Database

Management
CBE- BIT II - 2024/2025
LECTURE NOTES

PREPARED BY MR. KIKWEMBO MLEKWA (COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION -DSM) 10/31/2023 1

Your best quote that reflects your
approach… “It’s one small step for
man, one giant leap for mankind.”

- NEIL ARMSTRONG

PREPARED BY MR. KIKWEMBO MLEKWA (COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION -DSM) 10/31/2023 2

COURSE SUMMARY
Overview on
Database Concepts

Entity Relation and Relational

Data Models
Database
Normalization and
Denormalization
Data backup and
recovery

Advanced SQL for

manipulating Databases

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Overview on
Database Concepts
DATABASE MANAGEMENT – CBE – BIT II
PART ONE

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Overview on Database Concepts
Components of the Database

Architecture of the Database

Different Types of Data Models

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Components of the Database

Data Table Field

Records Keys Relationship

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Components of Database

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Database
Architecture
OVERVIEW OF DATABASE CONCEPTS

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Database Architecture
❑Database architecture focuses on the design, development, implementation and maintenance of
computer programs that store and organize information for businesses, agencies and institutions.

❑A database architect develops and implements software to meet the needs of users.

❑The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture.

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Database Architecture
❑Database architecture describes how a database management system (DBMS) will be integrated
with your application.

❑When designing a database architecture, you must make decisions that will change how your
applications are created.

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Types of Database Architecture
1-tier architecture

2-tier architecture

3-tier architecture

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1-tier architecture
❑In 1-tier architecture, the database and any application interfacing with the database are kept on
a single server or device.

❑Because there are no network delays involved, this is generally a fast way to access data.

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1-tier architecture

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1-tier architecture
❑An example of a 1-tier architecture would be a mobile application that uses Realm, the open-
source mobile database by MongoDB, as a local database.

❑In that case, both the application and the database are running on the user’s mobile device.

❑Basically, a one-tier architecture keeps all of the elements of an application, including the
interface, Middleware and back-end data, in one place.

❑Developers see these types of systems as the simplest and most direct way.

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2-tier architecture
❑2-tier architectures consist of multiple clients connecting directly to the database.

❑This architecture is also known as client-server architecture.

❑The direct communication takes place between client and server.

❑There is no intermediate between client and server.

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2-tier architecture

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2-tier architecture
❑This architecture used to be more common when a desktop application would connect to a
single database hosted on an on-premise database server—for example,

❑an in-house customer relationship management (CRM) that connects to an Access database.

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3-tier architecture
❑Most modern web applications use a 3-tier architecture.

❑In this architecture, the clients connect to a back end, which in turn connects to the database.

❑A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity of the users and
how they use the data present in the database.

❑It is the most widely used architecture to design a DBMS.

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3-tier architecture

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3-tier architecture

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3-tier architecture
❑This architecture has different usages with different applications.

❑It can be used in web applications and distributed applications.

❑The strength in particular is when using this architecture over distributed systems.

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3-tier architecture

Database (Data) Tier

•At this tier, the database resides along
with its query processing languages.
•We also have the relations that define the
data and their constraints at this level.

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3-tier architecture

Application (Middle) Tier

•At this tier reside the application server and
the programs that access the database.
•For a user, this application tier presents an
abstracted view of the database.

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3-tier architecture

Application (Middle) Tier

•End-users are unaware of any existence of the
database beyond the application.
•At the other end, the database tier is not aware of any
other user beyond the application tier.
•Hence, the application layer sits in the middle and acts
as a mediator between the end-user and the database.

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3-tier architecture

User (Presentation) Tier

•End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing
about any existence of the database beyond this layer.
•At this layer, multiple views of the database can be
provided by the application.
•All views are generated by applications that reside in
the application tier.

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3-tier architecture – Benefits

Security:
❑Keeping the database connection open to a single
back end reduces the risks of being hacked.
Scalability:
❑Because each layer operates independently, it is
easier to scale parts of the application.

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3-tier architecture – Benefits

Faster deployment:
❑Having multiple tiers makes it easier to
have a separation of concerns and to follow
cloud-native best practices, including better
continuous delivery processes.

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n-tier architecture
❑N-tier architecture would involve dividing an application into three differrent tiers

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n-tier architecture

logic tier

presentation tier

data tier

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n-tier architecture

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n-tier architecture
❑It is the physical separation of the different parts of the application as opposed to the usually
conceptual or logical separation of the elements in the model-view-controller (MVC) framework.
❑Another difference from the MVC framework is that n-tier layers are connected linearly, meaning
all communication must go through the middle layer, which is the logic tier.
❑In MVC, there is no actual middle layer because the interaction is triangular; the control layer has
access to both the view and model layers and the model also accesses the view; the controller
also creates a model based on the requirements and pushes this to the view.
❑However, they are not mutually exclusive, as the MVC framework can be used in conjunction with
the n-tier architecture, with the n-tier being the overall architecture used and MVC used as the
framework for the presentation tier.

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Data Models
OVERVIEW OF DATABASE CONCEPTS

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Data Models
❑Data models are abstract representations that define how data is structured, organized, and
related within a database or information system.

❑They serve as a blueprint for designing and implementing databases, ensuring data consistency
and integrity.

❑Data Modeling in software engineering is the process of simplifying the diagram or data model of
a software system by applying certain formal techniques.

❑It involves expressing data and information through text and symbols.

❑The data model provides the blueprint for building a new database or reengineering legacy
applications.

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Data Models
❑it is the first critical step in defining the structure of available data.

❑Data Modeling is the process of creating data models by which data associations and
constraints are described and eventually coded to reuse.

❑It conceptually represents data with diagrams, symbols, or text to visualize the interrelation.

❑Data Modeling thus helps to increase consistency in naming, rules, semantics, and security. This,
in turn, improves data analytics.

❑The emphasis is on the need for availability and organization of data, independent of the manner
of its application

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Data Models
Data Modelling Process
❑Data modeling is a process of creating a conceptual representation of data
objects and their relationships to one another.
❑ The process of data modeling typically involves several steps, including
requirements gathering, conceptual design, logical design, physical design,
and implementation.
❑During each step of the process, data modelers work with stakeholders to
understand the data requirements, define the entities and attributes, establish
the relationships between the data objects, and create a model that accurately
represents the data in a way that can be used by application developers,
database administrators, and other stakeholders.

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Data Models

Data modeling typically

involves several levels of
abstraction, including:
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Data Models – Levels of
Abstraction
Conceptual level

Logical level

Physical level

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Data Models – Levels of
Abstraction
Conceptual Level
❑The conceptual level involves defining the high-level entities and
relationships in the data model, often using diagrams or other
visual representations
Logical level
❑The logical level involves defining the relationships and
constraints between the data objects in more detail, often using
data modeling languages such as SQL or ER diagrams.

