is essential that default state should be 1. However, there
may be two bytes, one immediately following the other and if last bit of first byte is
0, transition from 1 to 0 will not take place. Thus, a stop bit is suffixed to each byte
equalling 1. Its duration is generally 1, 1.5, 2 bits.
Asynchronous transmission is considered as simple and inexpensive. However, it
needs an overhead of 3 bits, that is, for 7 bit code 2 (start, stop bits) + 1 parity bit
implying 30% overhead. Nevertheless, % can be reduced by sending larger blocks of
data, but then timing errors among receiver and sender cannot be tolerated beyond
[50/no. of bits in block] % (assuming sampling is done at middle of bit interval). Apart
from resulting in incorrect sampling, it also misalign bit count, that is, a data bit can be
mistaken for stop bit if the clock of receiver is faster.

Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, larger blocks of bits are transmitted in a successful
manner. Blocks of data are either considered as sequence of bits or bytes. In order to
avoid timing drift, clocks at two ends are required to be synchronised. This can
performed in two ways:

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1. Offer a separate clock line between receiver and transmitter. OR

2. Embed the clocking information in data signal i.e. biphase coding for digital signals.
Notes
Still it required another level of synchronization so that receiver determines
beginning or end of data block. Thus, every block starts with a start code and ends with
a stop code. Some control characters include data within these flags. Data and control
information is known as a frame. As any arbitrary bit pattern can be transmitted, there is
no guarantee that bit pattern for flag will not appear inside the frame thus demolishing
frame level synchronization. Thus, you can use bit stuffing in order to avoid this.
Bit Stuffing: Let us assume that our flag bits are 01111110 (six 1's). So, the
transmitter will always insert an extra 0 bit after each occurrence of five 1's (except for
flags). After identifying a starting flag, the bit stream is monitored by the receiver. If
pattern of five 1's appear, the sixth is observed and if it is 0, it is deleted else if it is 1
and next is 0, then the combination is accepted as a flag. Likewise, byte stuffing is
utilised for byte oriented transmission. Here we use an escape sequence to prefix a
byte similar to flag and 2 escape sequences if byte is itself an escape sequence.
A network is connection of independent computers to communicate with one
another over a shared network medium. The physical layer deals with transmission
medium to transport information in the form of bits between different computers on the
network. The Physical layer is responsible for communicating 0’s and 1’s across a
medium by varying some sort of physical property such as voltage or current. This layer
also ensures the reliable delivery of bits. It means that when sending side sends a 1 bit,
it is received by the receiving side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Hence, it defines the
electrical and mechanical aspects of interfacing to a physical medium for transmitting
data, as well as setting up, maintaining, and disconnecting physical links. It is primarily
concerned with moving bits from one node to next over the physical link. The issues
concerning with the physical layer involve amplitude of the pulses to define 1 and 0
level, width of the pulse in microseconds, types and mode of communications,
establishment and breaking of connections at the time of communications, types of
connectors, etc.
It accepts data from the Data Link layer in bit streams for the subsequent
transmission over the physical medium. At this layer, the mechanical (connector type),
electrical (voltage levels), functional (ping assignments), and procedural (handshake)
characteristics are defined. RS-232C/D is an example of a physical layer definition. The
bit stream is represented as a function of time and can be analyzed mathematically.
Analysis is required to know the physical characteristics of a signal as it travels across
some physical media. Even, if there are some changes in the properties of the signal,
how it can be reproduced in its original form so that the receiver receives it as sent by
sender.

