COMPUTER STUDIES SYLLABUS TOPICS

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

TOPIC 2: COMPUTER HARDWARE
TOPIC 3: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
TOPIC 4: WORD PROCESSING
TOPIC 5: COMPUTER PRESENTATION
TOPIC 6: SYSTEM START-UP AND CONFIGURATION
TOPIC 7: COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING
TOPIC 8: ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEETS
TOPIC 9: WEB DESIGNING
TOPIC 10: DATABASES
TOPIC 11: ELEMENTARY COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
TOPIC 12: TRENDS IN COMPUTING
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.1 COMPUTERS TODAY
Computer studies is a subject that deals with the study of the
theoretical basics of information and computers together with the
practical techniques for the implementation and application (use)
of computers and related technologies.
Aim of learning Computer Studies
The subject aims at equipping the learner with computer,
information and communication technology skills in order to
improve one’s productivity.
Reasons for learning about Computers
1. To lay a foundation for a learner to acquire knowledge and
skills in the use of information and communications technology
for improved productivity and development.
2. To promote creative skills for problem solving.
3. To promote critical and analytical thinking skills for proactive
solutions.
4. To create awareness in a learner in regards to the
developments and emerging issues concerning computers and
society.
5. To enable a learner to be a computer literate and capable
citizen who can develop, communicate and implement
innovative, practical and responsible ICT solutions to problems.
6. To exhibit basic computer skills that is required for employment
opportunities in future.
7. To use the acquired knowledge in computer studies to enhance
learning in other subjects.
8. To acquire knowledge as a foundation for further studies in
computer technology.
9. To use a variety of computer technologies to access, analyze
and interprete information.
DEFINITION OF A COMPUTER
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device operating under a set of
instructions or commands (software or application programs) that
accepts data (input), processes it, outputs information, and stores
the results (information) for future use.
Computer Literacy
Computer literacy refers to having the knowledge and
understanding of computers and their uses.

Characteristics of Computers:
Computers are powerful machines for a variety of reasons. The
computer’s ability to perform these tasks is because of the
following characteristics:
a) Speed:
Computers are fast in their operations and processing. The speed
is measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS) or
billions of instructions per second (BIPS). The speed of a
processor is measured in terms of a clock cycle performed in
seconds. A single cycle of processing performed in a second is
called a Hertz. Current personal computers run at clock speeds
equivalent to a Megahertz (MHZ) or Gigahertz (GHZ).
b) Accuracy:
Computers have the ability of processing large amounts of data
and produce results without errors. Computer errors are due to
human errors or data that is not accurate. A computing phrase
GIGO (Garbage In Garbage Out) means that when wrong data
with errors is entered into the computer you get output with errors
from the computer.
c) Storage:
Computers can store large amounts of data before and after
processing in the computer’s memory (temporarily) and on the
storage media (permanently). The temporary memory of the
computer uses is called Random Access Memory (RAM).
Computers today use RAM chips with capacities ranging from 32
Megabytes (MB) to 8 Gigabytes (GB) and beyond.
d) Versatile:
Computers are said to be versatile because they are used to
perform a variety of tasks such as creating documents, sending
bills to customers, storing records, performing calculations,
entertainment, etc.
e) Diligence:
Computers are diligent machines because they repeat processing
tasks over and over again without making any errors or getting
tired. Once programmed, the computer automatically performs as
many cycles as possible and produces output in a short period of
time with less human interruption.
f) Reliability and Consistency:
Computers are reliable machines because the electronic
components inside the computer are dependable and have a low
failure rate. The high reliability of the components inside enables
computers to produce accurate and consistent results.
g) Communication:
A computer today can communicate with other computers often
wirelessly or through connected wires. Two computers located in
the same room can be connected by a communications device
i.e. a network switch to share stored data, instructions and
information.

COMPUTER TERMINOLOGIES
Data
This is a collection of raw and unprocessed facts,
including letters, figures, symbols, images, sound and
video that is relating to an activity.

Information
Information is organized, meaningful, and useful results or
output obtained after processing data, useful in making a
decision.

Bit
The smallest piece of information used by the computer
and is the short form of binary digit. In computer
language it is either a 0 (zero) or a 1(one)

Byte
A byte is a piece of information made up of 8 (eight) bits
that is used to represent one character.

Input
Any data or instructions that are entered into the memory
of the computer for processing.

Output
Data that has been processed into information which is in
a useful form from a computer.

Storage
A location where data, instructions and information are
held in a computer for future use. Storage takes place in
memory and on storage media e.g. hard disk, compact
disk, flash disks, digital versatile disk (DVD).

Processing
This refers to any action that converts input data into
information.

Hardware
Hardware is the physical electronic components that make
up a personal computer.

Software
Software is a series of instructions that directs the
computer on each task it will perform and how to do it.
Software is also called a computer program or
application program.

Booting:
Booting is the process of starting up a computer. There
are two methods of booting namely: cold booting and
warm booting.

Command:
A command is an instruction on a menu or a keystroke
that causes a program to perform a specific action.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

An electronic component that interprets and carries out the
basic instructions that operate a computer. It is also
referred to as the “brains” of the computer.

File:
A collection of stored data, instructions, information or
programs that is assigned (given) a name.

Saving:
Saving is the process of writing a file onto a disk.

Disk:
A hardware device made of magnetic or optically fixed
material on which data can be stored.

Downloading:
Downloading is the process of receiving data from one
computer to another for example a web page from a
computer server on the Internet or a file from a computer
network.
Uploading:
Uploading is the process of transferring data from one
computer to another for example a document, graphics
through a computer network or to a server on the Internet.

Folder:
An electronic subdirectory which contains files.

Icon:
A graphical symbol representing an application program,
file, folder or command.

Memory:
Memory is a temporary holding area where data,
programs and instructions and information while
processing is taking place. RAM (Random Access
Memory) and ROM-BIOS (Read-Only Memory Basic Input
Output System) are two types of memory chips.

Menu:
A menu is an item in a program or computer screen
containing a series of commands from which a user can
make a selection.

Operating System:
A piece of system software that interacts between
hardware, application programs and the user to control the
computer and coordinate all computer resources.

Multi-tasking:
A method in computing that allows a user to run several
tasks also known as processes during the same period of
time. The tasks share common processing resources such
as the CPU and main memory.
Multi-Processing:
This is the use of two or more central processing units
(CPUs) within a single computer system. The term also
refers to the ability of a system to support more than one
processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between
them.

Multi-user:
A term that defines an operating system or application
software that allows access by multiple users (two or more
users) of a computer at the same time.

Network:
A collection of computers and devices connected together
via communication channels i.e. telephone lines, and
transmission media i.e. network cables that allow
computers to share resources. There are basically two
types of networks
i) Local Area Network (LAN)
ii) Wide Area Network (WAN)

Internet
A worldwide collection of computer networks that links
millions of businesses, government agencies, educational
institutions and individuals.
DATA AND INFORMATION PROCESSING
Data processing involves a series of input, process, output, and
storage activities that converts data into information. These
series of activities are often called the information processing
cycle.
Below is a diagram illustrating the information processing cycle
Input Output

Data Processing Information

Storage

Stages of Information Processing

The five basic stages of processing data into information are:
1. Data Collection - capturing data from their sources and
recording it onto some media (e.g., paper).The paper or
document on which data is recorded is called a source
document.
2. Data Preparation - copying, grouping, or arranging data in a
more convenient way for input. During this stage data
validation and verification is carried out.
- Data Validation is the checking of input data for errors.
- Data Verification is when data is checked for mistakes
while it’s being copied from one place to another.
3. Input of Data - entering the data or sending the stored data
into the processing system.
4. Processing - calculating or manipulating the input data and
even storing the results for future use.
5. Output of Information - giving out the processed results in
a readable form (e.g., a report).
Methods of Data processing:
1. Electronic Data Processing
When an electronic device (e.g., a computer) is used to process
data into information, this is called electronic data processing.
Electronic data processing is also referred to as
Computerization.
Advantages of using computers for data processing
1. Tasks can be completed faster because computers work at
amazing speed.
2. Computers can process large amounts of data and generate
error-free results, provided that the data is entered correctly.
3. Computers can store enormous amounts of data for future
use.
4. The high reliability of components inside modern computers
enables computers to produce consistent results.
5. Efficiency and productivity of tasks carried out can be raised
.
6. Running cost becomes lower in the long term.
7. Tasks can be completed with little human intervention (i.e.,
automatic).
8. Overall, security can be raised due to less human
intervention.
9. The management can observe new information trends and
new changes more quickly.
10. Customer services can be improved due to more efficient
management and operations.
11. Computers with communicating capability can share data
and information with other computers.
Disadvantages of using computers for data processing
1. Computers are very costly. The initial cost of purchase can
be high when buying or repairing computer equipment.
2. Extra cost is required to employ specialized staff to operate
and design the data processing system.
3. Some jobs may be lost due to use of computers and this
may lower the morale of staff members.
4. Some staff has to be trained or retrained on how to use
computers and software.
5. Face-to-face interactions among staff may be reduced.
6. Due to the rapid changes in information technology,
computers and related equipment become outdated within a
short period of time.
7. In case of computer breakdown, data can be easily lost.
8. The devices used require a source of power or energy to
function.
9. A lot of care is needed in handling the devices used for
processing data.
10. There are health risks associated with using computers such
as eye sight defects, repetitive strain injuries (RSI),
backaches, etc.
11. Easier transmission of computer viruses through the Internet
and other computer networks.

1.2 THE EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS (HISTORY OF

COMPUTING)
ORIGIN OF COUNTING
The history of computing begins with the early methods of
counting and recording numbers that were devised by
early man who c counted by means of matching one set of
object with another set such as stones to sheep, etc.
Other methods of counting used included, use of sticks,
writings and carving on walls, etc. Other devices invented
included:

The Abacus
The abacus a mechanized pebble counter invented
around 500 BC as a traditional calculating aid. It is made
of a frame and a string of wires with beads on the wires to
perform calculations. The beads were slid along the rods
to add and subtract. The abacus has been used for the
last 2000 years and is still in use today.

The Napier Bones

In 1614, John Napier a Scottish mathematician invented
logarithm tables and several machines as traditional aids
for calculation. He invented a set of rods curved from
bones printed with digits to be used as for multiplication
and division. These rods were called the Napier Bones.
The Slide Rule
In 1620, William Oughtred invented the slide rule. It used
the principles of logarithm tables to perform calculations. It
consisted of a ruler and sliding strip using two logarithmic
scales to perform calculations such as multiplication and
division.
THE MECHANICAL ERA:
Some of the devices that were developed in the
mechanical era were composed of mainly movable parts
i.e. wheels and gears and they include:

Pascal’s Arithmetic Machine (Pascaline)

In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented
a mechanical adding machine called a Pascaline. It was a
wooden box that could only add and subtract by using a
series of gears and wheels. On top of the wheels were a
series of windows through which the totals could be read.
Leibniz Calculating Machine (Stepped Reckoner)
In 1671, Wilhelm Gottfried Leibniz, a German
mathematician invented a calculator. Also called the
Stepped Reckoner, it performed all arithmetic operations.
It could do more than just add and subtract. The Liebniz
Calculator could also multiply, divide, and find square
roots of numbers.

THE ELECTRO MECHANICAL ERA

In this era computers with electronic and movable parts
were invented. They included:
The Jacquard Loom
In France around 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard invented
an automatic loom. It was a weaving machine that was
controlled by punched cards. While the loom was being
pumped, cards with holes in them were attached together
in a pattern through which strings of thread were
automatically fed. These cards would feed the right pieces
of thread into the loom to make a beautiful cloth.
The Difference Engine
In 1822, Charles Babbage, a mathematics professor at
Cambridge worked on a small mechanical computer which
was called a difference engine. This machine was to be
used in the calculating and printing of simple math tables.

The Analytical Engine

In 1834, he designed a second computing machine called
the Analytical Engine. It was a steam powered
calculating device. It was a mechanical computer that can
solve any mathematical problem following a set of
programmed instructions. Some of its features included a
processing unit called a “mill” which could add, subtract,
multiply and divide. It had an input mechanism to read
instructions and data was fed into the device using
punched cards. It had an output mechanism to display
results after calculations. It also had a simple memory
device for storing data and instructions.
The first computer programmer
In 1842, Augusta Ada King, produced extensive notes and
programs for Babbage’s machine. As a result of the
programs, one computer programming language ADA was
named after her.

Although the Analytical Engine was never built fully, its key
concepts, such as the capacity to store instructions, the
use of punched cards, primitive memory, and the ability to
print, can be found in many modern computers.
The Tabulating Machine
Dr. Herman Hollerith, a census statistician in the United
States of America, invented a tabulating machine that was
used for the government census in 1890. The Tabulating
Machine used punched cards to record and sort data or
information. Each hole punched stored data about where
people lived, their ages, and what their jobs were. Dr.
Hollerith later set up his company, Hollerith Tabulating
Company that combined with two other companies to
create the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR)
company, later renamed International Business
Machines (IBM) in 1924.

The ABC (Atanasoff Berry Computer)

The machine was built at Iowa State University by Prof.
John V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry. It
represented several "firsts" in computing, including a
binary system of arithmetic, parallel processing,
regenerative memory, separation of memory and
computing functions, and more. Weighed 750 pounds and
had memory storage of 3,000 bits. The ABC processed
data in discrete, digital units (the digits 0 and 1). The ABC
used vacuum tubes, punched cards. It was a special
purpose machine built to solve equations in physics

The Colossus
Alan Turing, a British and other experts completed a secret code
breaking computer called the Colossus at the British Intelligence
Centre in Bletchley Park in 1943. It was developed to decode
(interprete) messages sent to the Germany forces. Each colossus
was using 1,500 vacuum tubes and a series of pulleys
transported continuous rolls of punched paper tape containing
possible solutions to a particular code.
THE ENIAC
John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly started working on the
ENIAC I in 1943 at the Moore School of
Electrical Engineering in the University of
Pennsylvania. They built the first large
scale electronic digital computer for the
military known as the ENIAC or Electrical
Numerical Integrator and Computer. It
was completed in 1946. The U.S. military
sponsored their research since they
needed a calculating device for writing artillery-firing tables (the
settings used for different weapons under varied conditions for
target accuracy). The ENIAC computer at the time was
approximately one thousand times faster than older
electromechanical relay switched computers.