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Data Models – Levels of
Abstraction

Physical level
❑The physical level involves defining
the specific details of how the data
will be stored, including data types,
indexes, and other technical details.
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Types of Data Models
❑ER Model ❑Associative Data Model

❑Logical Data Model ❑Dimensional Data Model

❑Relational Data Model ❑Context Data Model

❑Object-Oriented Data Model ❑Float Data Model

❑Conceptual Data Model

❑Hierarchical Data Model

❑Network Data Model

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Types of Data Models
Relational Data Model
❑The relational data model is based on the concept of tables,
where data is organized into rows and columns.
❑Tables represent entities, attributes, and relationships, and
data is stored in a structured manner.
❑Relational databases use Structured Query Language (SQL) for
data retrieval and manipulation.
❑Examples include Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, and PostgreSQL.

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Types of Data Models
Entity-Relationship Model (ER Model)
❑The ER model is used for designing database schemas
and represents entities (objects) and their relationships.
❑Entities are described by attributes, and relationships
define how entities are related.
❑ER diagrams are a visual representation of the model,
showing entities, attributes, and the nature of
relationships.

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Types of Data Models
Hierarchical Data Model
❑In the hierarchical model, data is organized in a tree-
like structure, with parent-child relationships.
❑Each record has a single parent record, except for
the root record.
❑It's commonly used in systems where data naturally
has a hierarchical structure, such as file systems.

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Types of Data Models
Conceptual Data Model
• A conceptual data model is a high-level, abstract
representation of the data and its relationships in a
database or information system.
• It is a non-technical, visual representation that focuses on
the overall structure and organization of data without
delving into specific database design or implementation
details.

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Types of Data Models

Object-Oriented Data Model

❑In the object-oriented data model, data is organized into
objects, which can have attributes and methods.
❑It's particularly suited for applications that work with
object-oriented programming languages and complex data
types.
❑Object-oriented databases (OODBs) implement this model.

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Types of Data Models

Logical Data Model

❑A logical data model is like a graphical representation
of the information requirements of a business area.
❑It is not a database or database management system
itself.
❑A logical data model is independent of any physical
data storage device, such as a file system.

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End of Part One
DATABASE MANAGEMENT – BIT II CBE

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PREPARED BY MR. KIKWEMBO MLEKWA (COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION -DSM) 10/31/2023 48
Entity Relation and
Relational Data
Models
PART II – DATABASE MANAGEMENT – CBE - BIT II

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PART II - SUMMARY
Components of ER Model

Cardinalities of Relationships

Concept of Aggregation and ISA

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PART II - SUMMARY
ER Model for Database
Design

Convert ERD to Relational

Data Model

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Entity Relationship Diagram

ERD
•It is a visual representation used to model the structure
and organization of data within a database system.
•ERDs are commonly employed in database design and
development to help understand, document, and
communicate how different entities (objects or concepts)
relate to one another.

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ERD
❑The entity-relationship model is widely used for designing
databases and can also be used to describe the data of a system
and their structure.
❑Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams are the blueprints for database
applications in OLTP systems.

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Components of ER Model

Entities Attributes Relationships

Cardinalities Primary Keys Foreign Keys

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Components Of ERD
Entities
•Entities represent real-world objects, concepts, or
things in the database.
•They are typically depicted as rectangles in the
diagram.
•Each entity is associated with a collection of
attributes that describe the properties of that entity.

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Components Of ERD
Attributes
•Attributes are the characteristics or properties of
entities.
•They are represented as ovals or ellipses connected
to their respective entities.
•Attributes provide details about the entities and help
define the data that will be stored.

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Components Of ERD
Relationships
•Relationships show how entities are related to each
other.
•They are represented as lines connecting entities.
•Each relationship has a name or label that describes
the nature of the association, such as "owns," "works
for," or "is a part of."

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Components Of ERD

Cardinality
•Cardinality defines the number of instances of one
entity that can be associated with another entity in
a relationship.
•Common cardinality notations include "one-to-one"
(1:1), "one-to-many" (1:N), and "many-to-many"
(N:N).

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Components Of ERD

Primary Key
•A primary key is an attribute (or a combination
of attributes) within an entity that uniquely
identifies each instance of that entity.
•It is marked with an underline or a unique
symbol in the ERD.

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Components Of ERD

Foreign Key
•A foreign key is an attribute in one entity that
references the primary key of another entity.
•It is used to establish relationships between
entities.

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Cardinalities of
Relationship in ER
Model

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Cardinalities of Relationship
❑In an Entity-Relationship (ER) model, cardinality describes the
numerical relationship between two entities in a relationship.
❑It specifies how many instances of one entity are related to how
many instances of another entity.
❑The cardinality of a relationship is represented using notations
such as "one" (1), "zero or one" (0..1), "zero or more" (0..n), and
"one or more" (1..n) to indicate the possible combinations of
instances.
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Cardinalities of Relationships
One-to-One (1:1):
• A one-to-one relationship means that one instance of an
entity is related to only one instance of another entity, and
vice versa.
• This is relatively rare in database design and is used when
there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between entities.
• For example, each employee has only one office, and each
office is occupied by one employee.

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Cardinalities of Relationships
One-to-Many (1:N):
• In a one-to-many relationship, one instance of an entity is
related to multiple instances of another entity, but each
instance of the other entity is related to only one instance
of the first entity.
• This is a common type of relationship in database design.
• For example, one department may have multiple
employees, but each employee belongs to one department.

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Cardinalities of Relationships
Many-to-One (N:1):
• A many-to-one relationship is essentially the reverse
of one-to-many.
• It means that multiple instances of one entity are
related to one instance of another entity.
• For example, multiple employees report to one
manager.

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Cardinalities of Relationships

Many-to-Many (N:N):
• In a many-to-many relationship, multiple instances of one entity
are related to multiple instances of another entity, and vice versa.
• This type of relationship is common and is often resolved by
introducing an associative entity (also known as a junction table or
linking table) to represent the relationship.
• For example, multiple students can enroll in multiple courses, and
each course can have multiple students.

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Cardinalities of Relationships

Zero or One to One (0..1:1):

• This notation indicates that an instance of one entity may
be related to either zero or one instance of another entity.
• If related, it is a one-to-one relationship.
• It is used when one of the entities is optional in the
relationship.
• For example, a person may or may not have a passport.

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Cardinalities of Relationships

Zero or One to Many (0..1:N):

• In this case, an instance of one entity may be
related to zero or one instance of another entity,
but if related, it is a one-to-many relationship.
• This is used when one entity is optional but can
have multiple related instances of the other entity.

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Cardinalities of Relationships

Zero or Many to One (0..n:1):

•This means that an instance of one entity
may be related to zero or many instances of
another entity, but each instance of the
other entity is related to exactly one instance
of the first entity.