Factors Determining the Rate of Data Transmission

Baud Rate
The baud rate determines how fast the signal changes value or its amplitude. The baud
rate is computed as the number of times per second the signal switches as it’s
transmitting a string of alternating 0’s and 1’s. A higher data rate can be achieved by
switching the amplitude of the signal faster. The amplitude may be voltage. In digital
notation, +5 Volt signifies 1 and – 5 Volt signifies 0. Baud rate is different from data rate.
Channel characteristics are the major factors determining the rate of data transmission.
A channel may be defined as a path between transmitter and receiver. This path may
be logical or physical in nature. It may also be hard wired or wireless. The path provides
a passage for the information or data from transmitter to receiver with certain amount of
loss of information or data, which may be reproduced with other techniques. In some
cases, the information may not be reproduced or the information may not reach at
receiver at all. Such kinds of phenomenon may be very well understood from the
following channel characteristic issues:

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Channel Noise
It is a small amount of background interference presents on the channel or unwanted Notes
electrical or electromagnetic energy that carries no data or information but interferes
with the information or data. Hence, noise degrades the quality of information and data
by affecting files and communications of all types, including text, programs, images,
audio, and telemetry. Here, information and data may be treated as signal in either
electrical or electromagnetic form. If it is more than a threshold value, the data or
information may not be reproduced at the receiver end. Therefore, this may be
considered as the main source for transmission errors.
The noise may be classified as external or internal noise based upon the sources.
External noise is generally picked up from electrical appliances in the vicinity, from
electrical transformers, from the atmosphere, and even from outer space. Normally, this
noise does not hamper the performance very seriously. However, if there are a number
of electrical appliances are in use or heavy current machines, external noise can affect
communications. It also makes impact on communication during severe thunderstorms.
A remarkably good external noise slows down the data transfer rate. In a voice
telephone conversation, noise rarely sounds like anything other than a faint hissing or
rushing.
The external noise is generally in inverse proportional to the frequency and in direct
proportional to the wavelength and therefore has a remarkable impact in wireless
systems than in hard-wired systems. The noise generated because of electricity or
atmospheric disturbances is of the order of 300 kHz that is quite lower than the high
frequency range of 300 MHz and therefore may have more interference with the signal
or information.
Noise generated inside channel or receivers, known as internal noise. Internal noise
is less dependent on frequency but have a significant affect at higher frequency
because external noise has less effecting at these frequencies. Minimizing the signal
bandwidth may contain the internal noise but this will limit the maximum speed of the
data that can be delivered. Internal noise is fairly low in case of digital signal
processing, fiber optics technology.
Noise is measured in terms of the signal to noise ratio S/N or SNR with decibels
(dB) as unit. Hence a low ratio implies that it is not worth paying attention to the medium
in question. The signal to noise ratio is calculated as follows:
SNR = 20 log 10 (Signal/Noise) dB

Channel Bandwidth
Channel bandwidth may be defined as the size of the range of frequencies that can be
transmitted through a channel. In other words we may define it as the volume of
information per unit time that a computer, person, or transmission medium can handle.
It is measured in Hertz (Hz). Bandwidth is expressed as data speed in bits per second
(bps) in digital systems while as the difference between highest frequency to lowest
frequency in analog system. Bandwidth determines how fast data flows on a given
transmission path. It is determined as the amount of data transmitted or received per
unit time. As it has already been explained in noise that low bandwidth signal produces
less internal noise compared to high bandwidth signal therefore these are preferred.
However in this case, we have to sacrifice data transmission speed. Therefore, a trade-
off is required to be determined based on the performance requirements.
Bandwidth is affected by the type and physical characteristics of media used,
amount of noise present in transmission channel and data encoding method used.

Transmission of Bits (Bit Rate)

Channel data transmission rate is determined by the maximum number of bits that can
be transmitted per unit time through the physical medium. It is measured in bits per
second (bps). H Nyquist gave the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel in 1924.
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Further, C Shannon extended the work of H Nyquist and proposed a data rate for
random noise.
Notes
Nyquist stated that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low pass filter of
bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be reconstructed by sampling the signal twice the
frequency of the signal. Mathematically,
Maximum data rate = 2H log2W/second
where W represents the number of discrete levels in the signal

Shannon’s Theorem
The above is a case of a noiseless channel. If random (internal) noise is present the
situation deteriorates rapidly. As we have already explained that SNR is given by a
quantity 10 log10S/N dB.
Shannon’s theorem computes the maximum data rate for channels having noise. All
real channels have certain amount of noise. According to Shannon’s theorem, the
maximum data rate of a noisy channel of bandwidth H, signal-to-noise ratio of S/N is
given by:
Maximum data rate = H log2 (1 + S/N)

Channel Capacity
It is the amount of information per unit time handled by either a link or a node (system,
element). The messages transmitted may be either similar or different. It is usually
measured in bits per second.