The ENIAC contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, along with 70,000

resistors, 10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays, 6,000 manual switches
and 5 million soldered joints. It covered 1800 square feet (167
square meters) of floor space, weighed 30 tons, and consumed
160 kilowatts of electrical power. In one second, the ENIAC could
perform 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications and 38 divisions. It
used punched cards for input and output.
THE EDVAC
This was the successor of the ENIAC. In
August 1944, Mauchly and Eckert proposed
to set up a new machine called the
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC). When it was finally
completed, EDVAC contained approximately
4,000 vacuum tubes and 10,000 crystal
diodes. It had internal memory for storing
programs.

THE ASCC
In 1937, Howard H. Aiken started working on the Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), which was more
popularly known as the "Harvard Mark I" at Harvard, with the
help of IBM during World War II. It brought Babbage's principles
of the analytical engine almost to full realization, while adding
important new features. The Harvard Mark-1 was a room-sized,
relay-based calculator. The Harvard Mark-1 was used to produce
mathematical tables but was soon superseded by stored program
computers.
It was 51 feet long, eight feet high and weighed five tons. It had
78 adding machines and calculators linked together, 3,300 relays,
over 500 miles of wire. It was the largest electromechanical
calculator and was used by the Navy during the war to run
repetitive calculations for the production of mathematical tables.

UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

The UNIVAC I delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau was the first
commercial computer designed by J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly. The machine could run at a speed of 1,905 operations
per second. Input and output was through a magnetic tape and
unityper printer. It had a memory size of one thousand kilobytes
and used magnetic tapes for storage. It occupied 943 cubic feet
of floor space.
Since it was difficult to identify the device that could be called the
first digital computer or the first electronic computer, different
developments in computer history were broken down into
Computer Generations.

THE COMPUTER GENERATIONS

Computer generations are gradual developments showing
technological changes in computers over a period of years. Each
computer generation is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operated, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. The generations
include:

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1946-1956)

a) The first generation computers used vacuum tubes as their
processors instead of the mechanical switches to perform
calculations.
b) They were very big taking up entire rooms.
c) They were very expensive to operate.
d) The machines were unreliable.
e) They used a great deal of electricity.
f) They generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of
machine failure.
g) They had limited internal memory storage in magnetic drums
leading to slow processing.
h) They could only solve one problem at a time.
i) First generation computers relied on machine language to
perform operations.
j) The programs used on these computers were machine
dependent. This meant that software programmers had to
design all computer instructions in machine language.
k) Input was based on punched cards and paper tapes, and
output was displayed on printouts.

The EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator),

UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) and ENIAC
computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a
business client (the U.S. Census Bureau) in 1951.

SECOND GENERATION COMPUTERS (1956-1963)

a) Second generation computers used transistors instead of
vacuum tubes and ushered in another generation of
computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 by John
Bardeen, William Shockley and Walter Brattain, but did not
see widespread use in computers until the late 50s.
b) The transistor was less expensive, far superior to the
vacuum tube,
c) Computers became smaller, faster, and cheaper.
d) Computers were more energy-efficient.
e) Computers were more reliable than their first-generation
predecessors.
f) Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube.
g) Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards
for input and printouts for output.
h) Second-generation computers moved from binary machine
language to symbolic or assembly languages, using
mnemonic codes that allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words.
i) High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN.
j) These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic
drum to magnetic core technology.
k) Magnetic tape storage was introduced which greatly
increased storage capacity.

Examples of second-generation computers include,

the ATLAS computers, IBM 300, IBM 700, IBM 7030
and IBM 7090.

THIRD GENERATION COMPUTERS (1964-1971)

a) The development of the integrated circuit as
the processor (technology) was the hallmark of
the third generation of computers. Transistors
were drastically reduced in size and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors.
b) Integrated circuits drastically increased the
speed and efficiency of computers.
Jack Kilby created the first integrated circuit at
Texas Instruments to prove that resistors and
capacitors could exist on the same piece of
semiconductor material.
c) Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors.
d) 3rd generation computers also contained
Operating Systems (OS) which allowed the
device to run many different applications at once
with a central program that monitored the
memory. One OS developed was UNIX.
e) Computers for the first time became accessible
to a mass audience because they were cheaper
than their predecessors.
f) The 3rd Generation computers were generally
much smaller in size than the 2nd and 1st
generation computers.
g) A Graphical User Interface (GUI) was designed
by the Xerox Corporation. GUI allowed users to
be able to "point and click." GUI made using
computers much easier and is currently found in
modern-day computers.
h) High-level programming languages were
continued to be developed at this time, such as
early versions of PASCAL and BASIC.

Examples of 3rd generation computers include:

IBM 360, PDP-8, HP-2115, etc

FOURTH GENERATION COMPUTERS (1971-

PRESENT)
a) The microprocessor brought the fourth
generation of computers, as thousands of
 integrated circuits were rebuilt onto a single
silicon chip that contains a CPU. The Intel 4004
chip, developed in 1971, located all the
components of the computer - from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output
controls - on a single chip.
b) Computers of the first generation filled an entire
room while those of the fourth generation could
now fit in the palm of the hand.
c) Large Scale ICs (LSI), Very Large Scale ICs
(VLSI) and the Ultra Large Scale ICs (ULSI)
were used and ensured that millions of
components could be fit into a small chip.
d) As millions of electronic components got
integrated in a tiny chip, the price of the
computers drastically reduced
e) Computers had increased processing power,
efficiency and reliability
f) Computer size kept getting reduced during the
years with the improvement in the
microprocessors. The size reduced to
minicomputers then Desktop to laptops to
Palmtops.
g) Mackintosh introduced Graphic User Interface
(GUI) in which the users don’t have to type
instructions but could use a mouse for any
purpose.
h) The continued improvement allowed the
networking of computers for sharing of data
and resources. Local Area Networks (LAN) and
 Wide Area Network (WAN) were setup, in that
they could be implemented in corporations and
everybody could share data over it.
i) Soon the internet and World Wide Web
appeared on the computer scene and formed
the Hi-Tech revolution of 90's.
j) In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the
home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors were also used in
many areas of life as more and more everyday
products began to use microprocessors.
FIFTH GENERATION - PRESENT AND BEYOND:
Our current generation has been referred to as the “Connected
Generation” because of the industry’s massive effort to increase
the connectivity of computers. The rapidly expanding Internet,
World Wide Web and intranets have created an information
superhighway that has enabled both computer professionals and
home computer users to communicate with others across the
globe.
Some of the characteristics of fifth generation computers include:
a) These computers use intelligent programming (Artificial
Intelligence) and knowledge based problem solving
techniques. Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer
science concerned with making computers behave like
human beings. Artificial intelligence includes:
i) Games Playing: This is the area of artificial intelligence
where computers are programmed to play games such
as chess, drafts and checkers.
ii) Expert Systems: This is the area of artificial
intelligence where computers are programmed to make
decisions in real-life situations (for example, some
expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based
on symptoms). Many expert systems help human
 experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but
they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only
in special situations.

iii) Natural Language: This is the area of artificial

intelligence where computers are programmed to
understand natural human languages such as English,
French and Chinese. Natural-language processing
would allow people to interact with computers.

iv) Neural Networks: This is the area of artificial

intelligence where computers are programmed to
simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the
types of physical connections that occur in animal
brains such as voice recognition. Voice Recognition
deals with designing computer systems that can
recognize spoken words.

v) Robotics: This is the area of artificial intelligence where

computers are programmed to see and hear and react
to other sensory stimuli. Robots are now widely used in
industries for example car assembly factories.

b) These computers used Ultra Large Scale integrated (ULSI)

based systems.
c) These computers have input and output in the form of
images or speeches. The images are referred to as icons,
buttons or tools.
d) These computers have very fast processing speeds and are
drastically small in size.
e) These computers contain a great amount of storage capacity
i.e. capacities up to terabytes (1,000,000,000,000 bytes)
f) These computers have parallel processing capability.
Parallel processing is the ability to carry out multiple
operations or tasks simultaneously. The simultaneous use of
more than one CPU or processor core (duo core) to execute
a program or multiple computational tasks. Ideally, parallel
processing makes programs run faster because there are
more engines (CPUs or Cores) running it. Most computers
 have just one CPU, but some models have several, and
multi-core processor chips are becoming common. There
are even computers with thousands of CPUs.
g) This generation of computers has brought up the concept of
virtual reality. Virtual reality is the use of computers to
simulate a real or imagined environment that appears as a
three dimensional (3-D) space. Examples of virtual reality
applications are in scientific education where molecules,
organisms and other structures are created for students to
observe.

1.3 USE OF ICT AND COMPUTERS

Information Technology (IT) or Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) deals with the use
of electronic computers and computer software to
convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and
retrieve information.
Information technology (IT) or information and
communication technology (ICT) is the combination
of computers and communication technologies that
process data into information.

Examples of IT or ICT devices include: computers,

radios, televisions, digital cameras, video cameras,
mobile phones, faxing machines, photocopiers,
scanners, etc.

Today, the term IT or ICT includes many aspects of

computing and technology, and the term is more
recognizable than ever before. Information
Technology covers many fields. IT professionals
perform a variety of duties that range from installing
applications to designing complex computer
networks and information databases. A few of the
duties that IT professionals perform include, but not
limited to:
 Data Management
 Computer Networking
 Database Systems Design
 Software design
 Management Information Systems

Information and Communications Technologies

(ICT) and computers have been used today to
perform a variety of functions. Some of the ways
through which ICTs and computers have been used
include:

1) USES OF ICT IN EDUCATION

There is general agreement that computer
technology is a crucial resource in education today.
IT today is used in school settings to perform a
variety of functions including:
a) Computer based training (CBT), which
includes:
i) Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI),
where teachers can use computers and
other IT equipments to present teaching
materials in a more interesting way.
ii) Computer Assisted Learning (CAL),
where students can use computers and
appropriate software to learn at their own
pace. CAL involves the use of interactive
 teaching packages available on CD for
many different subjects for learning
purposes.
iii) Computer Assisted Assessment (CAA),
where students use computers to take
exams online (using the Internet) which may
reduce the time and labour to mark the
answer scripts.

b) Distance learning is a method of studying in

which learning or classes are conducted by
correspondence or over the Internet, without the
student's needing to attend a school or college
physically. The student and teacher are at
remote locations using electronic communication
while learning is taking place. Also called E-
Learning or Online learning, it includes computer
based training and web based training.

c) Simulations are computer programs that imitate

real life situations or processes such as
simulated experiments such as biological
processes i.e. cutting a frog, chemical reactions.

cessed remotely via computer networks. It is also

referred to as a digital library.
ool Administration and Management System
(SAMS) an information system designed for
keeping records of students and producing
report Schcuments.
f) Edutainment,cards or other related do
e) The which is a type of educational software that
combines education with entertainment.

More uses of ICT in schools include:

 The use of productivity tools like word process
ors, database management systems,
presentations and spreadsheet software for use
in projects and other school activities.
 Access to the Internet and thousands of online
databases for educational information including
subject dire34and educational websites.
 Links with other schools or colleges, or with
industrial or business organization to exchange
information.
 Special facilities are available for students with
disabilities – for example blind people can use
text-to-speech conversion packages to work on
a computer.
Advantages of using ICT and computers in teaching
and learning include
 CAI and CAL packages that usually contain
multimedia effects make learning more interesting
and interactive.
 Students can learn by themselves when the
teacher is not available.
 Students can learn and proceed at their own pace.
 Students can usually get their results or feedback
immediately after they have answered the
question or taken an action.
 There are rich educational resources on CD-
ROMs and the Internet.
 Teachers can present subject matter and explain
abstract concepts more clearly with multimedia.
 Teachers can show experiments that are difficult
to perform or dangerous in nature through
simulations software.
 Advanced instructions can be given to students in
areas where the teacher may not be qualified.

Disadvantages of using ICT and computers in

teaching and learning include
 Face to face interaction between students and
teachers may be reduced.
 Students can only follow what the CAL
packages are predefined to offer.
 Computers are costly to acquire for the CAL
process.
 Students may fail to understand some concepts
using CAL & CAI without proper explanations.
 Some of the educational programs are not easy
to acquire.
2) USES OF ICT AT HOME
ICTs and computers can be used at home to perform a variety of
functions. Some of the uses and functions of ICTs and computers
include:
 Pay bills through the payment by phone services (PPS) such
as water bills, UMEME bills, and DSTV bills using MTN
mobile money, Warid Pesa and other services. With a
payment by phone service account, bills can be paid either
by phone or on the Internet.
 Budgeting and personal financial management for the family.
 Buy and sell stocks online using the Internet.
 Manage family investments or businesses and family
budgets
 Carry out research and education at home including taking
college classes online (i.e. cyber classes), produce
assignment and reports, learn to speak a foreign language,
help youngsters to read, write, count and spell.
 Use ICT as a personal and business communication channel
including the organization of names and addresses of
contacts
 Communicate with others around the world using e-mail and
chat rooms. A chat room is a location on an Internet server
that permits users to chat with each other by typing lines of
text on the computer. Some chat rooms support voice chats
and video chats.
 Access the Internet to:
 Obtain a wealth of information such as news, stock
prices, and educational materials.
 Enjoy online banking and investments services.
 Shop for goods and services (e-commerce)
 Communicate and exchange information with other
people around the world
 Provide information to others through personal
websites.

3) ICT in ENTERTAINMENT and LEISURE

ICTs and computers can be used in entertainment to perform a
variety of functions. Some of the uses include:
a. Playing computer games
b. Listening to music using audio software
c. Watching a video or a movie using video playing software
d. Compose and edit video using video editing software
e. Retouch a photograph which includes cropping (cutting off
portions of an image), brighten, darken, sharpen images and
other tasks.
f. Read a book, newspaper or magazine online when
connected to the Internet
g. Plan a vacation for family members or organization.
h. Computers are also used in cinema halls and podiums for
faster instant audio and video playback and presentation
through projectors.
i. Computers are used in the entertainment industry to produce
music, video editing, CD burning, etc.