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Cardinalities of Relationships

Zero or Many to Many (0..n:N):

•In this notation, an instance of one entity may
be related to zero or many instances of
another entity, and vice versa.
•This implies a many-to-many relationship
when both entities are related.

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Cardinality of Relationships

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Cardinality of Relationships

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Creating ERD

The process of creating ER diagrams is

well documented and involves:
•Identifying database entities (tables)
•Defining entity attributes (columns)
•Identifying unique row identifiers (keys)
•Defining relationships between entities

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Concepts of
Aggregation and
ISA in ER Model

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Aggregation in ER Model

Aggregation
• aggregation is a modeling concept that allows you to
represent a relationship between an entity and a higher-
level entity.
• Aggregation is used when a relationship is considered as a
part-whole or a "whole is composed of parts" relationship.
• It helps to create a more abstract and modular
representation of data.

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Aggregation in ER Model

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Aggregation in ER Model

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Elements Of Aggregation:

Part-Whole Relationship:
•Aggregation is typically used to represent
relationships where one entity (the "whole") is
composed of or contains other entities (the
"parts"). The whole can be an entity in its own
right, and the parts can also be entities.

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Elements Of Aggregation:

Diamond Notation
• Aggregation is represented in ER diagrams
using a diamond shape connecting the whole
entity to the part entity.
•The diamond is labeled with the word
"AGGREGATION."

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Elements Of Aggregation:

Line and Diamond

• A solid line connects the diamond to
the whole entity, and a line with a
diamond shape at the end connects
the diamond to the part entity.
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Elements Of Aggregation:
Cardinality
•Aggregation relationships can have cardinality, just
like regular relationships.
•Cardinality specifies how many parts are associated
with each whole and vice versa.
•For example, "one-to-many" (1:N) or "many-to-many"
(N:N).

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Elements Of Aggregation:

Modularity
•Aggregation helps to break down complex
entities into smaller, more manageable parts.
•This can make the data model more modular
and easier to understand.

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Elements Of Aggregation:

Hierarchical Structure
•Aggregation can represent hierarchical
structures, such as a university having
multiple faculties, each containing multiple
departments, which, in turn, contain
multiple courses.

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Aggregation Example
Example notation:
University (1) -----Aggregation-----(1:N) Faculty
Faculty (1) -----Aggregation-----(1:N) Department
Department (1) -----Aggregation-----(1:N) Course

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ISA in ER Model
❑ISA (Is-A) is a modeling concept that is used to represent
specialization and generalization relationships between entities.
❑It allows you to describe how one or more specialized entities are
related to a more general entity.
❑The ISA relationship is used to model inheritance and hierarchy
in a database, where specialized entities inherit properties and
characteristics from a more general entity.

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ISA in ER Model

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ISA in ER Model

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Elements of ISA

General Entity:
•The general entity (or superclass) is a higher-level
entity that represents a common set of attributes or
properties shared by multiple specialized entities.
•It is often an abstract entity that is not instantiated
on its own.

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Elements of ISA

Specialized Entities:
•Specialized entities (or subclasses) are lower-
level entities that inherit the attributes and
relationships of the general entity.
•They can also have their specific attributes
and relationships.

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Elements of ISA

ISA Notation
•The ISA relationship is represented in ER
diagrams using a triangle or arrow connecting
the specialized entities to the general entity.
•The triangle or arrow is labeled "ISA" or "Is-A."

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Elements of ISA

Inheritance:
•Specialized entities inherit the attributes,
relationships, and constraints of the general entity.
•This means that the specialized entities have all the
attributes of the general entity in addition to their
specific attributes.

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Elements of ISA

Disjoint and Overlapping Constraints:

•In ISA relationships, you can specify whether
specialized entities are "disjoint" or "overlapping."
•Disjoint means that an entity instance can belong
to only one specialized entity, while overlapping
means that an entity instance can belong to more
than one specialized entity.

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Elements of ISA

Completeness Constraints:
•Completeness constraints specify whether every
instance of the general entity must belong to one or
more specialized entities.
•Completeness can be "total" (every instance must
belong to a specialized entity) or "partial" (some
instances may not belong to any specialized entity).

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Example of ISA
Consider a database for a vehicle management system. You can
use ISA to represent the relationship between a general entity
"Vehicle" and specialized entities "Car" and "Motorcycle."
Vehicle (General Entity)
◦ Attributes: License Plate, Manufacturer, Model, Year
◦ Relationships: Belongs To Owner

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Example of ISA
Car (Specialized Entity)
◦ Inherits attributes and relationships from "Vehicle"
◦ Specific Attributes: Number of Doors, Fuel Type
Motorcycle (Specialized Entity)
◦ Inherits attributes and relationships from "Vehicle"
◦ Specific Attributes: Engine Displacement, Type

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Categories of
Database Users

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Categories of Database Users
End Users

Application user
Sophisticated
user
Application
Programmers

Database
Administrators

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Categories of Database Users

End Users
•End users are the people whose jobs
require access to a database for
querying, updating and generating
reports.
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Categories of Database Users

Application user
•The application user is someone who
accesses an existing application
program to perform daily tasks

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Categories of Database Users
Sophisticated user
• Sophisticated users are those who have their own way of accessing the
database.
• This means they do not use the application program provided in the
system.
• Instead, they might define their own application or describe their need
directly by using query languages.
• These specialized users maintain their personal databases by using ready-
made program packages that provide easy-to-use menu driven commands,
such as MS Access.

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Categories of Database Users

Application Programmers
•These users implement specific
application programs to access the
stored data. They must be familiar with
the DBMSs to accomplish their task.
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Categories of Database Users

Database Administrators
•This may be one person or a group of people
in an organization responsible for authorizing
access to the database, monitoring its use
and managing all of the resources to support
the use of the entire database system.

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Apply ER Model for
Database Design

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ER Model for Database Design
Identify Entities

Define Attributes

Establish Relationships

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ER Model for Database Design
Determine Cardinality

Add Primary Keys

Consider Constraints

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ER Model for Database Design
Use Crow's Foot Notation or Other Notations

Draw the ER Diagram

Refine the Model

Document and Communicate

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ER Model for Database Design
Identify Entities
•Start by identifying the entities in the system you are
modeling.
•Entities are real-world objects, concepts, or things for
which you want to store data.
•For example, in a library database, you might have
entities like "Book," "Author," and "Library Member."

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ER Model for Database Design
Define Attributes
•For each entity, define its attributes, which are the
properties or characteristics that describe the entity.
•Attributes are represented as ovals connected to the
respective entities.
•For example, a "Book" entity might have attributes
like "Title," "ISBN," and "Publication Year."

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ER Model for Database Design

Establish Relationships:
• Identify and define the relationships between entities.
• Relationships describe how entities are related to each other.
• They are represented as lines connecting entities.
• For example, a "Book" entity may have a relationship with the
"Author" entity, indicating that a book is authored by an
author.