Transmission Time
It is the time required transmitting a message through the channel. It is the size of the
message in bits divided by the data rate in bits per second (bps) of the channel over
which the transmission takes place. It is also given as the packet length divided by the
channel capacity.

Propagation Time (Channel Latency)

The amount of time needed for information to propagate from source to destination
through the channel. It is the distance divided by the signal propagation speed (usually
the speed of light). Channel latency depends on media characteristics, signal
propagation speed, and transmission distance.

Throughput
Throughput may be defined as the number of bits, characters, or blocks passing
through a data communication system over a period of time.
Throughput = Packet length in bits/Transmission time + Propagation time

Channel Utilization
Channel utilization is nothing but the fraction of the channel’s data rate actually used to
transmit data. From the throughput it is observed that the propagation time and
transmission time are two different parameters which are respectively depended upon
the path length and packet length (number of bits in a message).
Hence,
Channel Utilization = a/1+a
Where a is given as the ratio of propagation time and transmission time and is
known as bit length.

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We may now consider an example to understand the above concepts. Suppose a
channel data transmission rate as 10Mbps and time taken by one bit to transmit through
-7 8
channel as 10 seconds. The signal propagation speed in the medium is 2x 10 m/s. Notes
-7 7
The transmission rate is 1bit/10 seconds that is equal to 10 bit per second (bps).
8 7
Therefore bit length will be equal to 2x 10 m/s/10 bps which is equal to 20 meters.

Framing and Errors

The Data Link Layer is the second layer in the OSI model, above the Physical Layer,
which ensures that the error free data is transferred between the adjacent nodes in the
network. It breaks the datagrams passed down by above layers and convert them into
frames ready for transfer. This is called Framing. It provides two main functionalities
1. Reliable data transfer service between two peer network layers
2. Flow Control mechanism which regulates the flow of frames such that data
congestion is not there at slow receivers due to fast senders.
Generally two kinds of problems are associated in transmission of signals.
 Attenuation: When a signal transmits in a network then the quality of signal
degrades as the signal travels longer distances in the wire. This is called
attenuation. To improve quality of signal amplifiers are used at regular distances.
 Noise: In a communication channel many signals transmits simultaneously, certain
random signals are also present in the medium. Due to interference of these signals
our signal gets disrupted a bit.

Limitations of Real Hardware

1. Longer wire and its external interference may make signal look even worse.
2. RS-232 standard specifies how precise a waveform the transmitter must generate,
and how tolerant the receiver must be of imprecise waveform.

Significance of Data Networks

A network is connection of independent computers to communicate with one another
over a shared network medium. A network may be consisted of two or more computers.
In other words, computer networks are collections of computers, software and
hardware, which are connected to share resources together. A network connects
computers using transmission media either in the forms of cables or wireless,
specialized software and devices that manage data traffic. It enables to share files and
resources, such as printers and send messages electronically to each other. Thus, the
term computer network applies to the exchange of information among computers of
individuals, groups or institutions and helps in processing of electronic voice or data
communications.
Computer Networks have rapidly become an integral part of human life and in many
cases, computer networks are considered as the solution to every problem not only
within business but also in day-to-day life. The main purpose of computer networks is to
enable people to exchange data and information over email, LAN, Intranet or Extranet
etc. At the basic level, computer networks share resources, such as printers and
storage space.

2.4.2 Transmission Errors

In this section, you will study the concept of error control and error detection.