4) USES OF ICT in HEALTH

ICTs and computers have been used in the medical and health
sector in a number of ways. These include:
a. Medical records stored in a hospital information system
improve the quality of patient care. The records are more
accurate, they can keep track of prescriptions and tests
administered on patients, hospital admissions, and dietary
requirements and so on.
b. Databases of donors for body organs and patients needing
transplants can be accessed when needed.
c. Computerized devices such as pacemakers, artificial organs
and artificial limbs have enabled thousands of people to live
longer. These implanted computerized devices can help
physically impaired people to become more mobile.
d. Computerized monitoring devices can keep a 24-hour watch
on critically ill patients and sound an alarm if the patient is in
danger.
e. Expert medical systems are used in medical diagnosis. They
help to diagnose diseases often at remote locations far from
the care of specialists. Vast amounts of data on symptoms
and illnesses are stored in a ‘knowledge database’ which
can help a doctor to arrive at a preliminary diagnosis.
f. Surgeons use computer-controlled devices to carry out
operations with greater precision such as for laser eye
surgery and robot-assisted heart surgery.
g. Computers can be used to model new drugs and test their
effects, significantly reducing the time taken for new drugs to
come onto the market.
h. Doctors use the internet and medical software to assist with
researching and diagnosing health conditions and the e-mail
to correspond with patients.
i. Web sites also maintain lists of specialists (doctors,
surgeons and dentists) to help you find the one that suits
your needs. They set up chat rooms where you can talk to
others diagnosed with similar conditions.
j. Telemedicine is a form of long-distance health care that
allows health-care professionals in separate locations to
have live conferences on the computer. For example, a
doctor at one location can have a conference with a doctor
at another location to discuss a bone x-ray. Live images of
each doctor, along with the x-ray, are displayed on each
doctor’s computer. This is a new development in health care.

5) USE OF ICT IN BANKING

The banking industry makes extensive use of ICT in all its
operations in the following ways:
 Using telephone banking, a customer can ring in to the
bank or check an account balance or pay a bill as well as
handling account queries and transactions.
 Online banking, PC Banking or Internet Banking enables
users to keep track of cash balances and transactions on the
account, print account statements, etc. A customer needs to
connect to the bank’s server or computer using the Internet
and he/she carries out banking transactions on his account.
 Short Message Service (SMS) banking enables customers
to use their mobile phones and request for services from the
bank such as buying airtime, checking account balances, etc
 Using an Automated Teller Machine (ATM), a user can
make cash deposits, withdraw money, transfer money, apply
for bank mini statements and obtain account balances at
thousands of cash point machines all over the country. An
ATM is a self-service banking machine attached to a host
computer through a telephone network.
 Millions of cheques are processed each day using Magnetic
Ink Character recognition (MICR) devices.
 Salaries, bills and other payments can be paid automatically
by using Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) systems.
Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) is the electronic exchange
or transfer of money from one account to another through
computer-based systems. Money from one bank account is
directly deposited to another account without any paper
money payments involved.
 Electronic smartcards which store money on a microchip
which can be topped up just like cash can be used to
purchase goods. The smartcard is inserted into a reader and
the amount to be deducted is typed in.
 Mobile money transfer services today are used to send and
receive money. It is a transfer of money to a receiver in
which the funds are deposited into a mobile wallet. A mobile
wallet is an electronic account that is linked to a person’s
mobile phone in which money can be electronically
deposited and used the same way as cash.
 Banks use ICT for security purposes i.e. computerized doors
and locks, CCTV surveillance cameras, etc.

6) USE OF ICT in MILITARY/SECURITY

a. Computer aided cameras are used for domestic and
business premise security by using closed circuit television
(CCTV) surveillance cameras or laser guided beams.
b. Flying and directing fighter/combat planes.
c. Security of gates and doors on business premises is
controlled using computerized locks and doors.
d. For deploying, controlling and directing weapons (missiles)
and ammunition.
e. Detecting weapon of mass destruction.
f. Computers are used in conjunction with satellites for spying
and tracking enemy positions or targets using the Global
Positioning System (GPS) technology.
g. Computers are also used to help the military/security
personnel communicate using secure and encrypted
communication channels.
h. Computers have also been used to keep track of records of
the army personnel as well as the ranks of the different
officers in the army.
i. Computers have also been used to capture data for National
Police Computer databases, vehicle registration, national
identity card registration, etc.
j. Use of closed circuit television (CCTV) systems in many
institutions (banks, schools, hospitals) to provide security
services.
k. Manufacture weapons of warfare or mass destruction to be
used by the military.

7. USES OF ICT in BUSINESS and COMMERCE

Information technology can play a crucial part in the success or
failure of a new enterprise, business or commerce. The uses of
ICT in business include:
a) A business can use a variety of software packages to run a
business such as
i) A word processing package can be used to design
invoices, stationery, letters, memos, contracts and other
business documents.
ii) A spreadsheet package can be used to draw up a
business plan and to calculate expected income and
expenses.
iii) A graphics package can be used to design the
company logo, headed stationery and business cards.
iv) A desktop-publishing (DTP) package can be used to
design advertising or promotional material such as
billboards and for creating business websites.
v) A database package can be used to keep business
records, contacts of customers and inventory (stock) for
the business.
vi) An accounts package can be used to set up the
company books of accounts (cash account, trial balance,
cash flow statements).
b) A computer with associated peripherals such as a laser
printer is used to produce hard copies of documents, budgets,
reports and other material.
c) A fax machine can be used to communicate with potential
suppliers, wholesalers, distributors, printers etc.
d) The Internet can be used to sell products to new and existing
customers and can also be used as a valuable research tool.
e) E-mail can be used to correspond with customers or
suppliers.
f) Computers enable people working from home to use a
computer connected to an employer’s network or via the
Internet. This is known as Telecommuting/Teleworking.
g) Computers have enabled the buying and selling of goods and
services over electronic networks such as the Internet. This is
known as Electronic Commerce (E-Commerce).
h) Computers are used for sending and receiving money
transactions and transfers using Mobile Money Services or
world wide money transfers using Western Union Money
Transfer.
i) Computers through Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) have
been used to transfer business data. EDI is a set of standards
that control the transfer of business data and information both
within and among companies.
j) Through online shopping users can purchase any product or
service on the Web such as flowers, books, computers,
prescription of drugs, music, movies, cars, airline tickets (e-
tickets).
k) Through online investing, individuals buy and sell stocks,
bonds, foreign currencies without using a broker (middleman).

8. USES OF ICT in MANUFACTURING and INDUSTRIES

Computers and ICTs are used in the industrial and manufacturing
plants as follows:
a) Computers and ICTs have enabled the automation of many
complicated processes that would be dangerous or which
cause health risks to humans. Fewer skilled employees are
employed to manage computerized systems.
b) Computer programs are used to run machines e.g. robots
with artificially intelligent programs carry out repetitive and
dangerous tasks such as packing chemicals, tightening nuts,
welding in industries, etc
c) Robots are used today in manufacture of many products in
industrial complexes replacing human beings. They are
employed in processes that require speed, accuracy and
consistency.
d) ICTs are used in production of documents, reports and
budgets, order entry and processing systems that accept
and process customer orders.
e) Project management software provides management with
the information necessary to keep projects within budget and
on time. Reports can be produced showing actual costs
versus projected costs, and the number of days ahead or
behind schedule.
f) Through Computer-aided design (CAD) systems, excellent
designs for different products can be created easily using
different applications from designing a new jumbo jet, car,
computer chips, bridges, buildings, etc.
g) Through Computer-Aided manufacturing (CAM) systems,
computers have been used to control the production of
goods in factories enabling components to be manufactured
with the utmost accuracy.
h) Computers can be used for communication within and
outside the manufacturing plants by using Internet and email
between customers and manufactures.
i) Computers are also used to carry out stock control ensuring
that the right stock is maintained by the business.

9) ICT in COMMUNICATION
An organization such as a business or school provides
communications services to employees, students, or customers.
The different uses of computers for communication include:
a) Accessing the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW):
The Internet is a worldwide collection of networks that link
millions of businesses, government agencies, education
institutions, and individuals together. The World Wide Web
is a collection of electronic documents on the Internet that
users can access through a Web browser.
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is an organization that
enables computer users to access the Internet and Web e.g.
 Mobile Telecommunication Network (MTN), Orange, Airtel,
Smile, Vodafone, Infocom, AFSAT, etc.
b) Electronic Mail (E-Mail) Transmission:
This is the transmission of electronic messages and files via
a computer network from one computer to another by use of
e-mail servers and e-mail accounts.

c) Instant Messaging (IM):

Instant messaging is the real time Internet communications
service that allows you to exchange messages with one or
more online users. With instant messaging both the sender
and receiver should have identical and compatible
messaging software such as Face book messenger, Yahoo
messenger, WhatsApp, Viber, Google Talk, etc.

d) Text messaging: With text messaging, also called SMS

(short message service), users type and send short text
messages from a smart phone, PDA, or a personal computer
to a smart phone or PDA with a compatible text messaging
service. Most text messages have a limit about 160
characters per message.

e) Picture Messaging: Picture messaging allows users to

send graphics, video, digital images as well as sound files
combined with text messages. Picture messaging is also
referred to as Multimedia Message Service (MMS).

f) Use of Chat Rooms: Chat rooms are virtual rooms that offer
real-time typed conversation services that take place on
computers connected to the Internet.

g) Use of Voicemail: Voicemail allows someone to leave a

voice message for one or more people. A computer in the
voicemail system converts an analog voice into a digital form
and stores it in a voicemail box. Recipients of a call listen to
voice messages at a later time and respond appropriately.
 h) Public Internet Access Points: In many public locations,
people connect wirelessly to the Internet through Internet
cafes using their mobile computers or devices. Mobile users
check e-mail, browse the web, and access any service on
the Internet as long as their computers or devices have an
appropriate network card and they are in a hot spot.
A hot spot is an area with the capability of transmitting
wireless internet connectivity signals. Most hot spots send
wireless signals ranging from 10 to 300 feet and some can
extend to 15 miles.

i) Groupware: Groupware is a software application that helps

groups of people work together on projects and share
information over a network. Groupware also called
workgroup computing enables group members to
communicate, manage projects, schedule meetings, and
make decisions.

j) Newsgroups are online areas in which users conduct

written discussion about a particular subject.

k) Internet Telephony: Internet telephony, also called Voice

over Internet Protocol (VolP), enables users to talk to other
users over the internet. To call using the Internet, you need
internet telephone software such as Skype. As you speak
into a computer microphone, the internet telephone software
and the computer’s sound card digitize and compress your
spoken words and then transmit the digitized audio over the
internet to the called parties.

l) File Transfer Protocol (FTP): An Internet standard that

permits users to upload files from your computer to Internet
Servers as well as download files from FTP servers on the
Internet to your computer.

m) Video Conferencing:
Video conferencing is a real time meeting between two or
more geographically separated people who use a network or
 the Internet to transmit audio and video data. To participate
in a video conference, you need video conferencing software
along with a microphone, speakers, and a video camera
attached to a computer. As you speak, members of the
meeting hear your voice on their speakers. Users with
higher-speed broadband internet connections experience
much better video performance.

MERITS and DEMERITS of USING INFORMATION

COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY or COMPUTERS to
SOCIETY
It is obvious that the computers are revolutionizing our daily life.
More and more educated people are being attracted in using
computers for solving their daily problems from word processing,
spreadsheet calculation to solving a very complex simultaneous
equation. Computers and the Internet have touched almost all
aspects of life. It is rare to come across a business or household
that does not experience routine use of a computer in some
shape or form.
Technology has allowed people to have higher levels of
convenience and proficiency. Many people today would find it
very difficult to go back to an age where computers were not in
existence. While there have been many positive effects of
computers on society, there have also been some drawbacks too.
Let's take a look at some of the positive and negative effects of
computers on society:
MERITS of USING COMPUTERS (Positive Impact of ICT to
Society)
a) Tasks can be completed by computers at a very fast speed
due to the amazing ability of computer processing.
Transactions that used to be solved with a hand and often
tedious are now done electronically.
b) ICTs and computers ensure that transactions are completed
quickly with a high degree of accuracy. High quality
information is produced with less human intervention
c) More information can now be stored in a small space
electronically and can be accessed quickly when needed
instead of using paper files that occupied large spaces.
d) The ability to access vast amounts of information on the
Internet for research yields a lot of results containing
information you are looking for easily.
e) Use of ICTs enables faster and cheaper communication. The
improved communication facilities (e-mail, sms, social
networking sites) and networks with high bandwidth and
broadband connections, enable people to connect and
converse or share information with each other.
f) Computers possess multitasking and multiprocessing
capabilities which facilitate quick processing of data. Many
tasks can be carried out in less time such as budgeting,
document production, etc.
g) ICTs and computers ensure that productivity and efficiency
is realized during processing. The costs of production reduce
as cheaper technology is invented every now and then.
h) ICTs and computing have created and widened employment
opportunities and jobs e.g. software engineers, computer
teachers, technicians, etc. through investments made in
ICTs.
i) With the use of ICTs, users enjoy more flexible working
hours and conditions through telecommuting (working from
home).
j) Improved education and research by simplifying teaching
and learning. For example abstract content can be made
real through cyber science technology – others are computer
aided teaching and computer aided learning, presentations
software, etc.
k) Improved entertainment and leisure through computer
games, music, etc for people to refresh and make-up.
l) Improved health services where computers facilitate
recording, monitoring, and diagnosis for patients.
m) Improved security through computer managed gates and
monitoring of commercial and domestic premises, detecting
and controlling crime by police.
n) Reduced production time and manufacturing processes
through computer aided manufacturing and computer aided
designing which have greatly improved the quantity and
quality of life.
o) Improved customer services delivery and care e.g.
networked computers provide 24/7 on-line services like
credit cards
p) Improved business and investment opportunities.
q) Improved data and document production, storage and
manipulation.

DEMERITS of USING COMPUTERS (Negative Impact of ICT to

Society)

a) For those who spend many hours in front of a computer,

there is a risk of addiction. Many people don't care about
anything except for the computers.
b) Using computer for many hours during a day can be very
harmful for eyes.
c) Computer can destroy the culture of a certain group of
people in the society, especially youths.
d) In spite of continuously reducing prices, computers are still
costly because the initial costing and maintenance cost of a
computer are very expensive.
e) Use of computers requires additional efforts in form of
learning to use computers and their programs.
f) There is dehumanizing of people. Excessive use of
computer for communication with others threatens to reduce
the intensity of personal bond that often develops between
people. For instance, the telephone calls
g) Computers have led to unemployment of people such as
Tellers, shop workers, postal workers; since many
manual/repetitive jobs have been replaced by computers
like ATMs
h) Electronic fraud: Stealing money electronically through
practices like Credit card cloning
i) Impact on Environment: Computer manufacturing processes
and computer waste are depleting natural resources and
polluting the environment.
j) Hacking: Unauthorized access into computers possibly to
access information, compromising privacy. E.g Wikileaks
k) Software Piracy: Stealing software, not paying for licenses
through cracking.
l) Presence of Viruses: You may lose all your programs, files,
documents folders and other data on your computer
because of virus infection on the computer.
m) Moral Decay: The internet has websites with content such as
pornography, which have a bad impact on the users
especially the young children.
n) Computers are delicate and they must be given a great care.
o) Our creativity, skills and reasoning can decrease when we
are too dependant to the computer. For instance, with email
replacing the hand-written letter, onscreen Art designing
instead of Hand drawing Art etc.