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ER Model for Database Design

Determine Cardinality:
•Specify the cardinality of each relationship.
•Cardinality defines how many instances of one entity
are related to how many instances of another entity.
•Common cardinalities include "one-to-one" (1:1),
"one-to-many" (1:N), and "many-to-many" (N:N).

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ER Model for Database Design
Add Primary Keys:
•Designate one or more attributes as the primary key
for each entity.
•A primary key uniquely identifies each instance of the
entity.
•For example, the "Book" entity might have "ISBN" as
its primary key.

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ER Model for Database Design

Consider Constraints:
•Think about any constraints that apply to your
entities and relationships.
•Constraints may include business rules,
domain-specific rules, and any conditions that
data must satisfy.

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ER Model for Database Design
Use Crow's Foot Notation or Other Notations
•Choose a notation to represent your ER model.
•Crow's Foot notation is a common choice for drawing
ER diagrams, but there are other notations like Chen
and Barker.
•Select the one that best suits your needs and
preferences.

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ERD Notations

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ERD Notations – Crow’s Foot

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ERD Notations

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ER Model for Database Design
Draw the ER Diagram
•Create a visual representation of your ER model
using the chosen notation.
•Use boxes for entities, ovals for attributes, and lines
for relationships.
•Label relationships with their names and indicate
cardinality.

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ER Model for Database Design

Refine the Model

•Review the ER diagram and refine it as needed.
•Ensure that the model accurately represents the
data requirements and relationships of the system.
•Make adjustments as you gain a deeper
understanding of the system.

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ER Model for Database Design

Document and Communicate

•Document your ER model, describing the entities,
attributes, relationships, and any constraints.
•This documentation is essential for communicating
the database design to stakeholders, including
developers and database administrators.

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Convert ERD to
Relational Data
Models

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ERD to Relational Data Model
❑ER Model, when conceptualized into diagrams,
gives a good overview of entity-relationship, which
is easier to understand.
❑ER diagrams can be mapped to relational
schema, that is, it is possible to create relational
schema using ER diagram.
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ERD to Relational Data Model
❑There are several processes and algorithms
available to convert ER Diagrams into
Relational Schema.
❑Some of them are automated and some of
them are manual.

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ERD to Relational Data Model

ER diagrams mainly comprise of −

•Entity and its attributes
•Relationship, which is association among
entities.

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ERD to Relational Data Model

Mapping Process (Algorithm)

• Create table for each entity.
• Entity's attributes should become fields
of tables with their respective data types.
• Declare primary key.
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Example of Entity

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ERD to Relational Data Model

Mapping Relationship
• Create table for a relationship.
• Add the primary keys of all participating Entities
as fields of table with their respective data types.
• If relationship has any attribute, add each
attribute as field of table.

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ERD to Relational Data Model

Mapping Relationship
• Declare a primary key composing all
the primary keys of participating
entities.
• Declare all foreign key constraints.
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Mapping Relationship - Example

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ERD to Relational Data Model

Mapping Weak Entity Sets

• Create table for weak entity set.
• Add all its attributes to table as field.
• Add the primary key of identifying entity set.
• Declare all foreign key constraints.

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Weak Entity Sets – Example

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Mapping Hierarchical Entities
❑ER specialization or generalization
comes in the form of hierarchical entity
sets.

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Hierarchical Entities

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Mapping Hierarchical Entities

Mapping Process
• Create tables for all higher-level entities.
• Create tables for lower-level entities.
• Add primary keys of higher-level entities
in the table of lower-level entities
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Mapping Hierarchical Entities

Mapping Process ……..cont

• In lower-level tables, add all other attributes of
lower-level entities.
• Declare primary key of higher-level table and
the primary key for lower-level table.
• Declare foreign key constraints.

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Benefits of ERD
Visualize Data Structure: ERDs provide a clear and visual representation of
how data is structured in a database, making it easier to understand and
communicate complex data relationships.
Identify Data Requirements: ERDs help identify the data requirements and
constraints of an application or system, which is essential for effective
database design.
Normalize Data: ERDs aid in the process of normalizing data to minimize
redundancy and ensure data integrity.

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Benefits of ERD
Document Design: ERDs serve as documentation for the database
design process, which can be used for reference and to guide
database implementation.
Database Schema Design: ERDs are often used as a foundation
for creating the actual database schema, which defines the
structure of tables, fields, and relationships in the database

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End of Part Two
DATABASE MANAGEMENT CBE – BIT II

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PREPARED BY MR. KIKWEMBO MLEKWA (COLLEGE OF BUSINESS EDUCATION -DSM) 10/31/2023 138
Database
Normalization and
Denormalization
DATABASE MANAGEMENT - CBE – BIT II 2024/2025
PART THREE

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SUMMARY
Definition of Terms

Difference between Normalization and

Denormalization

Forms of Normalization

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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Normalization
• is a process in database design that involves organizing
the data in a relational database to reduce redundancy
and improve data integrity.
• The goal of normalization is to structure the database in a
way that minimizes data duplication and dependency,
ensuring that data is stored efficiently and can be retrieved
accurately.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Normalization
• The normalization process is based on a set of rules or
normal forms, each addressing specific types of data
redundancy and dependency.
• The most common normal forms are First Normal Form
(1NF), Second Normal Form (2NF), Third Normal Form
(3NF), and higher normal forms like Boyce-Codd Normal
Form (BCNF) and Fourth Normal Form (4NF).

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Normalization
•If a database design is not perfect, it may
contain anomalies, which are like a bad
dream for any database administrator.
•Managing a database with anomalies is next
to impossible.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Anomalies in Database can be as

follows:
•Update anomalies
• Deletion anomalies
•Insert anomalies

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Update anomalies
• If data items are scattered and are not linked to each other
properly, then it could lead to strange situations.
• For example, when we try to update one data item having its
copies scattered over several places, a few instances get
updated properly while a few others are left with old values.
• Such instances leave the database in an inconsistent state.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Deletion anomalies
•occurs when you delete a record that may
contain attributes that shouldn’t be deleted
•to delete a record, but parts of it was left
undeleted because of unawareness, the data
is also saved somewhere else.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Insert anomalies
•occurs when you are inserting
inconsistent information into a table
•to insert data in a record that does not
exist at all.
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DEFINITION OF TERMS
Denormalization
•a technique used by database administrators to optimize the
efficiency of their database infrastructure.
•This method allows us to add redundant data into a normalized
database to alleviate issues with database queries that merge
data from several tables into a single table.
•The denormalization concept is based on the definition of
normalization that is defined as arranging a database into tables
correctly for a particular purpose.