Error Control and Error Detection

It involves sequencing frames and sending control frames for acknowledgement. A
noisy channel may cause flipping of bits, losing bits from a frame, introducing new bits
in the frame, frames completely disappearing, etc. during communication. For reliable

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communication, the destination host sends positive or negative acknowledgements

accordingly to the source host within a specified time limit. The source host has a
Notes timeout to resend the frame again if it does not receive an acknowledgement in a given
time period from destination host. Also, each outgoing frame is assigned a sequence
number to prevent the destination host data link layer from passing the same frame
more than once to the network layer. This entire affair is an integral part of data link
layer design.
You must now recognise that the bit stream transmitted by the physical layer is not
guaranteed to be error free. The data link layer is responsible for error detection and
correction. The most common error control method is to compute and append some
form of a checksum to each outgoing frame at the sender's data link layer and to
recompute the checksum and verify it with the received checksum at the receiver's side.
If both of them match, then the frame is correctly received; else it is erroneous. The
checksums may be of two types:
1. Error detecting: Receiver can only detect the error in the frame and inform the
sender about it.
2. Error detecting and correcting: The receiver can not only detect the error but also
correct it.

Probability, Mathematics and Error Detection

The error function also occurs in mathematics which is also known as Gauss error
function. It is a special kind of function having sigmoid shape that occurs in statistics,
probability, partial differential equations, etc.

Types of Error Control

You may already remember that whenever a signal flows from one place to a different,
it's subject to unpredictable interference from heat, magnetism, and different kinds of
electricity. This interference will modify the form or timing of the signal. If the signal is
carrying encoded binary information, such changes will alter the meanings of the
information. In a single-bit error, a zero is modified to a one or a one to a zero. In a
burst error, multiple bits area units are modified.
Example: A 0.01 second burst of impulse noise on a transmission with a data rate
of 1200 bps might change all or some of 12 bits of information.
The types of error are follows:
1. Single-Bit-Error: The term single-bit error means that only bit of a given data unit
(such as a byte, character, data unit, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to
1. Single-bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data transmission. To
see why, imagine a sender sends data at 1 Mbps. This means that each bit lasts
only 1/1,000,000 second, or 1 us. For a single-bit error to occur, the noise must
have duration of only 1 us, which is very rare; noise normally lasts much longer than
this. However, a single-bit error can happen if you are sending data, using parallel
transmission. Example: If eight wires are noisy, one bit can be corrupted in each
byte. Think of parallel transmission inside a computer, between CPU and memory,
for example.
2. Burst Error: The term burst error means that two or more bits in the data unit have
changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1. Figure 2.17 shows the effect of a burst error on
a data unit. In this case, 0100010001000011 was sent, but 0101110101000011 was
receiver. Note that a burst error does not necessarily mean that the errors occur in
consecutive bits. The length of the burst is measured from the first corrupted bit to
the last corrupted bit. Some of them have not been corrupted. Burst error is most
likely to happen in a serial transmission. The duration of noise is normally longer
than the duration of a bit, which means that when noise affects data, it affects a set
of bits. The number of bits affected depends on the data rate and duration of noise.
Example: If you are sending data at 1 Kbps, a noise of 1/100 seconds can affect 10
bits; if you are sending data at 1 Mbps, the same noise can affect 10,000 bits.
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Notes

Figure 1.4: Burst Error of Length Five

2.4.3 Error Detection Techniques

You must note that one error detection mechanism that would satisfy these
requirements would be to send every data unit twice. The receiving device would then
be able to do a bit-for-bit comparison between the two versions of the data. Any
discrepancy would indicate an error, and an appropriate correction mechanism could be
set in place. This system would be completely accurate (the odds of errors being
introduced into exactly the same bits in both sets of data are infinitesimally small), but it
would also be insupportably slow. Not only would the transmission time double, but the
time it takes to compare every unit bit by bit must be added. The concept of including
extra information in the transmission solely for the purposes of comparison is a good
one. But instead of repeating the entire data stream, a shorter group of bits may be
appended to the end of each unit. This technique is called redundancy because the
extra bits are redundant to the information: they are discarded as soon as the accuracy
of the transmission has been determined.
Four types of redundancy checks are used in data communication: Vertical
Redundancy Check (VRC) (also called parity check), Longitudinal Redundancy Check
(LRC), Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC), and checksum. The first three, VRC, LRC
and CRC are normally implemented in the physical layer for use in the data link layer.
The fourth, checksum, is used primarily by upper layers. These are the various error
detection techniques which are describe in subsequent sections.