1.4 COMPUTER CARE AND SAFETY

Computers like any other piece of electronic equipment, need
special care and attention in order to perform properly and safely.
There are many tasks that should be done and caution that
should be taken to ensure proper working and safety of all
components of the computer system.

What is a Computer Laboratory?

A Computer Laboratory is a room that is specifically designed and
prepared to facilitate the installation of computers and to provide a
safe and conducive environment for using the computers.

Computer Laboratory Rules and Regulations

For proper management of computers in a laboratory, lab users
ought to follow a set of rules and regulations to guide them while
using computers. Below are suggestions of rules and regulations
for computer lab users.
1. Students are prohibited from entering the lab unless
authorized by the teacher or lab administrator.
2. Scan storage media (disks) before using them to detect
viruses.
3. Report all faulty problems related to the computer system to
the teacher or system administrator.
4. Do not attempt to repair or tamper with computer lab
equipment.
5. Be responsible when using equipment, software and
facilities in the computer lab.
6. Avoid knocking and dropping down any hardware to the
ground as this may cause damage to the delicate
components which may stop working.
7. Do not move any equipment from its original position.
8. Never try to remove the computer cover or touch inside the
system unit when power is on. There are many delicate
components.
9. Do not remove or load any software into the computer.
10. Do not change the settings in the computer i.e. desktop
wallpaper, screensavers, etc
11. Save all work in external storage device and not in the
computer.
12. Do not bring in bags, food and drinks into the lab. Foods and
drinks can cause rusting, damage and corrosion to electronic
circuits
13. Turn off the computer (shut down) or log out properly after
use to avoid disk and system failure.
14. Switch off all power supplies before leaving the lab.
15. The Internet facility is strictly for educational purposes only
during class hours. Do not accept downloads from Internet
sites you don’t know.
16. Teachers should record the use of computer labs in the lab
log book.
17. All users should record the use of computers in the computer
log book.
18. Computer components should be kept dust free. The lab
should be kept clean and tidy at all times.
19. Avoid smoking and exposing computers to excess heat or
cold conditions.
20. Never use your computer during a storm. If the computer
uses electricity then it means lightening could be conducted
to the computer.
COMPUTER MAINTENANCE
Computer Maintenance refers to a combination of actions
carried out to retain or restore computer equipment and software
in a good working condition.
Computer servicing is the caring for a computer to preserve it in
a good working condition and to prevent damage.
Computer repair is the restoring of a computer to an acceptable
condition by removing and then replacing or mending damaged
parts.
The main purpose of maintenance work is to increase the
longevity, reliability, productivity and profitability of equipment.
Maintenance of computers includes activities such as:
 Cleaning your personal computer.
 Routinely checking for viruses and file system corruption.
 Backing up data.
 Knowing how to troubleshoot and fix problems as well as
prevent problems in the first place.
One form of maintenance commonly practiced in computer
departments and labs is Preventive Maintenance.
Preventive maintenance refers to performing proactive
maintenance in order to prevent system problems. This is
contrasted to diagnostic or corrective maintenance, which is
performed to correct an already-existing problem.
Importance of Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance is one of the most ignored aspects of PC
ownership as most people seem to think that the PC doesn't need
preventive maintenance. The reasons for developing a preventive
maintenance plan for your PC include:
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Money: Avoiding problems
 with your PC will save you money in the long run, compared
with spending cash for new components or repair jobs.
 Preventive Maintenance Saves Time: Maintenance saves
you the much bigger problems of dealing with system
failures and data loss all the time.
 Preventive Maintenance Helps Safeguard Your Data: The
data on the hard disk is more important than the hardware
that houses it. Taking steps to protect this data therefore
makes sense.
 Preventive Maintenance Improves Performance: Some
parts of your system will actually degrade in performance
over time, and preventive maintenance will help to improve
the speed of your system in that respect.
WHEN IS MAINTENANCE DONE?
The frequency of preventive maintenance depends on the nature
of the activity to be done. PC maintenance activities are usually
specified as time-based for example daily, weekly, monthly,
quarterly or annually.
One way of addressing this problem is through the use of a
preventive maintenance schedule, which will remind you of
when to perform key maintenance activities on your PC.
Preventive Maintenance Schedule
A preventive maintenance schedule is a simple chart that
shows various maintenance activities, and how often they should
be done, to allow you to setup a calendar so you remember to do
your preventive maintenance work.

Below is a sample preventive maintenance schedule, which

includes approximate recommended time intervals for performing
the various activities.
Preventive Maintenance Activity Recommended Auto?
Frequency
Scan hard disk file systems for errors Daily Yes
Scan for viruses Daily Yes
Backup Data Daily No
Defragment Hard Drives Weekly Yes
Scan for Hard Disk errors Weekly Yes
Clean Mouse Monthly No
Clean Keyboard Annually No
Update Virus definition files Daily Yes
Check power protection devices to Quarterly No
ensure that they are still protecting the
system
Clean Monitor Weekly No
Clean Exterior of Case Annually No
Check and clean interior, motherboard Annually No
and expansion cards

Some software preventive maintenance activities can also be

automated.
Automating Preventive Maintenance
There are software-related preventive maintenance activities that
can be automated. By using system tools that automatically run
programs at a specific time, you can set up your system to
perform various software checks and maintenance activities
without having to remember to do them yourself.
Some of the activities that can be set to run automatically include:
i) Checking the file system for errors.
ii) Checking all hard disks for read errors.
iii) Scanning all hard disks and files for viruses.
iv) Defragmentation of all hard disk partitions.
v) Backing up the computer system
vi) Updating antivirus software

The following measures should always be carried out to keep

computers in good working conditions:
 Regular servicing should be done for hardware and software
updates to ensure proper working conditions of the computers
 Computers require special cleaning even on the outside
including hardware parts such as the mouse and keyboard to
perform correctly.
 Always use optimizer utilities that modify programs to make
computers to improve performance and make them to run more
quickly for example disk defragmenters, registry cleaners, disk
cleanup, etc.
 Always use and regularly update antivirus software. Viruses
and worms are horrible computer-unfriendly programs that can
crash your system and cause damage. Examples of antivirus
software include Kaspersky Antivirus, Norton Antivirus, Trend
Micro, McAfee Antivirus, etc
 Avoid Installation Marathons of Software
Sometimes, installing a new program can cause conflicts within
your system. It is therefore advisable to use the computer long
enough to see how your system responds to the installation
before installing the next program.
 Carry out Disk Defragmentation when necessary. Disk
defragmentation is the process in which scattered pieces of
individual files and free space are reorganized and stored in an
adjacent manner (next to each other) on the disk. Disk
Defragmentation organizes disk space so that a computer can
easily access files and programs.

1.5 KEYBOARD AND NAVIGATION

Whether you are writing a letter or entering numerical data, your
keyboard is the main way to enter information into your computer.
But you can also use your keyboard to control your computer.
Learning a few simple keyboard commands (instructions to your
computer) can help you work more efficiently.
Keyboard Layout:
The keys on your keyboard are divided into several groups based
on function. These include:
a) Typing (Alphanumeric) keys: These keys include the same
letter, number, punctuation and symbol keys found on
traditional typewriters.
b) Function keys: The function keys are used to perform
specific tasks. They are labeled as F1, F2, F3 and so on up
to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program
to program.
c) Navigation keys: These keys are used for moving around in
documents or web pages and editing text. They include the
arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN,
DELETE and INSERT
d) Numeric keypad: The numeric keypad is used for entering
numbers quickly. The keys are grouped together to the right
of the keyboard in a block like a conventional calculator or
adding machine. @!#$$%%%
e) Control Keys: These keys are used alone or in combination
with other keys to perform specific actions. The most
frequently used control keys are Control (CTRL), Alternate
(ALT), the Windows logo key and Escape (ESC).
The following illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a
typical keyboard. Your keyboard layout may differ.

Typing Text
Whenever you need to type something in a program, e-mail
message, or text box, you will see a blinking vertical line (I).
That’s the insertion point, also called the cursor. It shows where
the character that you type will appear. You can move the cursor
by using the navigation keys.
In addition to alphabetical letters, numbers, punctuation marks,
and symbols, the typing keys also include SHIFT, CAPS LOCK,
the TAB key, ENTER, the SPACEBAR, and BACKSPACE keys.
Below is a table with a sample of keys and their respective
functions.
KEY NAME HOW TO USE IT
SHIFT Press SHIFT in combination with a letter to type
an uppercase letter.
Press SHIFT in combination with another key to
type the symbol shown on the upper part of that
key.
ENTER Press ENTER to move the cursor to the beginning
of the next line. In a dialog box, press ENTER to
select the highlighted button.
SPACEBAR Press the SPACEBAR to move the cursor one
space forward and leave space between words.
BACKSPACE Press BACKSPACE to delete (erase) the
character before or to the left of the cursor, or the
selected text.
CAPS LOCK Press CAPS LOCK once to type all letters as
uppercase. Press CAPS LOCK again to turn this
function off. Your keyboard may have a light
indicating whether CAPS LOCK is on.
TAB Press the TAB key to move the cursor several
spaces forward. You can also press the TAB key
to move to the next text box on a form.
Using keyboard shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts are ways to perform actions faster by using your keyboard. In fact,
almost any action or command you can perform with a mouse can be performed faster
using one or more keys on your keyboard.
A plus sign (+) between two or more keys indicates that those keys should be pressed
in combination. For example, CTRL + A means press and hold CTRL and then press A.
CTRL + SHIFT + A means press and hold CTRL and SHIFT and then press A.

Program shortcuts
You can do things in most programs by using the keyboard. To see which commands
have keyboard shortcuts, open a menu. The shortcuts (if available) are shown next to
the menu items.

Choosing menus, commands, and options

You can open menus and choose commands and other options using your keyboard.
When you press ALT in a program with menus, one letter in each of the menu names
becomes underlined.
I. Press an underlined letter to open the corresponding menu.
II. Press the underlined letter in a menu item to choose that command.
This trick works in dialog boxes too. Whenever you see an underlined letter attached to
an option in a dialog box, it means you can press ALT plus that letter to choose that
option.

USEFUL SHORTCUTS
The following table lists some of the most useful keyboard shortcuts.

Press this Purpose/Function

Windows logo key Open the start menu
ALT + TAB Switch between open programs or windows
ALT + F4 Close the active item, or exit the active program
CTRL + S Save the current file or document (works in most
programs)
CTRL + C Copy the selected item
CTRL + X Cut the selected item
CTRL + V Paste the selected item
CTRL + A Select all items in a document or window
F1 Display Help for Windows
Windows logo key + F1 Display windows Help and Support
ESC Cancel the current task
Application key Open a menu commands related to a selection in a
program. It is equivalent to right-clicking the selection.

Using Navigation Keys

The navigation keys allow you to move the cursor, move around in documents and web
pages and edit text. The following table lists common functions of these keys.

Press this To do this

LEFT ARROW, Move the cursor or selection one space or
RIGHT ARROW, line in the direction of the arrow, or scroll a
UP ARROW or webpage in the direction of the arrow.
DOWN ARROW
HOME Move the cursor to the beginning of a line or move to the top
of a webpage.
END Move the cursor to the end of a line or move to the bottom of
a webpage.
CTRL + HOME Move to the top of a document
CTRL + END Move to the bottom of a document
PAGE DOWN Move the cursor or page down one screen.
DELETE Delete the character after the cursor, or the selected text; in
Windows, delete the selected item and move it to the
Recycle Bin.
INSERT Turn Insert mode off or on. When Insert mode is on, text that
you type is inserted at the cursor. When insert mode is off,
text that you type replaces existing characters

USING THE NUMERIC KEYPAD

The numeric keypad arranges the numerals 0 through 9, the arithmetic operators +
(addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), and / (division), and the decimal point as
they would appear on a calculator or adding machine. These characters are duplicated
elsewhere on the keyboard, of course, but the keypad arrangement allows you to
rapidly enter numerical data or mathematical operations with one hand.

To use the numeric keypad to enter numbers, press NUM LOCK. Most keyboards have
a light that indicates whether NUM LOCK is on or off. When NUM LOCK is off, the
numeric keypad functions as a second set of navigation keys (these functions are
printed on the keys next to the numerals or symbols.)

PRINT SCREEN, SCROLL LOCK, and PAUSE/BREAK

PRINT SCREEN (or PRT SCN)

This key sends the current screen of text to your printer. Nowadays, pressing PRINT
SCREEN captures an image of your entire screen (a “screen shot”) and copies it to the
clipboard in your computer’s memory. If you want to capture an image of the active
window instead of the entire screen, Press ALT + PRINT SCREEN

SCROLL LOCK (or SCR LK)

In most programs, pressing SCROLL LOCK has no effect. In a few programs, pressing
SCROLL LOCK changes the behaviour of the arrow keys and the PAGE UP and PAGE
DOWN keys; pressing these keys causes the document to scroll without changing the
position of the cursor or selection. Your keyboard might have a light indicating whether
SCROLL LOCK is on.

PAUSE/BREAK
This key is rarely used. In some older programs, pressing this key pauses the program
or, in combination with CTRL, stops it from running.

HOT KEYS
Some modern keyboards come with “hot keys” or buttons that give you quick, one-press
access to programs, files, or commands. Other models have volume controls, scroll
wheels, zoom wheels, and other gadgets.

TIPS FOR USING YOUR KEYBOARD SAFELY

Using your keyboard properly can help avoid soreness or injury to your wrists, hands,
and arms, particularly if you use your computer for long periods of time. Here are some
tips to help you avoid problems:
1. Place your keyboard at elbow level. Your upper arms should be relaxed at your
sides
2. Center your keyboard in front of you. If your keyboard has a numeric keypad, you
can use the spacebar as the centering point.
3. Type with your hands and wrists floating above the keyboard, so that you can
use your whole arm to reach for distant keys instead of stretching your fingers.
4. Avoid resting your palms or wrists on any type of surface while typing. If your
keyboard has a palm rest, use it only during breaks from typing.
5. While typing, use a light touch and keep your wrists straight.
6. When you’re not typing, relax your arms and hands.
7. Take short breaks from computer use every 15 to 20 minutes.