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DEFINITION OF TERMS

Denormalization
•Denormalization does not indicate not
doing normalization.
•It is an optimization strategy that is used
after normalization has been achieved

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The Difference between Normalization
and Denormalization.
DENORMALIZATION NORMALIZATION

Denormalization is a Normalization, on the other

technique used to merge data hand, is used to delete
from multiple tables into a redundant data from a
single table that can be database and replace it with
queried quickly. non-redundant and reliable
data.

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The Difference between Normalization
and Denormalization.
DENORMALIZATION NORMALIZATION

Denormalization is used when Normalization, on the other

joins are costly, and queries are hand, is typically used when a
run regularly on the tables. large number of
insert/update/delete operations
are performed, and joins
between those tables are not
expensive

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

1NF 2NF 3NF

3.5NF 4NF
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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

First Normal Form

•Ensures that each table cell contains
a single, atomic value, and there are
no repeating groups or arrays of
values in a single record.
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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION
First Normal Form
• A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
• It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold
multiple values. It must hold only single-valued
attribute.
• First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute,
composite attribute, and their combinations.

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

Second Normal Form

•Builds on 1NF and requires that all non-key
attributes are fully functionally dependent on
the entire primary key.
•In other words, it eliminates partial
dependencies.

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

Third Normal Form

•Builds on 2NF and eliminates transitive
dependencies.
•A transitive dependency occurs when a non-key
attribute depends on another non-key attribute,
rather than depending directly on the primary key.

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

3.5 Normal Form (Boyce-Codd)

•A stricter form of 3NF that further eliminates
certain types of anomalies related to functional
dependencies.
•In BCNF, a table is in 3NF, and for every non-trivial
functional dependency, the determinant is a
superkey.

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION

Fourth Normal Form

•Addresses multi-valued dependencies. It
eliminates situations where one non-key
attribute is dependent on another non-key
attribute, creating a multi-valued
dependency.

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FORMS OF NORMALIZATION
❑Normalization is a step-by-step process, and not every
database needs to be normalized to the highest level.
❑The level of normalization depends on the specific
requirements of the database and the nature of the data.
❑Over-normalization can lead to complex query structures
and potentially degrade performance.

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Normalization Summary

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Review Question:
Enrollment (StudentID , courseID , course_Instructor , Student_Name ,

Student_Degree , Student_ADD , course_Name , Instructor_Name ,

Instructor_Office , Grade)

StudentSupervisor (StudentID* , specialization , supervisor)

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End of Part Three
DATABASE MANAGEMENT – CBE – BIT II

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Data Backup and
Recovery
DATABASE MANAGEMENT – CBE – BIT II
PART FOUR

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SUMMARY
Concept of Data Backup and Recovery in
Database

Why Data Backup?

Storage Media for Data Backup

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SUMMARY
Concept of RAID

Data Backup Methods

Data Recovery Techniques

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Data Backup and Recovery
Introduction
• Backup and recovery is the process of duplicating data and storing it in a
secure place in case of loss or damage, and then restoring that data to a
location — the original one or a safe alternative — so it can be again used in
operations.
• Ideally, this backup copy (often called a snapshot) is immutable —meaning it
cannot be altered after it is created to protect against mutations such as
ransomware.
• Backup and recovery is also a category of onsite and cloud-based technology
solutions that automate and support this process, enabling organizations to
protect and retain their data for business and compliance reasons.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Data Backup
•The process of creating a copy of a company’s master
and transaction data files.
Data Recovery
•The process of restoring lost or corrupted data to a
consistent and usable state.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Types of Data Backups

•Full Backups
•Incremental Backups
•Differential Backups
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Data Backup and Recovery

Full backups
•Full backups protect every bit of data from a single server,
database, virtual machine (VM), or data source connected to
the network.
•These backups can take many hours, even days, depending on
the amount of data being saved.
•The more modern a data management solution is, the fewer full
backups it must perform, and when it does, the faster it goes.

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Data Backup and Recovery
Incremental backups
•An incremental backup captures only new data since
the last full incremental was performed.
•However, a full backup is required before a backup
solution can perform its first incremental backup.
•Then it can automatically do them based on the last
incremental taken.

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Data Backup and Recovery
Incremental Backup
• Incremental backup is a backup types that provides a
faster method of backing up data than repeatedly
running full backups.
• During an incremental backup, only files changed since the
most recent backup are included.
• That is where it gets its name: each backup is
an increment for a previous backup.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Types of Incremental Backup

•Block level backup
•Byte level backup
•Reverse incremental
•Multilevel incremental
•Incremental forever

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Data Backup and Recovery

Types of Incremental Backup

• Block level backup - this type will back
up only the modified parts of the file,
instead of backing up the entire file. It is
useful for large files with few changes.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Byte level backup

•this type is similar to block level backup, but it
based on the binary variation of the file,
compared to previous backup.
•It uses the minimum unit to determine the
part of the file to be backed up.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Reverse incremental
•The reverse incremental backup method produces a
backup chain that consists of the last full backup file and
a set of reverse incremental backup files preceding it.
•This way, the most recent restore point in the backup
chain is always a full backup, and it gets updated after
every successful backup job execution.

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Data Backup and Recovery
Multilevel incremental
• this is a more sophisticated incremental backup scheme which involves multiple
numbered backup levels. A full backup is level 0.
• A level n backup will back up everything that has changed since the most recent level
n-1 backup.
• Suppose for instance that a level 0 backup was taken on a Sunday. A level 1 backup
taken on Monday would include only changes made since Sunday.
• A level 2 backup taken on Tuesday would include only changes made since Monday.
• A level 3 backup taken on Wednesday would include only changes made since Tuesday.
• If a level 2 backup was taken on Thursday, it would include all changes made since
Monday because Monday was the most recent level n-1 backup.

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Data Backup and Recovery
Incremental forever
•This type is similar to the synthetic backup concept.
•After an initial full backup, only the incremental
backups are sent to a centralized backup system.
•This server keeps track of all the increments and
sends the proper data back to the client during
restores.

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Data Backup and Recovery

Differential Data Backup

•a type of backup strategy that
involves copying only the data that
has changed since the last full
backup.
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Data Backup and Recovery

Differential Backup
•A differential backup collects data that has changed or
been created since the last full (normal) or incremental
backup, but it does not clear the archive bit on the file.
•It can also be used after a copy or differential backup,
but as with an incremental backup, every file with the
archive attribute set is backed up.

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Why Data Backup?
DATABASE BACKUP AND RECOVERY

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Why Data Backup?

CHALLENGES

REASONS

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Why Data Backup?

Challenges
•To understand why you need data backup and
recovery solutions, you must understand the
risks your data may be exposed to.
•Data loss can be caused by many factors,
such as:

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Why Data Backup? - Challenges
Challenges
• System failure
• Human error
• Rogue insiders
• Theft
• Cyberattacks
• Natural disasters

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Why Data Backup? – Challenges

System failure
•Hardware and software can fail at any time without warning, which
may lead to file corruption.
Human error
•Careless employees can lose terabytes worth of data by mistake.
•For example, accidental deletion or overwriting important
documents are very common ways to lose data.