Figure 1.5: Detection Methods

Vertical Redundancy Check

The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the Vertical
Redundancy Check (VCR), often called a parity check. In this technique, a redundant
bit, called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so that the total number of bit is in
the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even. Suppose you want to transmit the
binary data unit 1100001. Adding together the number of 1s gives us 3, an odd number.
Before transmitting, you pass the data unit through a parity generator. The parity
generator counts the 1st and appends the parity bit (a 1 in this case) to the end. The
total number of is now four, an even number. The section now transmits the entire
expended unit across the network link.
You must recognise that when it reaches its destination, the receiver puts all the
eight bits through an even-parity checking function. If the receiver sees 11100001, it
counts for 1st, an even number, and the data unit passes. But what if the data unit has
been damaged in transit? What if, instead of 11100001, the receiver sees 11100101?
The receiver known that an error has been introduced into the data somewhere and
therefore rejects the whole unit. Note that for the sake of simplicity, we are discussing
here even-parity checking, where the number of 1s should be an even number. Some
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system may use odd-parity checking, where the number of 1s should be odd. The
principle is the same; the calculation is different.
Notes

Figure 1.6: Original Data plus LRC

Longitudinal Redundancy Check

In Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC), a block of bits is organized in a table (rows
and columns). Example: Instead of sending a block of 32 bits, we organize them in a
table made of four rows and eight columns, as shown in figure 1.6. We then calculate
the parity bit for each column and create a new row of eight bits, which are the parity
bits for the whole block. Note that the first parity bit in the fifth row is calculated based
on all first bits. The second parity bit is calculated based on all second bits, and so on.
We then attach the eight parity bits to the send them to the receiver.

Cyclic Redundancy Check

You may already be aware that the third and most powerful of the redundancy checking
techniques is the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
An error detection technique that is used widely in computer networks is a
technique of providing a data string added to packets of information that can be used to
detect errors in the data packets. In the OSI or TCP/IP network models, CRC is added
to a packet frame at the Data Link Layer. It is a method of checking for errors in data
that has been transmitted on a communications link.
The data integrity of a received frame or packet is checked via a polynomial
algorithm based on the content of the frame, and then matched with the result that is
performed by the sender and included in a (most often 16-bit) field appended to the
frame. Hence, CRC codes are also called as polynomial codes. It uses a dividend
polynomial, which is initially present to 0, and the 1s and 0s of the data stream become
the coefficients of the dividend polynomial. The division uses subtraction modulo 2 (no
carries), and the remainder is transmitted as the error check field. The receiving station
compares the transmitted remainder with its own computed remainder, and an equal
condition indicates that no error has occurred. The polynomial value depends on the
protocol and code set being used.
While writing a data on disk or transmitting a data across a network, sometimes
very minor error of 1 bit occurs, which however may prove hazardous? In this method
an algorithm calculates the binary values in a packet or other block of data and stores
the results with the data. When the data is retrieved from memory or received at the
other end of a network, a new checksum is calculated and compared with the existing
checksum. A non-match indicates an error. However, a match does not necessarily
mean the absence of errors, but only that the simple algorithm was not able to detect
any.Example: A data stream consisting of d bits can be represented as a sequence of
k-bit integers. The k bit integers may be summed up and the result can be considered
for the error detection bits.
You must note that a destination host calculates the checksum over the received
data and checks whether it matches the checksum carried in the received frame. This

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technique fails in case of reordering of the bytes, inserting or deleting zero-valued bytes
and multiple errors that cancel each other out. We therefore need more advanced
algorithm to take care of the above errors. One of these techniques is Cyclic Notes
Redundancy Check (CRC).
Unlike VRC and LRC, instead of adding bits together to achieve a desired parity, a
sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC and CRC remainder, is appended to the
end of a data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second,
predetermined binary number. At its destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the
same number. If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be intact
and is therefore accepted. A remainder indicated that the data unit has been damaged
in transit and therefore must be rejected.
The redundancy bits used by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a
predetermined divisor, the remainder is the CRC. To be valid, a CRC must have two
qualities: it must have exactly one less bit than the divisor, and appending it to the end
of the data string must make the resulting bit sequence exactly divisible by the divisor.
Both the theory and the application of CRC error detection are straightforward. The only
complexity is a deriving the CRC. In order to clarify this process, we will start with an
overview and add complexity as we go. Figure 1.7 below provides an outline of the
three basic steps.