1.6 CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be categorised according to the process they
use to represent (handle) data. There are basically three
categories of computers or devices;
i) Analog
ii) Digital
iii) Hybrid

a) Analog Computers:
An analog device uses continuously changing values to
represent data. Analog devices generally deal with physical
variables. An example of analog data is human speech.
Others include electrical voltages, pressure, temperature,
time, speed, weight etc. Examples of analog devices include:
Analog thermometers, barometers, analog clocks and
watches, analog speedometers, weighing scales, etc

b) Digital Computers
Computer equipment is designed to process data as digital
signals. A digital device or computer is a tool that performs
calculations and logical operations using binary digits (0,1) to
represent information. Digital Computers perform their
operations or calculations using the binary system by
sending digital signals. A digital signal consists of individual
electrical signals (pulses) that represent the bits grouped
together into bytes.

An electronic device is described as digital if data in it is

represented as an electrical 'off' signal that corresponds to
the binary digit 0 and an electrical 'on' signal that
corresponds to the binary digit 1. Data is stored as a
combination of 0s and 1s. Each 0 and 1 is called a bit an
acronym for Binary Digit.

A bit is the smallest unit of data handled by a computer. A

grouping of 8 bits i.e.01011100 forms a byte. A byte
is a unit of storage used to represent a character such as an
 alphabet (Aa..Zz) a digit (0..9) and special characters such
as ?, %, #, &, $, @, etc.

A digital device is more accurate than an analog device

because it only needs to sense the difference between two
clearly distinguishable states: off and on.

Advantages of digital signals include

 Digital signals can be copied exactly without any loss of
quality.
 Computer can further process digital signals.
 Digital signals can be compressed easily increasing the
efficiency of transmission.
 Digital signals offer more data security because data
can be encrypted in the process of transmission.
Examples of digital devices include:
Digital watches, digital cameras, printers, scanners, digital
thermometers, digital speedometers, microwave ovens, etc
c) Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computer is a digital computer that accepts analog
signals, converts them to digital and processes them in
digital form. Hybrid computers are computers that exhibit
features of analog computers and digital computers. The
digital component normally serves as the controller and
provides logical operations, while the analog component
normally serves as a solver of differential equations.
An example of a hybrid computer is the computer used in
hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the patient. Hybrid
Machines are generally used in scientific applications or in
controlling industrial processes and in robotics.

1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified as follows:
a) According to Brand:
There are different manufacturers of computers producing
different brands of computers namely:
 i) HP (Hewlett Packard) Compaq
ii) IBM (International Business Machines)
iii) Sony
iv) Gateway
v) Dell
vi) Acer
vii) Toshiba
viii) Lenovo
ix) LG
x) Asus

b) According to Size
Computers can be classified according to their size namely:
i) Micro Computers:
Microcomputers are small computer systems basically found
in homes, offices, schools and small businesses. They are
single-user computers. They are also referred to as
Personal Computers (PC).

The characteristics of microcomputers include:

 They are designed to be operated by an individual
(single-user)
 Input of data is through one keyboard, mouse, scanner,
etc
 Output of data is through one monitor.
 Storage of data takes place on the disks (hard, floppy
and compact) as well as in memory found on the
system unit.
 Processing of data takes place using one
microprocessor or microchip found in the central
processing unit (CPU). Today some of these computers
also contain two processors (dual-core or duo-core)
and more.
 They support one processing task at a time.
 They can be used to perform a variety of tasks.
 Many programs can be opened (run) at once although
only one can be used at a time.
Personal computers are further broken down into these types:
a) Desktop Computers:
Desktop Computers are small microcomputers that have their
system units lying horizontally on the desk with a monitor placed
on top of the system unit

b) Tower/Mini Tower Computers:

Tower computers are microcomputers that have their system
units lying vertically on the desk with the monitor placed beside
the system unit.
c) Mobile Computers
A mobile computer is a personal computer that you can carry from
place to place. The most popular type of mobile computer is the
notebook computer. The different types of mobile computers
include:
i) Laptop Computers:
Laptop computers are smaller microcomputers that are portable.
They are carried in small lightweight carrying cases. They can be
used to run general purpose applications packages. They are run
with the help of rechargeable batteries in case of power failure.
ii) Notebook Computers:
Notebook computers are thin and lightweight portable personal
computers small enough to fit on your lap. They can be as
powerful as an average desktop computer. They are carried in
small lightweight carrying cases. They can be used to run general
purpose applications packages. They can operate with the help of
rechargeable batteries or a power supply or both.
Laptops and notebooks have their keyboards placed on top of the
system unit and the monitor attaches to the system unit with
hinges.
iii) Personal Digital Assistants (PDA):
PDAs are hand held devices designed for individuals who move
around and have built in communications capabilities that allow
the PDAs to use voice, fax, Internet, contact address books,
appointments, etc.
 iv) Handheld/Palmtop Computers:
These computers usually have several in-built personal
information management functions such as calendar, phone book,
address book, a task of things to do, etc. Some palmtops also
have limited capabilities for typing notes. Handheld computers are
basically used to perform meter readings and other mobile tasks
by users.
ii) Mini Computer and Mainframe Computers:
A mini computer is a medium sized computer larger than a
microcomputer and is used in situations where a microcomputer
is not powerful enough. It can handle hundreds of users
connected at the same time. Mini computers are today referred to
as mid-range servers.
A mainframe computer is a large, powerful and expensive
computer that is used in large organizations where sophisticated
computers systems are run. They can handle thousands of users
connected at the same time. Typical organizations that use
mainframes include telecommunication companies, International
Non Governmental Organizations, big industrial complexes, etc.
Users access data on both computers through a personal
computer or terminal. A terminal consists of a keyboard, monitor
and mouse. Terminals send and receive computer data. Different
types of terminals exist including:
i) Dumb terminal has no processing power, cannot act as a
stand-alone computer, and must be connected to a server to
operate.
ii) An intelligent terminal has memory and a processor to
perform some functions independent of the host computer.
iii) An EPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) terminal is used to
record purchases at the point where the consumer
purchases a product or service.
iv) An automated teller machine (ATM) is a self-service
banking machine attached to a host computer through a
telephone network.
Similarities between a mini and mainframe computer
i) Mini computers and mainframe computers are very
expensive to purchase and maintain
ii) Mini computers and mainframe computers are extremely
powerful and process data at a very fast speed.
iii) Mini computers and mainframe computers provide
centralized processing, storage and management of large
volumes of data.
iv) Mini computers and mainframe computers have more than
one processing unit for data processing.
v) Mini computers and mainframe computers handle a number
of users connected at the same time using terminals during
data processing.
vi) Mini computers and mainframe computers support a number
of programs running at the same time using one central
computer (a mini or mainframe)
vii) Mini computers and mainframe computers are stored in
special data processing rooms not easily accessible by all
staff.
viii) Specialized data processing staff are trained to manage
these computers.
ix) Mini computers and mainframe computers require different
operational environments such as dust free rooms, air
conditioning systems, different power voltages, etc

Differences between the mini and mainframe computers

i) A mini computer is medium sized computer system while a
mainframe is a large computer system.
ii) A mini computer will support hundreds of users connected at
a time while a mainframe computer will support thousands of
users connected.
iii) A mini computer is less expensive while a mainframe
computer is more expensive in terms of cost and
maintenance.
Super Computers
A supercomputer is the fastest and most powerful computer
system used for applications that require complex and
sophisticated mathematical calculations. Super computers
process trillions of instructions in seconds. Super computers are
expensive and are employed for sophisticated tasks that require
immense calculations. For example weather forecasting, space
exploration projects, weapons research and launching, nuclear
energy research and petroleum exploration.
c) According to Purpose
Computers can as well be classified according to the purpose
they perform namely:
i) Special Purpose Computers
These computers carry out specific processing tasks. They
handle a specific problem or a specific task with specific
instructions to solve the task. They are also referred to as
dedicated computers.
ii) General Purpose Computers
These computers are designed to perform a variety of tasks.
For such computers to perform many tasks, they have the
ability of storing many programs installed in the computer to
perform a range of tasks. Examples are the microcomputers.

Computers can be classified according to their function namely:

i) Stand-alone computer
A stand-alone computer is a computer that is not
connected to a network, and is capable of performing
independent operations in the information processing cycle.

ii) Network Computer

A network computer (NC) is a computer designed
specifically to connect to a network, especially the Internet.

iii) Client Computer

A client computer is a computer that connects to a server
and accesses resources on a network to perform user’s
tasks.

iv) Server
 A server is the host or central computer in a network that
manages and provides services to client computers in a
network. Such services include internet access, print access,
file access and storage, etc. Examples of servers include:
 File server
 Print server
 Database server
 Network server

v) Real-time systems:
A real time system is a system that responds to an event that
has occurred within a specified fixed time. Real-time means
that after an event has occurred, a system or application has
to react to that event within a certain time period or deadline
i.e. computers for a banking system are real time systems.

vi) Integrated systems:

An integrated system is a group of interconnected units that
form a functioning computer system. It has separate
programs that perform separate functions but they all
contribute to the same output.

1.8. THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is a combination of hardware, software, data
and users that function together to process data into information.
The computer system includes not only the computer, but also the
peripheral devices like monitors, keyboards, mice, printers,
scanners, etc, that are necessary to enable the computer to
function.

The components of a computer system include:

a) Hardware:
Hardware includes the physical parts that make up a
computer. These are the devices that are used to input,
output, process, store and communicate data.

b) Software:
 These are sets of instructions that direct hardware to
perform tasks necessary to process data into meaningful
information. A computer program is another term used to
mean software. A computer program consists of step-by-
step instructions that tell a computer how to do its work.

c) Data:
Data are raw, unprocessed facts including text, numbers,
images and sounds. Processed data becomes information.
When stored electronically in files, data can be used directly
as input for an information system. Four common types of
files are:
i) Document files: created by word processing
programs to store documents such as memos, term
papers and letters.
ii) Worksheet files: created by electronic spreadsheets
to analyze budgets and to predict sales.
iii) Database files: created by database management
programs that store databases (a set of records).
iv) Presentation files: created by presentation programs
to store presentations consisting of slides, handouts
and speaker notes.

d) Users (Human ware)

Users are people who operate computers and initiate
instructions that enable the computer system to perform
tasks. They design and develop computer information
systems, operate the computer hardware, create software
and establish procedures for carrying out tasks.
There are two kinds of computer users:
i) End-users – A user without much technical knowledge
of computers but uses computers to produce
information for professional or personal tasks, learn and
have fun. End-users include students, secretaries
(typists), data entry clerks, etc.
ii) Professional Users – A user in a profession involving
computers who has had formal education in the
technical aspects of computers. For example, the
 system analysts, software developers, web designers
and web masters, computer technicians, database
administrators, network administrators, computer
trainers, etc.

2.0 COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer Hardware refers to the physical components (devices)
or tangible parts that make up a computer. Data is input,
processed, output and stored using computer hardware. The
hardware components are broken down into the following
categories based on their function:
 Input devices
 Processing device (System unit)
 Output devices
 Storage devices
 Communication devices

Examples of hardware devices include:

The keyboard, mouse, scanners, printers, plotters, speakers,
joystick, monitors, projectors, disk drives and media (hard disk,
floppy disk, compact disk), etc.

A Peripheral Device:
A peripheral device is any device attached to a computer in order
to expand the computer’s functionality. Some of the more
common peripheral devices are printers, scanners, disk drives,
tape drives, microphones, speakers, digital cameras, etc.

2.1 INPUT DEVICES:

What is Input?
Input refers to the process of entering data, programs, commands
and user responses into memory for processing. Input also refers
to the data entered into the computer through the keyboard,
mouse, microphone and other devices.

The four types of input used by a computer are:

i) Data:
 These are raw facts that a computer receives during the
input operation and processes to produce information. Data
must be entered and stored in memory for processing to
occur.
ii) Programs:
These are a series of instructions that directs a computer to
perform the operations necessary to process data into
information. The program that is loaded from storage into
memory determines the processing that the computer will
perform.
iii) Commands:
These are keywords and phrases that cause a program to
perform a specific action. Users issue commands by typing
or pressing keys on the keyboard, clicking a mouse button,
speaking into a microphone or touching an area on the
screen.
iv) User responses:
This is an instruction a user issues by replying to a question
displayed by a program. A response to the question instructs
the program to perform certain actions. For example
programs as you to answer “Yes”, “No” or “Cancel” when
saving a file. If you choose Yes in response to the message,
the file will be saved to a storage media.

2.2 What is an Input Device?

An input device is hardware component that translates words,
sounds images and actions into a form that the system unit can
process. It also allows a user to enter data or instructions into the
computer. A variety of input devices that are used to input data
based on their categories include:

TEXT ENTRY
The Keyboard:
The keyboard converts letters, numbers and special characters
that people understand into electric signals which are sent to and
processed by the system unit. The keyboard is the primary input
device that contains keys etched with characters that a user
presses to enter data into a computer.
The characters include alphabetical, numerical, and special
characters as well as keys with special words on them. Most
keyboards use an arrangement of keys given the name QWERTY
which reflects the keyboard layout by taking the letters of the first
six alphabetical characters found on the fourth row of keys.
As you enter data through the keyboard, it is temporarily stored in
the computer’s memory (RAM) and displayed on the screen of the
monitor. The keyboard is basically divided into the following
divisions based on function:
i) Alphanumeric key area:
This area contains alphabetic keys, numbers and special
characters. They are arranged like those of a typewriter.
ii) Numeric keypad area:
Located on the right hand side of most keyboards, it has
numeric keys arranged in a calculator format to allow you to
enter numeric data rapidly.
iii) Arrow Keys/Cursor control movement keys:
These keys are used to move the insertion point or cursor on
the screen in the direction indicated on the arrow key. An
insertion point is a blinking vertical bar while a cursor is a
blinking underline character that indicates where the next
character you type will be displayed on screen. Arrow keys
are also called directional keys or navigation keys.
iv) Function keys:
These keys are located at the top of most keyboards. They
perform specific tasks in different application programs. They
are used alone or in conjunction with other keys i.e.
CTRL+F6. They are labeled F1 - F12.

Desktop computer keyboards typically have from 101 to 105 keys.

Keyboards for smaller computers such as palmtops, notebooks
and laptops contain fewer keys.
Most of today’s computer keyboards are enhanced keyboards.
An enhanced keyboard has twelve function keys along the top,
two CTRL keys, two ALT keys, and a set of arrows and additional
keys between the typing area and the numeric keypad.
Many keyboards also have a Windows key which displays the
Start menu and an Application key which displays an item’s
shortcut menu. All keyboards have toggle keys. A toggle key is a
key that switches between two states each time a user presses
the key. For example the NumLock, CapsLock, Insert, etc.