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Why Data Backup? – Challenges

Rogue insiders
•Malicious employees may abuse their access privileges
to delete data in the hopes of sabotaging your business.
Theft
•If someone swipes company devices that contain locally
saved files, your data may be gone for good.

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Why Data Backup? – Challenges
Cyberattacks
• Cybercriminals may compromise your company’s data
through malware attacks.
• Ransomware, in particular, is a type of malware that
encrypts files and demands a ransom to decrypt them.
• Once files are infected with ransomware, your company
may have no choice but to pay the ransom or lose your
data permanently.

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Why Data Backup? – Challenges

Natural disasters
•Floods, fires, and earthquakes can
destroy your company’s physical data
storage devices, such as hard drives
and on-premises servers.
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Why Data Backup?

Reasons for Data Backup

•Defend against cyberattacks
•Minimize downtime
•Save money
•Improve compliance
•Maintain customer trust

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Why Data Backup? – Reasons
Defend against cyberattacks
•Considering that cyberattacks have become more common in
recent years, it’s now more important than ever to have a data
backup and recovery solution in place.
•This way, even if your systems become compromised or encrypted
by ransomware, you can be confident that you have clean copies
of your data stored elsewhere.
•This way, you can essentially reverse the damage done by a
ransomware attack without paying cybercriminals

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Why Data Backup? – Reasons
Minimize downtime
• Data loss can massively disrupt your business operations
as employees scramble to recreate lost data.
• However, with data backups, you can easily restore recent
copies of your data, so there’s no need to halt operations
to redo lost work.
• In fact, high-end data backup solutions guarantee fast
recovery times for critical data to maximize uptime

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Why Data Backup? - Reasons

Save money
•Data loss can be an expensive issue to deal with,
especially if you need to recreate lost data from scratch.
•Not to mention, the downtime caused by data loss can
also lead to a significant loss in revenue.
•Having a reliable data backup and recovery solution in
place can help you avoid these unnecessary expenses.

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Why Data Backup? – Reasons

Improve compliance
•If your business is regulated by data privacy laws,
then you’re required to protect the availability and
accessibility of your customers’ data.
•Noncompliance can cost your business thousands
of dollars in fines and lawsuits.

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Why Data Backup? – Reasons

Maintain customer trust

•When your company loses customer data, it can
damage your reputation and cause customers to
lose trust in your business.
•Implementing a well-rounded backup strategy
demonstrates that you take data security seriously
and assures clients that their data is in good hands.

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Storage Media for
Data Backup
DATABASE BACKUP AND RECOVERY

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Storage Media for Data Backup

OPTICAL
HDD SSD
DRIVER

USB FLASH
RAID
DRIVES

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Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
❑A hard disk drive (HDD) stores data on metal or glass platters that are coated with a magnetic
substance.

❑The top and bottom of each platter is accessed by its own read/write head, moved by an actuator
mechanism.

❑The platters are mounted on a spindle and spun at high speed.

❑Each side of each platter is divided into circular tracks, and a track contains several sectors,
each with a capacity of 512 bytes.

❑This low-level formatting is also referred to as the drive geometry.

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Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

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Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
❑This technology means that the performance of an HDD is determined by the speed at which the
disks spin, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).

❑High performance drives are rated at 15,000 or 10,000 rpm; average performance is 7,200 or
5,400 rpm.

❑RPM is one factor determining access time, measured in milliseconds. Access time is a multi-
metric timeframe that includes both access and seek time and encompasses the total time for a
computer to read/write required data.

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Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
❑Whereas access time is the delay as the read/write head locates a particular track position, seek
time is the time it takes to move from one point to the point in which the data resides.

❑A high-performance drive will have an access time below 3 ms; a typical drive might have an
access time of around 6 ms.

❑The internal transfer rate (or data or disk transfer rate) of a drive is a measure of how fast
read/write operations are performed on the disk platters.

❑A 15 K drive should support an internal transfer rate of up to about 180 MBps, while 7.2 K drives
will be around 110 MBps.

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Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
❑Most HDDs use a SATA interface, though you may come across legacy devices using EIDE/PATA
or SCSI interfaces.

❑There are two main form factors for HDDs.

❑The mainstream type used in desktop PCs are 3.5-inch units.

❑The 2.5 -inch form factor is used for laptops and as portable external drives.

❑Devices with 2.5-inch form factors can also vary in height, with 15 mm, 9.5 mm, 7 mm, and 5
mm form factors available.

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HDD

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SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
❑A solid-state drive (SSD) uses flash memory technology to implement persistent mass storage.

❑Flash memory performs much better than the mechanical components used in hard disk drives,
especially in terms of read performance.

❑Risks from total failure of the device due to mechanical shock and wear are generally lower.
Costs per gigabyte have fallen rapidly in the last few years.

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SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)

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Solid State Drive (SSD)
❑SSDs normally outperform HDDs, but there are situations where they can perform worse than
HDDs (when serving multi-gigabyte file sizes, for example).

❑Flash chips are also susceptible to a type of degradation over the course of many write
operations.

❑The drive firmware and operating system use wear leveling routines that evenly distribute writing
on all blocks of an SSD to optimize the life of the device.

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SSD

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SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
❑On a typical modern desktop PC, an SSD might be installed as the computer's only internal drive
or as a boot drive for use with an additional hard drive.

❑In the second scenario, the SSD would be used to install the OS and software applications, while
the HDD would be used for user data files.

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SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
❑In terms of the communications interface, an SSD might be packaged in a 2.5-inch caddy and
installed to a SATA port using the normal SATA data and power connectors.

❑Alternatively, the mSATA form factor allows an SSD packaged as an adapter card to be plugged
into a combined data and power port on the

❑motherboard. With both form factors, the main drawback is that the 600 MBps SATA interface
can be a bottleneck to the best performing SSDs, which can achieve transfer rates of up to 6.7
GB/s

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Redundant Array of Independent
Disks (RAID)
❑Whether it is the system files required to run the OS or data files generated by users, an HDD or SSD
stores critical data. If a boot drive fails, the system will crash.
❑If a data drive fails, users will lose access to files and there may be permanent data loss if those files
have not been backed up.
❑To mitigate these risks, the disks that underpin the mass storage system can be provisioned as a
redundant array of independent disks (RAID) .
❑Redundancy sacrifices some disk capacity but provides fault tolerance. To the OS, the RAID array
appears as a single storage resource, or volume, and can be partitioned and formatted like any other
drive.
❑RAID can also be said to stand for "Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks," and the "D" can also stand
for "devices."

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RAID
❑A RAID level represents a drive configuration with a given type of fault tolerance. Basic RAID
levels are numbered from 0 to 6. There are also nested RAID solutions, such as RAID 10 (RAID 1 +
RAID 0).