Figure 1.7: Outline of the Three Basic Steps

First, a string of numbers is appended to the data unit. The number n is one less
than the number of bits in the predetermined divisor, which is n + 1 bit.
Second, the newly elongated data unit is divided by the divisor using a process
called binary division. The remainder resulting from this division is the CRC.
Third, the CRC of n bits derived in step 2 replaces the appended 0s at the end of
the data unit. Note that the CRC may consist of all 0s. The data unit arrives at the
receiver data first, followed by the CRC. The receiver treats the whole string as a unit
and divides it by the same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder. If the string
arrives without error, the CRC checker yields a remainder of zero and the data unit
passes. If the string has been changed in transit, the division yields a non-zero
remainder and the data unit does not pass.

CRC Generator
It is important for you to know that a CRC generator used modulo-2 division, Figure1.8
shows the process. In the first step, the four-bit divisor is subtracted from the first four
bits of the dividend. Each bit of the divisor is subtracted from the corresponding bit of
the dividend without disturbing the next higher bit. In our example, the divisor, 1101, is
subtracted from the first four bits of the dividend, 1101 and yielding 100 (the leading 0 of
the remainder is dropped off).
The next unused bit from the dividend is then pulled down to make the number of
bits in the remainder equal to the number of bits in the divisor. The next step, therefore,
is 1000-1101, which yields 101, and so on. In this process, the divisor always begins
with a 1; the divisor is subtracted from a portion of the previous dividend/remainder that
is equal to it in length; the divisor can only be subtracted from a string of 0s, of the same
length as the divisor, replaces the divisor in that step of the process.
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For string of 0s, of the same length as the divisor, replaces the divisor in that step of
the process. Example: If the divisor is four bits long, it is replaced by four 0s.
Notes
Remember, we are dealing with bit patterns, not with quantitative values; 0000 is
not the same as 0. This restriction means that, at any step, the leftmost subtraction will
be either 0 – 0 or 1 – 1, both of which equal 0. So, after subtraction, the leftmost bit of
the remainder will always be a leading zero which is dropped off, and the next unused
bit of the dividend is pulled down to fill out the remainder. Note that only the first bit of
the remainder is dropped – if the second bit is also 0. It is retained, and the
dividend/remainder for the next step will begin with 0. This process repeats units the
entire dividend has been used.

Figure 1.8: CRC Remainder

2.5 Multiplexing
When two communicating nodes are connected through a media, it generally happens
that bandwidth of media is several times greater than that of the communicating nodes.
Transfer of a single signal at a time is both slow and expensive. The whole capacity of
the link is not being utilized in this case. This link can be further exploited by sending
several signals combined into one. This combining of signals into one is called
multiplexing.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): This is possible in the case where
transmission media has a bandwidth than the required bandwidth of signals to be
transmitted. A number of signals can be transmitted at the same time. Each source is
allotted a frequency range in which it can transfer its signals, and a suitable frequency
gap is given between two adjacent signals to avoid overlapping. This is type of
multiplexing is commonly seen in the cable TV networks.

Figure 1.9: FDM Multiplexing Process

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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): This is possible when data transmission rate of
the media is much higher than that of the data rate of the source. Multiple signals can
be transmitted if each signal is allowed to be transmitted for a definite amount of time. Notes
These time slots are so small that all transmissions appear to be in parallel.
Synchronous TDM: Time slots are pre assigned and are fixed. Each source is
given it's time slot at every turn due to it. This turn may be once per cycle, or several
turns per cycle, if it has a high data transfer rate, or may be once in a no. of cycles if it is
slow. This slot is given even if the source is not ready with data. So this slot is
transmitted empty.