Keyboard Designs:
The most common types of keyboard designs include:
i) Traditional keyboards: these are full sized, rigid,
rectangular keyboards that include function, navigational and
numeric keys.
ii) Flexible keyboards: these keyboards fold or roll up for easy
packing or storage. They are designed to provide mobile
users with a full-sized keyboard with minimal storage
requirements.
iii) Ergonomic keyboards: The keyboard arrangement
however is not rectangular and a palm rest is provided. They
are designed specifically to alleviate wrist strain associated
with the repetitive movements of typing.
iv) Wireless keyboards: these transmit input to the system
through the air. By eliminating connecting wires to the
system unit, these keyboards provide greater flexibility and
convenience.
v) PDA keyboards: these are miniature keyboards for PDAs
and smart phones used for sending e-mail, creating
documents and more.

Keyboard Connections:
There are basically three ways of connecting a keyboard to the
system unit. They include:
a) PS/2 Keyboard Connection: This is attached via a cable to
a serial port, a keyboard port at the back of the computer.

b) USB Keyboard Connection: This is attached via a cable to

Universal Serial Bus (USB) port, a port at the back of the
computer.

c) Wireless Keyboard Connection: A wireless (cordless)

keyboard is a battery powered device that transmits data
using wireless technology such as radio waves or infrared
 light waves. Cordless keyboards communicate with a
receiver attached to a USB port on the system unit.

POINTING DEVICES
Pointing devices provide a comfortable interface with the system
unit by accepting pointing gestures and converting them into
machine readable input. Pointing devices allow you to control an
on-screen symbol called a pointer that is usually represented by
an arrow shaped head mark. A wide variety of pointing devices
include:

a) Mouse:
A mouse is a small palm sized pointing input device that you
move across a flat surface such as the top of a desk to control the
movement of the pointer on the monitor. The mouse is used to
select items on the screen such as icons, text, images, menus
and buttons; draw objects, etc. The mouse often rests on a
mouse pad, which is a rectangular piece of cushioned material
that provides better movement for the mouse.

Electronic circuits in the mouse translate the movement of the

mouse into signals that are sent to the computer. The computer
uses the mouse signals to move the pointer on the screen in the
same direction as the mouse.

The top of the mouse contains one or more buttons that are used
to perform the following operations:
i) Clicking: This is the action of pressing the mouse button.
The methods of clicking include:
a) Single click: This is when a mouse button is pressed
once for example to select a menu, image, document or
icon.
b) Double click: This is when a mouse button is pressed
twice for example to start a program, open a document,
etc.
c) Right Clicking: This is the action of pressing and
releasing a right mouse button.
ii) Dragging: This is the process of moving data, images,
text and icons from one location of the screen to another.

iii) Pointing: This is when a pointer is positioned over text, an

icon, image, button or menus on screen.

Although there are several different mouse types, there are three
basic designs:
i) Mechanical Mouse:
A mechanical mouse has a rubber ball underneath it. When
the ball rolls in a certain direction, electronic circuits in the
mouse translate the movement of the mouse into signals the
computer can process. A mechanical mouse should be
placed on a mouse pad which protects the ball from getting
dust and dirt.

ii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to
detect the mouse’s movement. Some use optical sensors
and others use laser.

An optical mouse has some advantages as compared to the

mechanical mouse:
 It can be used on any smooth surface
 It is more user friendly and fast
 Does not require periodic cleaning as does the
mechanical mouse, but is expensive.

iii) Cordless or Wireless mouse

A cordless mouse is a battery powered device that transmits
data using wireless technology such as radio waves or
infrared light waves. These devices eliminate the mouse
cord and free up desk space.

Mouse Connections:
There are basically three ways of connecting a mouse to the
system unit. They include:
a) PS/2 Mouse Connection: This is attached via a cable to a
serial port, a mouse port at the back of the computer.
b) USB Mouse Connection: This is attached via a cable to a
Universal Serial Bus (USB) port, a port at the back of the
computer.
c) Wireless Mouse Connection: It uses wireless technology
to transmit data. Cordless mice communicate with an
adapter attached to a USB port on the system unit.

Advantages of using a mouse

i) It is easy to use and move around the desk
ii) The mice today have become multi-tools. They are now
equipped with a variety of buttons, which pass on commands
quickly and efficiently.
iii) Computer mice provide an advantage for graphic designers
who rely on their mobility and ease of use to draw up
complicated graphics
iv) There are a large variety of computer mice to suit individual
needs. Small compact mice are available for frequent
travelers or mobile computer users.
v) The mouse gives a computer user the freedom to move the
cursors in any direction, unlike arrows on a keyboard, which
constrain the user to a limited set of directions.

Disadvantages using a mouse:

i) It requires empty desk space where it can be moved about.
ii) You must remove a hand from the keyboard and place it on
the mouse whenever the pointer is to be moved or a
command is to be given.
iii) It must be cleaned to remove dust and dirt from the mouse
mechanism.
iv) Excessive use can lead to health problems such as
repetitive strain injury (R.S.I.)
v) If the battery wears out in a wireless mouse, it cannot be
used until it has been replaced.

b) Pointing Stick
A pointing stick is a pressure-sensitive device shaped like a pencil
eraser that is positioned between keys on a keyboard. To move
the pointer using a pointing stick, you push the pointing stick with
a finger. The pointer on the screen moves in the direction you
push the pointing stick.

The advantages of using a pointing stick include:

i) It does not require any additional desk space.
ii) It does not require cleaning like a mechanical mouse or
trackball.

c) Joystick
Users running game software or flight and driving simulation
software often use a joystick or wheel as a pointing device. A
joystick is a vertical lever mounted on a base. You move the lever
in different directions to control the actions of the simulated
vehicle or player. The lever usually includes buttons called
triggers that you press to activate certain events. A joystick
typically attaches via a cable to the game port on a sound card or
to a USB port.

d) Light Pen
A light pen is a hand held light sensitive pen-like device that can
detect the presence of light. Some light pens require a specially
designed monitor, while others work with a standard monitor. To
select objects on the screen, a user presses the light pen against
the surface of the monitor and then presses a button on the pen.
Light pens are also used to edit digital images

Advantages of using Light Pens:

i) Can use handwriting instead of typing when taking notes.
ii) Can use gestures instead of typing commands making you
move faster.
iii) Small size of device
iv) Easier to draw with a stylus than with a mouse.

Disadvantages of using Light Pens:

i) May have to train the device to recognize handwriting
 ii) Must learn gestures or train device to recognize the ones
you create
iii) Can lose the pen, which is not usually attached to the
device.

e) Touch Screen
A touch screen is a touch sensitive display device with a clear
plastic outer layer. Behind the layer are criss-crossed invisible
beams of infrared light. Users interact with these devices by
touching areas of the screen with a finger to select actions or
commands, words, pictures, numbers, or locations identified on
the screen.

Touch screens are easy to use, especially when people need

information quickly. They are commonly used in automated teller
machines (ATM), gas pumps, smart phones and tablets.

Advantages of touch screens

i) Touch screens enable people to use computers without any
training.
ii) The touch screen technology is simple and user friendly.
iii) Touch screens virtually eliminates operator errors, because
users select from clearly defined menus
iv) Touch screens provide fast access to any and all type of
digital media.
v) No space is wasted as the input device is completely
integrated in the monitor.
vi) Touch screens provide sufficient security.

Disadvantages of touch screens:

i) Although user friendly, touch screens cannot be used to
enter large amounts of data
ii) Touch screen systems cost about twice the amount of an
existing keyboard display
iii) Touch screens and monitors combined together are
expensive
iv) It’s tiring to use if many choices have to be made for long
periods.
 v) They are not very accurate. Selecting detailed objects can
be difficult with fingers.

f) Touchpad
A touchpad is a small, flat, rectangular device that is sensitive to
pressure and motion. To move the pointer using a touch pad,
slide your fingertip across the surface of the pad. Some touch
pads have one or more buttons around the edge of the pad that
work like mouse buttons. On many touch pads, you also can tap
the pad’s surface to imitate mouse operations such as clicking.
Touch pads are found most often on notebook computers.

SCANNING AND READING DEVICES

Scanning devices convert scanned text and images from the
source document (original document) into digital data that can be
stored on a disc and processed by a computer. There are three
types of scanning devices:

a) Optical scanners:
An optical scanner is an input device that accepts documents
consisting of text and/or images and converts them into a
machine readable form. They recognize light, dark and colored
areas that make up individual letters or images. The scanned
documents are saved in files that can further be processed,
printed, displayed, merged with another document or stored for
later use.

There are two types of scanners:

i) Portable Scanners (Handheld Scanners):
This is a handheld device that slides across the image,
making direct contact. It enters text or graphics less than a
page wide. The software then allows you to join separately
scanned items to make up a complete page.

ii) Flatbed Scanners:

These scan an entire page of text in a computer system. The
document to be scanned is placed on a glass surface. A
bright light moves underneath the scanned document and
 the image of the document is sent to the computer by the
software used to scan the page.

b) Bar Code Readers

A bar code reader also called a bar code scanner is an optical
reader that uses laser beams to read bar codes found on items in
shops, supermarkets, etc. A bar code is an identification code that
consists of a set of vertical lines and spaces of different width
which represents data that identifies the manufacturer and the
item. A bar code is printed either on a product’s package or on a
label that is affixed to a product.

c) Optical Character and Optical Mark Reading Devices

Character and mark recognition devices are scanners that are
able to recognize special characters and marks. Three types are:

i) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) readers

MICR readers read text printed with magnetized ink. An MICR
reader converts MICR characters into a form the computer can
process. MICR readers are used by banks to automatically read
those unusual numbers on the bottom of checks and deposit
slips. The reader/sorter reads the numbers and provides input
such as the amount on the check, the bank number, and
customer account number and check number which allows banks
to efficiently maintain customer account balances.

ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR) reader

Optical character recognition is technology that involves reading
typewritten, computer printed, or hand-printed characters from
ordinary documents and translates the images into a form that the
computer can process. An OCR reader includes a small optical
scanner that uses special pre-printed characters that can be read
by a light source and changed into machine-readable code. A
common OCR device is a handheld wand reader.

iii) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) reader

Optical mark recognition is technology that involves reading hand-
drawn marks such as small circles or rectangles. An OMR reader
senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as a pencil mark
placed by a person on a form, such as in a test, survey, or
questionnaire answer sheet. OMR is often used to score multiple
choice tests.

IMAGE CAPTURING DEVICES

Image capturing devices are devices used to create or capture
original images. These devices include still digital cameras and
digital video cameras.
a) Digital cameras:
A digital camera is an electronic device used to capture and
store photographs electronically on a disk or in the camera’s
memory instead of using photographic films and then downloaded
or transferred to your computer. Modern compact still digital
cameras are typically multifunctional, with some devices capable
of recording sound and/or video as well as photographs.

With a digital camera light intensities are converted into digital

form than can be stored on a memory card or memory stick. With
the use of a computer, the digital image file can be viewed on
screen and edited with photo imaging software. It can then be
imported into a document or printed.

Most digital still cameras have a rear Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
for viewing digital images. They typically save pictures in only the
JPEG file format but other formats such as TIFF, PNG are also
used.

QUESTION
Mention at least five advantages of digital cameras over a
traditional film.

b) Digital Video cameras:

Digital video cameras record motion digital images on a disk or in
the camera’s memory. They include:
i. Professional video cameras used in television and movie
production.
ii. Video Camcorders used by amateurs.
 They generally include a microphone to record sound, and
feature a small LCD to watch the video during taping and
playback. Video editing software is then used to edit the
footage professionally by adding voice-overs, special effects,
titles, fading in and out of scenes.
iii. Webcams
Webcams (World Wide Web camera) are specialized digital
cameras attached to computers that capture full motion
video images for broadcasting over the Internet. They are
mainly used for video conferencing, video calls and other
purposes. Some models include microphones and zoom
ability. Images are recorded every so often in seconds and
minutes and viewed through a web page. They have many
uses for example monitor traffic conditions, promote holiday
areas, monitor security in buildings, etc.

DIGITAL CAMERA QUALITY

One factor that affects the quality of a digital camera is its
resolution. Resolution is described as the sharpness and
clearness of an image. A digital camera’s resolution is defined in
pixels. A pixel (short for picture element) is the smallest element
(unit) in an electronic image that can be turned on or off to make
different shades. The greater the number of pixels (higher
resolution) the camera uses to capture an image, the better the
quality (clarity) of the image and the more expensive the camera
becomes.

Digital camera resolutions range from approximately 1 mega pixel

to more than 18 mega pixels (MP). A camera with 14 mega pixels
(14,000,000 pixels) resolution will provide a better quality image
than the one with 10 mega pixel resolution.

TERMINALS
A terminal is a combination of devices that consists of a keyboard,
a monitor, a video card, and memory. Often, these components
are housed in a single unit. Terminals fall into three basic
categories: dumb terminals, smart terminals, and special purpose
terminals.
a) Dumb Terminal
A dumb terminal is a device that has no processing power, thus,
can not function as an independent device. Users enter data into
a dumb terminal and then transmit the data to a host computer
over a network. The host computer processes the data and then,
if necessary, sends information back to the dumb terminal. The
host computer is usually a midrange server or main frame.

b) Electronic Point–of–Sale (EPOS) Terminals

An EPOS terminal is a device used to record purchases, process
debit or credit cards, and update stock of goods. In a grocery
store, the EPOS terminal is a combination of an electronic cash
register, bar code reader, and printer. When the clerk scans the
bar code on the food product, the computer uses the
manufacturer and item numbers to look up the price of the item
and complete product name in the database. Then, the price of
the item in the database shows on the display device, the name of
the item and its price are then printed on a receipt.

c) Automated Teller Machines (ATM)

An automated teller machine is a self service banking machine
that connects to a host computer through a network. Banks place
ATMs in convenient locations, including grocery stores,
convenience stores, retail outlets, shopping malls, and gas
stations, for customers to conveniently access their bank
accounts. Using an ATM, users withdraw cash, deposit money,
transfer funds, or inquire about an account balance. To access
bank account details, you insert a plastic bankcard (ATM card)
into the ATM’s card reader, which reads personal data on the
card’s magnetic strip. The ATM then requests for a personal
Identification number (PIN), which verifies that you are the holder
of the bank card. When your transaction is complete, the ATM
prints a receipt for your records.