❑RAID can be implemented using features of the operating system, referred to as software RAID.
Hardware RAID uses a dedicated controller, installed as an adapter card. The RAID disks are
connected to SATA ports on the RAID controller adapter card, rather than to the motherboard.

❑As another option, some motherboards implement integrated RAID functionality as part of the
chipset.

❑Hardware solutions are principally differentiated by their support for a range of RAID levels.

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RAID
❑Entry-level controllers might support only RAID 0 or RAID 1, whereas mid-level controllers might
add support for RAID 5 and RAID 10.

❑In addition, hardware RAID is often able to hot swap a damaged disk.

❑Hot swap means that the failed device can be replaced without shutting down the operating
system

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RAID Levels
❑When implementing RAID, it is important to select the appropriate RAID level.

❑The factors influencing this decision include the required level of fault tolerance, read/write
performance characteristics, required capacity, and cost.

❑When building a RAID array, all the disks should normally be identical in terms of capacity and
ideally in terms of type and performance.

❑If disks are different sizes, the size of the smallest disk in the array determines the maximum
amount of space that can be used on the larger drives.

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RAID 0 (Striping without Parity)
❑Disk striping divides data into blocks and spreads the blocks in a fixed order among all the disks
in the array.

❑This improves performance as multiple disks are available to service requests in parallel. RAID 0
requires at least two disks. The logical volume size is the sum of the drives multiplied by the
smallest capacity physical disk in the array.

❑However, RAID 0 provides no redundancy at all. If any physical disk in the array fails, the whole
logical volume will fail, causing the computer to crash and requiring data to be recovered from
backup.

❑Consequently, RAID 0 only has specialist uses—typically as some type of non-critical cache store

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RAID 0 (Striping without Parity)

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RAID 0

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 RAID 1 (Mirroring)
❑RAID 1 is a mirrored drive configuration using two disks.
❑Each write operation is duplicated on the second disk in the set, introducing a small performance
overhead.
❑ A read operation can use either disk, boosting performance somewhat. This strategy is the simplest
way of protecting a single disk against failure.
❑If one disk fails, the other takes over. There is little impact on performance during this, so availability
remains good, but the failed disk should be replaced as quickly as possible as there is no longer any
redundancy.
❑When the disk is replaced, it must be populated with data from the other disk.
❑Performance while rebuilding is reduced, though RAID 1 is better than other levels in that respect and
the rebuilding process is generally shorter than for parity-based RAID.

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RAID 1 (Mirroring)

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RAID 1

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RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed
Parity)
❑RAID 5 uses striping (like RAID 0) but with distributed parity.
❑Distributed parity means that error correction information is spread across all the disks in the
array.
❑The data and parity information are managed so that the two are always on different disks. If a
single disk fails, enough information is spread across the remaining disks to allow the data to be
reconstructed.
❑Stripe sets with parity offer the best performance for read operations. However, when a disk has
failed, the read performance is degraded by the need to recover the data using the parity
information. Also, all normal write operations suffer reduced performance due to the parity
calculation.

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RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed
Parity)

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RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed
Parity)
❑RAID 5 requires a minimum of three drives but can be configured with more.
❑This allows more flexibility in determining the overall capacity of the array than is possible with RAID 1.
A "hard" maximum number of devices is set by the controller or OS support, but the number of drives
used is more likely to be determined by practicalities such as cost and risk.
❑Adding more disks increases the chance of failure. If more than one disk fails, the volume will be
unavailable.
❑The level of fault tolerance and available disk space is inverse. As you add disks to the set, fault
tolerance decreases but usable disk space increases. If you configure a RAID 5 set using three disks, a
third of each disk is set aside for parity.
❑If four are used, one-quarter is reserved on each disk. Using a three 80 GB disk configuration, you
would have a 160 GB usable volume.

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RAID 5

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RAID 10 (Stripe of Mirrors)
❑A nested RAID configuration combines features of two basic RAID levels.

❑RAID 10 is a logical striped volume (RAID 0) configured with two mirrored arrays (RAID 1).

❑This configuration offers excellent fault tolerance, as one disk in each mirror can fail, and the
volume will still be available.

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RAID 10 (Stripe of Mirrors)

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RAID 10

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RAID 10 (Stripe of Mirrors)
❑This configuration requires at least four disks, and there must be an even number of disks.

❑It carries the same 50% disk overhead as mirroring.

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USB Flash Drives
❑The flash memory underpinning SSDs can also be provisioned in the flash drive and memory
card form factors.

❑A flash drive —also called a USB drive, thumb drive, or pen drive—is simply a flash memory board
with a USB connector and protective cover. This type of drive plugs into any spare USB port.

❑Flash memory-based solid state drives (SSDs) have become ubiquitous in modern computing
systems, such as high-performance servers, workstation, desktops, and laptops, due to their
performance and density.

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USB Flash Drive
❑The architecture of SSDs has evolved to exploit the advantages of flash memories and at the
same time conceal their shortcomings.

❑SSD concurrency techniques such as channel striping, flash-chip pipelining, die interleaving, and
plane sharing utilize the available parallelism of flash memories, while the flash translation layer
(FTL) operations minimize the latency overhead of flash memories.

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USB Flash Drives

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Optical Drives
❑An internal optical drive can be installed to a 5.25-inch drive bay and connected to the
motherboard via SATA data and power connectors.
❑An external unit would be connected via USB (or possibly eSATA or Thunderbolt).
❑External optical drives typically require their own power supply, provided via a supplied AC
adapter.
❑Some drives use a tray-based mechanism, while other use a slot-loading mechanism.
❑Drives also feature a small hole that accesses a disc eject mechanism (insert a paper clip to
activate the mechanism).
❑This is useful if the standard eject button will not work or if the drive does not have power.

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Optical Drives

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Optical Drives
❑Optical drives are rated according to their data transfer speed.

❑An optical drive that can perform recording/rewriting is marketed with three speeds, always expressed
as the record/rewrite/read speed (for example, 24x/16x/52x).

❑New drives are generally multi-format, but you may come across older drives with no Blu-ray support.

❑Consumer DVDs and Blu-rays feature digital rights management (DRM) and region-coding copy-
protection mechanisms.

❑Region coding, if enforced, means that a disc can only be used on a player from the same region. On a
PC, the region can usually be set using device properties.

❑The firmware normally prevents this from being changed more than a couple of times.

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Data Backup
Methods

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Backup Methods

On Site versus
Off Site Storage

Online versus
Offline Backups

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Backup Methods

On Site versus Off Site Storage

•On site backup storage means that the production
system and backup media are in the same location.
•This means that if a disaster strikes the facility,
there is the risk of losing both the production and
backup copies of the data.