Figure 1.10: Synchronous TDM

Asynchronous TDM: In this method, slots are not fixed. They are allotted
dynamically depending on speed of sources, and whether they are ready for
transmission.

Figure 1.11: Asynchronous TDM

2.6 Summary
Data transmission refers to the movement of data in form of bits between two or more
digital devices. Both analog and digital information can be encoded as either analog or
digital signals. In Asynchronous Transmission, small blocks of bits (generally bytes) are
sent at a time without any time relation between consecutive bytes. In Synchronous
Transmission, larger blocks of bits are successfully transmitted.

2.7 Check Your Progress

Multiple Choice Questions
1. ……………… defined as the size of the range of frequencies that can be
transmitted through a channel
(a) Channel Bandwidth
(b) Channel Data Transmission Rate

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42 Computer Communication Network

(c) Channel noise

(d) Channel capacity
Notes
2. In other words channel bandwidth may be define it as the volume of information per
unit time that a ………………
(a) Computer
(b) Person
(c) Transmission medium can handle
(d) All of these
3. Channel Bandwidth is measured in
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
4. Bandwidth is expressed as data speed in ……………… digital systems:
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
5. In analog systems, bandwidth is expressed as the difference between the
(a) Highest frequency
(b) Lowest frequency
(c) Both a & b
(d) None of thes
6. ……………… is determined by the maximum number of bits that can be transmitted
per unit time through the physical medium:
(a) Channel Bandwidth
(b) Channel Data Transmission Rate
(c) Channel noise
(d) Channel capacity
7. Channel Data Transmission Rate is measured i
(a) decibels
(b) Hertz
(c) Micron
(d) bits per second
8. Which gave the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel
(a) H.Nyquist in 1924
(b) H.Nyquist in 1934
(c) Peter Sain in 1932
(d) None of these
9. Channel latency depends on the
(a) Signal propagation speed
(b) Media characteristics
(c) Transmission distance
(d) All of these
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Data Communication 43
10. ……………… is the amount of time that is needed for the information to propagate
from the source to destination through the channel:
(a) Propagation time
Notes
(b) Channel Latency
(c) Channel Utilization
(d) Both a & b

2.8 Questions and Exercises

1. What are the different types of Error Control? Discuss.
2. Discuss various concepts used in data transmission. Also, discuss the terminology
related to data transmission.
3. Describe various techniques used for data encoding.
4. Discuss different ways to modulate a digital signal on an analog carrier signal.
5. Describe the techniques used for Digital Data Communication.
6. Explain the concept of Vertical Redundancy Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check.
7. What is time division multiplexing?
8. Explain frequency division multiplexing.

2.9 Key Terms

 Bandwidth: It may be defined as the range of frequencies assigned to a channel.
 Burst Error: It means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to
0 or from 0 to 1.
 Non Return to Zero (NRZ): NRZ codes share the property that voltage level is
constant during a bit interval.
 Start Bit: It is prefixed to each byte and equals 0.
 Stop Bit: A stop bit is suffixed to each byte equalling 1.

Check Your Progress: Answers

1. (a) Channel Bandwidth
2. (d) All of these
3. (b) Hertz
4. (d) bits per second
5. (c) Both a & b
6. (b) Channel Data Transmission Rate
7. (d) bits per second
8. (a) H.Nyquist in 1924
9. (d) Both a & b
10. (d) All of these

2.10 Further Readings

 Anurag Kumar, D. Manjunath, Joy Kuri, Communication Networking: An Analytical
Approach, Academic Press,Copyright, 2004
nd
 Prakash C. Gupta, Data Communications And Computer Networks, 2 edition, PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Copyright, 2014.
 Sanjay Sharma, Communication system; analog and digital, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
2012

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 Sanjay Sharma, Digital communication, S.K. Kataria & Sons, 2010

 By V.S.Bagad, I.A.Dhotre, Computer Networks – II, Technical Publications,
Notes Copyright, 2009

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