VIDEO INPUT
Video input is a process of capturing full motion images into a
computer and storing them into a storage medium such as a hard
disk or DVD. Some digital devices use analog video signals. To
input video from an analog device, the analog device must be
converted to a digital signal.

Some examples of video input devices include:

i) PC Video Cameras
ii) Webcams

AUDIO INPUT DEVICES

Audio input is the process of entering any sound into the
computer such as speech, music, and sound effects. Audio input
devices convert sounds into a form that can be processed by the
system unit. The most widely used audio input device is the
microphone. Audio input can take many forms including human
voice and music.

a) Voice Input
Voice input is the process of entering data by speaking into a
microphone, tape players, CD/DVD players, or radios, each of
which plugs into a port on the sound card. The microphone may
be a stand-alone peripheral that sits on top of a desk, or is built
into the computer or device, or is in a headset. Some external
microphones have a cable that attaches to a port on the sound
card on the computer. Others communicate using wireless
technology such as IrDA or Bluetooth. Voice input is an
alternative for using a keyboard to input data.

Voice recognition, also called speech recognition, is the

computer’s capability of distinguishing spoken words. Voice
recognition systems use a microphone, sound card and special
software to recognize voices. These systems allow users to
operate computers and to create documents using voice
commands. Voice recognition programs do not understand
speech but recognize a vocabulary of preprogrammed words
ranging from two words to millions of words.
Using voice recognition systems, users can search the Web,
participate in chat rooms, and send and receive e-mail and instant
messages-all by speaking into a microphone on a desktop
computer, mobile computer or mobile device. Some business
software, such as word processing and spreadsheets, includes
voice recognition as part of the program.

b) Music Input
Some users also input music and other sound effects using
external MIDI devices such as an electronic piano or keyboard. In
addition to being a port, MIDI (musical instrument digital interface)
is the electronic music industry’s standard that defines how digital
musical devices represent sounds electronically. Software that
conforms to the MIDI standard allows users to compose and edit
music and many other sounds. For example, you can change the
speed, add notes, or rearrange the scores to produce an entirely
new sound.

BIOMETRIC INPUT
Biometrics refers to the technology of authenticating (confirming)
a person’s identity by verifying their personal characteristic.
Biometric devices allow users access to programs, computer
systems or rooms by checking some biometric identifier such as a
physical or behavioural characteristic like fingerprint patterns,
voice, eye patterns and others. Biometric devices translate the
personal characteristics (input) into a digital code stored in the
computer. Some examples of biometric input devices and
technology include:
a) Fingerprint scanner which captures curves and marks of a
fingerprint.
b) A face recognition system which captures a facial image
and makes a comparison with a stored image in the
computer.
c) A hand geometry system that measures the shape and
size of a person’s hand.
d) A voice verification system which compares a person’s
live speech with their stored voice pattern.
e) A signature verification system that recognizes the shape
of your handwritten signature while measuring the pressure
exerted and motion used to write the signature.
f) An iris recognition system that reads patterns in the iris of
the eye using iris recognition technology.
2.2 OUTPUT DEVICES:
What is output?
Output is the result obtained from the computer after processing
data. Output could either be in form of a hard copy (printed
material) or a soft copy (a display on the monitor). The type of
output generated from the computer depends on the needs of a
user, the hardware used plus the software used. Examples of
categories of output include: text (word, sentences, paragraphs
and reports), graphics (images, clipart), audio (speech, music)
and video (movies).
Output devices:
Output devices are hardware tools or a machine that are used to
send output from the computer after processing. They translate
information that has been processed into a form that is
understood by humans. The basic types of output devices
include:
- Visual Display Devices
- Printing Devices
- Plotting Devices
- Audio output devices
a) Visual Display Devices:
A visual display device is an output device that conveys text,
graphics and video information from a computer. Display devices
produce a temporary output called a soft copy. Display devices
consist of a screen and components that produce the information.
The most widely used display devices are monitors and data
projectors.
a) Monitors
A monitor also called a visual display unit (VDU) has a display
surface called a screen and a plastic casing that is used to
present visual images of text and graphics and video. Today
monitors are manufactured in a variety of sizes i.e. 14 inch, 15
inch, 17 inch, and 19 inch, etc. There are two categories of
monitors:
i) Cathode Ray Tube Monitors:
These monitors use a cathode tube to display an image made of
tiny dots by firing an electron beam against the surface of the
phosphor screen. Each dot is colored red, green and blue (RGB)
of different intensities which produce a vast amount of different
colors. To display high quality color on CRT monitors, a desktop
computer sends a signal through a video card on the
motherboard.
Advantages of CRT Monitors:
1. Can be used with light pens to create drawings on the
screen.
2. Produce a larger range of colors than Thin Film Resistor
monitors.
3. The display angle is better than with the TFTs
4. They are cheaper to buy than flat panel displays.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors
1. They are very large and bulky which means they take up
large amounts of desk space.
2. They create a lot of heat and have been known to cause
fires.
3. Screen glare when in direct light makes viewing difficult.
4. They need more power than TFTs to operate.
ii) Flat Panel Display Monitors:
A flat panel monitor is a thin flat screen surface, which uses the
LCD technology or gas plasma technology or Thin Film resistor
technology.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitors:
LCD monitors or screens use the liquid crystal display technology
to output data and images on the screen. The liquid display
technology uses two sheets of plastic or glass material with a
liquid crystal solution deposited between them. An electric current
passes through the liquid crystal solution causing the crystals to
align (position in line with each other) so that light cannot pass
through the crystals.
Liquid crystal displays are used in digital watches, calculators,
portable computers such as notebooks and laptops, smart
phones, PDAs and other devices.
Advantages of Flat Panel Displays
i) Flat panel displays are smaller in size as compared to the
Cathode ray tube that occupies a large space.
ii) Flat panel displays use less power as compared to CRT
monitors that use too much power.
iii) Flat panel displays are more portable while CRTs are
bulky.
iv) Flat panel displays are very compact and light.
v) Flat panel displays emit less electromagnetic radiation
than a CRT monitor
vi) Flat panel displays produce a very sharp image (clear
image) as compared to a CRT monitor.
Disadvantages of Flat Panel Displays
i) The soft surface of the screen is easy to damage and is
difficult to clean.
ii) Flat panel displays are still more expensive than the CRT
monitors.
iv) Flat panel displays are high security risk devices because
they can easily be carried away by thieves since they are
lightweight
v) Flat panel displays have a low refresh rate. This means that
the images don’t change frequently.
vi) Flat panel displays have a problem with the viewing angle
since a user cannot view text or images from an angle.
vii) Once they are pressed hard, they can break.
viii) Flat panel displays don’t last for long if you leave them on,
they lose brightness.

Monitor Resolution:
Text and images are displayed on the monitor using patterns of
lighted dots. Each dot that is lighted is called a picture element
or pixel. The resolution of a monitor is the number of pixels the
monitor can display and the distance between each pixel. The
greater the number of pixels, and the smaller the distance
between the pixels, the better the resolution of a monitor.

The number of pixels displayed by a monitor is expressed as the

number of pixels horizontally by the vertical lines on the screen
i.e. 640 x 480 means 640 horizontal pixels by 480 vertical lines.
The number of pixels displayed is determined by:
- The software programs installed (device drivers)
- The capability of the video adapter card
- The type of monitor used

Today monitors are identified by the highest graphics display

standards they support. These include:
- VGA (Video Graphics Array) devices which display a
resolution of 640 x 480 pixels
- SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) devices which
display a resolution of 800 x 600 pixels and 1024 x 768
pixels.
- EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) devices which
display a resolution of 640 x 350 pixels.
- CGA (Color Graphics Adapter) device which display a
resolution of 300 x 200 pixels
- XGA (Extended Graphics Array) devices which display a
resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels
- SXGA (Super XGA) devices which display a resolution of
1280 x 1024 pixels

ii) Data Projectors:

A data projector is a device that receives a video image from
a computer and projects it onto a larger surface (a projection
screen or wall) using a lens system. Video projectors are
widely used for many tasks such as, conference room
presentations, classroom training, home theatre and
concerts.Two types of projectors are:
a) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projectors
 An LCD projector uses liquid crystal display technology
and uses its own light source to display information
shown on a computer screen. An LCD projector
attaches directly to a computer.
b) Digital Light Processing (DLP) Projectors
A DLP projector uses tiny mirrors to reflect light that
produces crisp, bright, colorful images.
b) Printing Devices:
i) The Printers:
Printers are output devices that produce a hard copy of text
and graphical images on a piece of paper as output. The
output is permanent and can be maintained for future use
and conveniently distributed to many users and
organizations.

Different types of printers exist based on their printing speed,

output quality and what they can print. Printers can be
classified into two categories:

1. Impact Printers:
Impact printers use a print mechanism whereby the
print head comes into contact with the print ribbon and
the paper to form characters. Impact printers are
relatively cheap and the cost of printing is low because
the ink ribbons are not expensive. Impact printers use a
continuous form paper for printing purposes. The speed
of impact printers is too low and is measured in
characters per second (cps) or lines per minute (lpm).
Examples of impact printers include: dot matrix printers,
daisy wheel printers, drum printers, chain printers, etc.

Advantages of Impact Printers

a) They are easier to maintain because their print heads
require fewer periodic cleaning.
b) They are reliable especially in commercial printing since
print heads have longer life span.
c) They are faster and can go over speeds of 160
 characters per second hence increased productivity.
d) They are flexible and cheap and capable of printing
various font styles and graphics and can be used in
place of plotters that are expensive.

Disadvantages of Impact Printers

a) These printers are very noisy during operation though
plastic covers are used on them to reduce the noise.
b) They have low print resolution that is they are not good
fo r h i g h q u a l i t y g r a p h i c s
c) Print heads over heat during long print out periods
hence leading to low productivity.

2. Non-impact printers:
Non-impact printers transfer text and images without making
any contact on the paper and use one of the following
printing methods:
 Ink is released from an ink cartridge by heat or pressure
through ink nozzles and spread onto a paper as fine ink
droplets forming characters. Examples of printers that
use ink are: Inkjet printers and DeskJet printers.
 Toner (fine black powder) is released from a toner
cartridge by heat or pressure through a drum and is
fused onto a piece of paper to form characters. Laser
printers are the most widely used toner printers. They
use a laser beam to print data onto a piece of paper.

Inkjet, DeskJet and Laser printers today can print both

black and white as well as different shades of colour
prints. Examples of laser printers include the LaserJet
printers.

Advantages of ink jet printers

a) They are noiseless.
b) They consume very little power.
c) Produce clear images with high resolution.
d) Their print mechanisms are reliable with no paper jams,
blocked nozzles thereby increasing productivity.
 e) Their cartridges can be refilled when they are used up.

Disadvantages of non impact printers

a) Require special paper for printing hence increasing the
c o s ts .
b) Papers are affected by age, sunlight, humidity and
chemical vapour.
c) Papers have to be specially prepared hence
inconvenient for commercial printing.
d) Print heads can not be repaired even if a single dot
heat fails the entire print head must be replaced.
e) Print speed is low due to the time given for the print
heads to cool before the next print cycle.
f) Print heads have shorter life span.

c) Plotters
A plotter is an output device used to produce high quality line
drawings such as building plans or electronic circuits. These
drawings can be quite large; some plotters are designed to
handle up to 40 inches by 48 inches, much larger than would
fit in a standard printer. Plotters can be identified by the way
they create drawings that is pen plotters and electrostatic
plotters.

Pen plotters create images on a sheet by moving one or

more pens over the surface of the paper.

Electrostatic plotters use an electronically controlled pen

over the paper by using computer controlled motors.

There are two types of plotters:

i) The flatbed plotter
ii) The drum (or rolling) plotter

A flatbed plotter is used to plot or draw whereby the pens

are instructed by the software to move to a lower position so
that the pen gets in contact with the surface of the paper.
 Drum plotters use a rotating drum or cylinder over which
drawing pens are mounted. The pens move to the left and
right as the drum rotates while creating an image. Drum
plotters work with large sheets of paper.

Plotters are often used with computer aided design software

to produce technical drawings where accuracy is essential,
for example in engineering and architectural applications.

A plotter differs from a printer in that it draws images using a

pen that can be lowered, raised and moved across the page
to form continuous lines while a printer produces ‘lines’ in the
form of a series of closely spaced dots.

d) Speakers:
A speaker is an output device used to produce audio output
from the computer. Most computers are fitted with a small
internal speaker that will beep to draw your attention to an
error, for example if you hit the wrong key. On multimedia
personal computers additional speakers are attached to the
computer to provide better quality sound. A sound card
enables the computer to output sound through the speakers.
The computer you are using probably has a Sound Blaster
sound card.

e) Fax Machines:
A fax machine short for facsimile machine is a device that
transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. The
documents can contain text, drawings or images. The term
fax refers to a document that you send or receive via a fax
machine

f) Multifunction Devices:
Multifunction devices or peripherals combine the capabilities
of a scanner, printer, copier and fax machine. Small offices
and home offices (SOHO) use these devices widely due to:
 They use less space used than having a separate
printer, scanner, copy machine and fax machine
  They are significantly less expensive than if you
purchase each device separately
However their disadvantages include:
 If one device breaks down, you can lose all the other
functions of the machine
 The quality and functionality are not quite as good as
those of the separate single-purpose devices.