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Backup Methods

On Site versus Off Site Storage

•A media rotation scheme such as GFS means that at least some
of the backup media can be taken for storage off site once the
backup job has run.
•For example, in the GFS scheme outlined above, four of the
father tapes could be kept off site at anyone time.
•Grandfather tapes can all routinely be kept off site with only one
needing to be brought on site at the time of the backup job.

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Backup Methods

On Site versus Off Site Storage

•Transporting media off site is an onerous task, however.
•High-bandwidth Internet and high-capacity cloud storage providers
have made off-site backup solutions more affordable and easier to
implement.
•While cloud backup is convenient, there are still substantial risks
from failure of the cloud provider.
•It is prudent to perform local backups in addition to cloud backup.

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Backup Methods

Online versus Offline Backups

•As well as the on-site/off-site consideration, you should also be
aware of a distinction between online and offline backup media.
•Online backup media is instantly available to perform a backup
or restore operation without an administrator having to
transport and connect a device or load a tape.
•An offline backup device is kept disconnected from the host and
must be connected manually to run a backup job.

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Backup Methods

Online versus Offline Backups

•An online system is faster, but keeping some backup
media offline offers better security.
•Consider the case of crypto-ransomware, for instance.
•If the backup drive is connected to the infected host,
the ransomware will encrypt the backup, rendering it
useless.

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Data Recovery
Techniques

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Recovery Techniques
Software-Based
Recovery

Hardware-Based
Recovery
File Carving
Remote Data
Recovery
Hardware Repair and
Replacement

Forensic Data
Recovery

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Recovery Techniques

Software-Based Recovery
•Specialized data recovery software
tools can be used to scan storage
devices for lost or deleted files and
attempt to recover them.
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Recovery Techniques

Hardware-Based Recovery
• Hardware-based data recovery involves using specialized
equipment and techniques to recover data from storage
devices that have experienced physical damage or failure.
• Unlike software-based data recovery, which focuses on
logical issues, hardware-based recovery addresses issues
related to the physical components of the storage device.

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Hardware-Based Recovery

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Hardware-Based Recovery

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Recovery Techniques

Hardware-Based Recovery
•In cases where data loss is due to hardware
failures (e.g., malfunctioning hard drives),
hardware-based recovery involves repairing
or replacing faulty components to access the
data.

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Recovery Techniques

File Carving Recovery

•File carving involves extracting data
fragments from storage media without relying
on file system structures.
•It is commonly used when file system
metadata is damaged.

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Recovery Techniques

File Carving Recovery

• This method is particularly useful when file system
information is damaged or unavailable, making it
challenging to recover files using traditional methods.
• File carving operates on the principle that file data is
stored in clusters or blocks on the storage medium, and it
attempts to identify and reconstruct these data fragments

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Recovery Techniques

Remote Data Recovery

•In remote data recovery, data
recovery specialists connect to the
affected system over the internet to
diagnose and recover lost data.
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Recovery Techniques
Remote Data Recovery
• Remote data recovery is well-suited for scenarios where
physical access to the storage device is not feasible or
when immediate on-site intervention is not required.
• It is important to collaborate with reputable and
trustworthy data recovery professionals who prioritize
security and adhere to ethical standards during the remote
recovery process

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Recovery Techniques

Hardware Repair and Replacement

•For physically damaged storage devices, data
recovery may involve repairing or replacing
damaged components.
•This is often performed in a cleanroom
environment.

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Hardware Repair

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Recovery Techniques
Hardware Repair and Replacement
•Hardware repair and replacement recovery is a specialized data
recovery technique employed when data loss is attributed to
physical damage or failures in the storage device's hardware
components.
•Unlike software-based recovery methods that focus on logical
issues, hardware-based recovery requires addressing problems
such as malfunctioning components, damaged read/write heads,
or other physical issues.

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Recovery Techniques

Hardware Repair and Replacement

•Hardware repair and replacement recovery is a
complex process that requires expertise in both
hardware and software aspects.
•It is often performed by professional data recovery
services with the necessary skills, equipment, and
cleanroom facilities to handle complex physical issues.

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Recovery Techniques

Forensic Data Recovery

•Forensic data recovery involves using
specialized techniques to recover data for
legal or investigative purposes.
•It may include preserving metadata and
ensuring the integrity of recovered data.

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Forensic Data Recovery

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Recovery Techniques
Forensic Data Recovery
•Forensic data recovery is a specialized branch of data recovery focused
on retrieving, analyzing, and preserving electronic evidence in a manner
that maintains its integrity and is admissible in a court of law.
•This field is closely tied to digital forensics, which involves the
investigation of digital devices and data for legal or investigative
purposes.
•Forensic data recovery is often employed in cases involving cybercrime,
corporate investigations, legal disputes, and law enforcement activities.

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Recovery Techniques

Forensic Data Recovery

•Forensic data recovery requires a deep understanding of
computer systems, digital storage, and legal procedures.
•Professionals in this field often work closely with legal
teams, law enforcement, and other investigative bodies
to ensure that the recovered data is handled
appropriately and is admissible in legal proceedings

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A Database Backup
Plan

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A Database Backup Plan

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Database Backup Plan

Step 1: Identify your most important data

•First and foremost: what are you backing up? As
data volumes outpace the capacity of
some databases and warehouses, you may need
to assign priority to certain data types or backup
devices.

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Database Backup Plan
Step 2: Consider your recovery objectives
• What are your recovery objectives in the event of a disaster? You may need
to adopt a specific backup strategy or tool depending on your recovery time
objectives (RTOs) and recovery point objectives (RPOs).
• Here, your RTO is the maximum amount of time it should take to recover,
while your RPO is the maximum amount of data loss you can afford to
tolerate.
• For example, full database backups might make it hard to achieve your
RPOs if a large amount of time and data passes between consecutive
backups.

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Database Backup Plan
Step 3: Choose between online or offline backups
•While your data types and requirements will largely impact this decision,
you may still have to choose between online or offline backups.
•Though high-security applications often call for offline backups using
physical backup devices and servers, they come with overhead and
ongoing device maintenance.
•As a result, online backups are usually preferred, especially as more
companies leverage flexible and affordable cloud infrastructure for data
storage.

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Database Backup Plan
Step 4: Assign a backup strategy based on system
capabilities
•Your choice from Step 3 will greatly impact the backup strategy you
use.
•For example, offline backups may not be able to support full
database backups promptly, which might otherwise be more practical
in the cloud.
•In any case, however, incremental or differential backups are usually
appropriate for most applications.

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Database Backup Plan

Step 5: Use data replication and backup tools

•No matter the backup process, the right tools can make
all the difference — especially regarding data replication.
•With the right data replication tools, you’ll be able to
quickly copy and move data in real time and save
valuable resources in the process.

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End of Part Four
DATABASE MANAGEMENT – CBE - BIT II

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