2.3 PROCESSING DEVICE (THE SYSTEM UNIT)

Processing devices are the computer electronic components and
chips housed in the system unit that receive input, process the
input and give output. Processing devices are housed in the
system unit.
A system unit is the enclosure for all the interior components of a
computer such as the motherboard, disk drives, etc. In the system
unit is where processing actually takes place. In the system unit
program instructions are performed (executed) and data is
processed.
COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM UNIT
The system unit is made up of very many parts called
components that are covered in the plastic/metallic casing (the
box, the chassis). Some of the components found in the system
unit include:-
1. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
2. Motherboard
3. Memory chips
4. Processor/Central Processing Unit (CPU)
5. Buses
6. Ports and Connectors
7. Expansion slots and expansion cards etc.
1) The Power Supply Unit (PSU)
Computers require direct current (DC) to power the electronic
components and to represent data and instructions. The Power
Supply Unit converts alternating current (AC) coming from the
wall outlets or directly from batteries to a lower voltage that the
computer uses. The power supply unit also has the fan that
provides the cooling system for the components inside the system
unit. Desktop computers have a PSU located directly within the
system unit while notebook computers use AC adapters that are
used to power the computer.
2) Motherboard
The motherboard is sometimes called the main board, system
board or circuit board. The system board connects all system
components and allows peripheral devices to communicate with
the system unit. External devices such as the keyboard and
mouse communicate to the system unit through the motherboard.
Some of the components that connect on the motherboard
include, the processor, memory chips, expansion cards, etc.
3) Ports and Connectors
A port is a socket used to connect peripheral devices such as the
keyboard, monitor to a system unit. Some ports are fitted directly
onto the system board while others connect through the
expansion cards inserted into slots on the system board. Today’s
computers have ports at the front and back of the system unit.
There are various types of ports including:
i) Parallel ports
Parallel ports are used to connect devices that send/receive
large amounts of data over a short distance such as the
printers and tape devices. They transfer eight bits of data
simultaneously using a cable that has eight parallel data
lines.
ii) Serial ports
Serial ports connect devices that transfer small amounts of
data over a long distance such as keyboards, mice, etc. A
serial port transmits data one bit at a time.
iii) Universal serial bus (USB) ports
A USB port, short for Universal Serial Bus connects several
high speed devices together with a single connector type.
These ports send and receive very large amounts of data. A
USB port connects any device that has a USB interface on it.
Personal computers typically have four to eight USB ports
either on the front or back of the system unit.
 Some newer peripherals may attach only to a USB port.
USB ports support hot plugging (Plug and Play), which
refers to the computers capability to automatically configure
peripherals and adapters while the computer is running.
iv) Bluetooth Ports
Bluetooth ports use radio waves to transmit data between
two devices without using cables.
Special-Purpose Ports:
Some of the special purpose ports include:
v) Fire-Wire ports:
This is a fast port similar to a USB port that can connect
multiple types of devices that require faster data
transmission speeds such as digital videos cameras, color
printers, digital VCRs to a single connector. FireWire ports
also support Plug and Play (PnP). They are also called
High Performance Serial Bus (HPSB) ports.
vi) Midi Port
A special type of port that connects the system unit to a
musical instrument, such as an electronic keyboard.
vii) IrDA (Infrared Data Association) port
Some devices can transmit data via infrared light waves. For
these wireless devices to transmit signals to a computer,
both the computer and the device must have an IrDA port.
Devices that use IrDA ports include a PDA, keyboard,
mouse, printer, cellular phones, and pager.
Cable Connectors
A connector joins a cable to a port. Devices have different
types of connectors attached to the cable that is used to
connect the device to the system unit. The connectors are
generally categorized as follows:
Male connectors
Male connectors have one or more exposed pins on the
cable connector.
Female connectors
 They have one or more matching receptive holes to accept
the pins from the male connectors.
4) Buses:
Data is transported and processed as a series of electronic bits.
These bits transfer internally within the circuitry of the computer
along electrical channels. Each channel, called a bus, allows the
various devices both inside and attached to the system unit to
communicate with each other. Buses transfer bits from input
devices to memory, from memory to the processor, from the
processor to memory, and from memory to output or storage
devices. Buses also link the CPU to various other components on
the system board.

Buses consist of two parts: a data bus and an address bus.

The data bus transfers actual data and the address bus
transfers information about where the data should reside in
memory.
The size of a bus, called the bus width, determines the number
of bits that the computer can transmit at any one time. For
example, a 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits (4 bytes) while a 64-bit
bus can transmit 64 bits (8 bytes) at a time.

Computers have two types of buses namely:

i) System buses which is part of the motherboard and
connects the processor to memory.
ii) Expansion buses which allow the processor to
communicate with peripheral devices. The different types of
expansion buses include:
a) Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) first developed for
the first IBM PC with 16 bit bus width used to connect
mice, sound cards, etc
b) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) developed to
meet video demands of graphical user interfaces (GUI).
PCI is a high speed 32-bit or 64-bit bus that supports
video cards, sound cards.
c) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) which is twice as fast
as the PCI bus. It was designed to improve the
 acceleration of graphics performance for 3-D graphics and
video cards.
d) Universal Serial Bus and FireWire bus which support
several external devices without using expansion cards or
slots. USB devices connect to each other outside the
system unit and then a single cable attaches to the USB
port.

5) Bays
A bay is an open area inside the system unit used to install
additional equipment such as disk drives.

6) Processor
In personal computers, the micro processor or Central
Processing Unit (CPU) interprets and carries out the basic
operations that run a computer. The central processing unit is
contained on a single chip called the microprocessor.
Microprocessors are mounted onto a CPU socket, which is a
special slot on the system board. The microprocessor is referred
to as the “brain” or “heart” of the computer system.
Microprocessors control the logic of almost all digital devices such
as clock radios, fuel-injection pumps for vehicles, microwave
ovens, washing machines, mobile and smart phones, etc.

The central processing unit contains two basic components:

i) Control Unit (CU) and
ii) Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU).

i) Control unit:
The control is the component of the processor that directs and
coordinates most of the operations in the computer. It directs the
movement of electric signals between memory and the arithmetic
and logic unit. It also directs the signals between the CPU and the
input and output devices. The control unit interprets each
instruction issued by a program and then initiates the appropriate
action to carry out the instruction.
ii) The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU contains electronic circuits necessary to perform
arithmetic, comparison and logical operations on data. The
arithmetic operations include basic calculations such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division. Comparison operations
involve comparing one data item with another to determine if the
first data item is greater than, less than or equal to the other item.
The logical operations include conditions along with logical
operators such as AND, OR and NOT.

The Machine Cycle:

For every instruction performed, the processor repeats a set of
four basic operations called the machine cycle. The operations
include:
i) Fetching
Fetching is the process of obtaining the program instructions
or data from memory.
ii) Decoding
Decoding is the process of translating and interpreting the
program instructions into commands a computer can
execute.
iii) Executing:
Executing is the process of carrying out the computer
commands.
iv) Storing:
After executing, the results of the instructions are written
back to memory, and later stored permanently.

Registers:
Processors contain high speed storage locations called registers
that temporarily hold data and instructions for specific types of
data in the system unit during processing. The specific functions
of registers include:
 Storing the location from where the instruction was fetched.
 Storing an instruction while it’s being decoded by the control
unit.
 Storing data while the ALU computes it.
 Storing the results of a calculation.
The System Clock
A system clock is a small quartz crystal circuit that controls the
timing of all computer operations. It generates regular electronic
pulses or ticks that set the operating pace of system unit
components. The pace of the system clock measured by the
number of ticks per second is called the clock speed. Today’s
PCs have clock speeds in the gigahertz range. A Giga is a prefix
that stands for billion, and a hertz is one cycle per second. A
computer operating at 2.8 GHz has 2.8 billion (giga) clock cycles
in one second (hertz).

Coprocessors:
A coprocessor is a special additional processor chip that assists
the processor in performing specific tasks and increases the
performance of the computer.

Types of Personal Computer Processors

The leading processor chip manufacturers are:
iii) Intel,
iv) AMD (Advanced Micro Devices),
v) IBM (International Business Machines) and
vi) Motorola.

Most PCs use some type of Intel Pentium Processor (i.e.

Pentium II, Pentium Pro). Notebooks use Pentium M processors.
AMD produces Intel-compatible chips called Athlon and Hammer.
Intel-compatible processors are able to process programs
originally written specifically for Intel chips
Newer PCs, which are much faster, process data and instructions
in billionths of a second, or nanoseconds. Supercomputers
operate at speeds measured in trillionth of a second or
picoseconds.

g) Expansion Slots and Adapter Cards

These are sockets designed on circuit boards for other devices
such as video cards; network interface cards (NIC) sound cards
that add more capabilities to the computer system. The card that
is added into the expansion slot is sometimes referred to as an
adapter card, interface card or expansion cards.

An adapter card is a circuit board that enhances the functions of

a system unit and provides connection to external devices called
peripherals.

There are various types of expansion cards including:

i) Sound cards:
Sound cards enhance the sound operation or ability of a PC
by allowing sound to be input through a microphone and
output through external speakers or headsets
ii) Video Card:
A video card also called a graphics card converts computer
output into a video signal that travels through a cable to a
monitor which displays an image on a screen.
iii) Modem card:
A modem card also called an internal modem is a
communication device that enables computers to
communicate via telephone lines, cable television lines or
other media
iv) Network Interface Cards (NIC):
Network Interface cards are communication devices that
connect a computer to one or more other computers forming
a communication network such as a Local Area Network
(LAN)
v) TV Tuner Cards:
TV tuner cards also called video capture cards, television
cards contain a TV tuner and video converter that changes
the TV signals into one that can be displayed on your
monitor.

h) Memory
Memory is a small chip that temporarily stores program
instructions and data during processing. Memory chips are
basically installed on the motherboard and today many devices
such as printers, monitors have small circuit boards with memory
installed on them.
The basic unit of measuring memory is a byte. Each byte is
stored in memory in a unique location called a memory address.

A memory address is a unique number that identifies the

location of a byte in memory. Today, memory is measured in
kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes.

Today RAM memory chips have the following storage capacities:

64 megabytes, 128 megabytes, 256 megabytes, 512 megabytes,
1 gigabyte, 2 gigabytes, 4 gigabytes and 8 gigabytes, etc.

There are three types of memory:

i) Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is an integrated circuit or chip that can be read and
written by the microprocessor or other computer devices.
RAM chips temporarily store data and program instructions
during and after processing. RAM is the working memory in
any computer system. RAM chips store the following during
and after processing:
- Operating system instructions (Windows, Linux, DOS)
- Application program instructions (Word, Excel, games)
- Data currently being processed
RAM is volatile. This means memory can lose data and
programs stored in it when power to the computer is turned
off.

ii) Read-Only Memory (ROM)

ROM chips store information or instructions that don’t
change. ROM chips store the start up instructions when the
computer is turned on. Therefore it can be read as many
times as possible but not written to or erased from, hence
the term Read-Only.
The instructions in ROM are recorded permanently in
memory when it is manufactured. ROM is non-volatile. This
means memory retains its contents when power to the
computer is turned off.
iii) Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-conductor (CMOS)
Memory
These memory chips store information about the
configuration settings of a computer system such as:
- type of keyboard installed
- type of mouse installed
- type of monitor attached
- date and time in the computer system
- amount of RAM installed
- type and capacity of disk drives installed, etc
A small battery installed on the motherboard maintains the
configuration settings in CMOS memory.

2.4 SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

Computer storage refers to computer components, devices and
recording media that retain data for some interval of time.
Computer storage provides one of the core functions of the
modern computer that is of information retention.
There are two forms of storage in computers
i) Primary storage: This is storage that takes place in the
computers memory, which is temporary. It is directly
linked to the central processing unit of a computer.
ii) Secondary storage: This is storage that takes place
outside the computer’s memory, which is permanent.

Storage, also called secondary storage, backing storage or

auxiliary storage stores data and programs when they are not
being processed. The process of storing data is called writing or
recording or saving data because the storage device records the
data on the storage medium to save it for later use. The process
of retrieving data is called reading, loading or opening data,
because the storage device reads the data and transfers it to
memory for processing.

STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
Storage technologies refer to the storage devices and their
respective storage media used in storing data in a computer
system. There are a variety of storage devices and storage media
such as disk drives and tape drives, as well as disks, tapes,
microfilms, PC Cards, Smart Cards, etc.

Secondary Storage Devices:

A storage device is a tool used to write and read data to and from
a storage media when not being processed. It records (stores or
saves) and retrieves (opens, loads or reads) data from storage
media.

There are a variety of storage devices that are used to store data
such as the floppy disc drive (FDD), hard disk drive (HDD),
magnetic tape drives and others.

Most computers have more than one storage device. A drive letter
(C) and a colon (:) i.e. C: identify each storage device in the
computer system as outlined in the following table:

Drive Letter Storage device

A: or B: Floppy disk drives
C: Hard disk drive
D: CD-ROM/DVD-
ROM/CD-RW Drive
E: - Z: Any other storage
device attached

Storage devices are rated by the speed at which they transfer

data and programs in the computer system. This speed is defined
as Access time.

Access Time is the average amount of time a device takes to

locate a single piece of information and avail it to the computer for
processing. Access time of PC storage devices is measured in
milliseconds.

The common types of storage devices include:

i) Floppy disk drive (FDD)
 A floppy disk drive records and retrieves data to and from
floppy disks. There are basically two sizes of floppy drives
although one is outdated. They include:
a) 51/4 floppy disk drive (outdated)
b) 31/2 floppy disk drive

Floppy disk drives access data slower than say hard disks
because they are in motion or spin only when they are
selected for data retrieval. A Read-write head is a recording
mechanism in each drive that rests on the top and bottom
surface of media to record and retrieve data from the media.
A read-write head performs the process of reading
(retrieving) and storing (saving) data.
ii) Optical Disk Drives
Compact disks drives record and retrieve data on compact
disks using laser light technology. An optical read-write head
burns and retrieves the data from the optical disk. Today
modern optical disk drives can perform both the writing and
reading functions on optical disks. Optical disk drives are
broken down into the following categories:
a) Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) drives:
This type of drive can only read or retrieve data from a
compact disk to memory for processing. It can read
data from CD-ROM and CD-R disks as well as audio
disks.
b) Compact Disk Rewritable (CD-RW) drives:
This type of drive can read and write data from and to a
compact disk during processing. It can read data from
CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW disks as well as audio
disks. It can write data to both CD-R and CD-RW disks.
c) Digital Video (Versatile) Disk-ROM Drive:
This type of drive can only read or retrieve data from a
compact disk to memory for processing. It can read
data from CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD-ROM
disks as well as audio disks.
d) Digital Video (Versatile) Disk-RW Drive:
This type of drive can read and write data from and to a
compact disk during processing. It can read data from
 CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD-ROM disks as well
as audio disks. It can write data to CD-R, CD-RW,
DVD-R, DVD-RW and DVD-RAM disks.
e) Combo Drives:
This type of drive combines both the DVD-ROM and
CD-RW abilities during processing. It can read data
from CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RW and DVD-ROM disks as
well as audio disks. It can write data to CD-R, and CD-
RW disks.
Compact disk drives are the second fastest secondary
storage devices after the hard disk drives in accessing data
off the storage media. This is because they use laser light to
retrieve data from the compact disks.

iii) Hard disk drives (HDD)

A hard disk drive records and retrieves data to and from a
hard disk. Hard disk drives access data faster than any other
storage device on personal computers because it is always
spinning right from the time the personal computer is turned
on. A hard disk drive is a non-removable disk drive from a
personal computer. Therefore it is also called a fixed disk
drive also known as a Hard Disk. A hard disk drive is
needed for any stand-alone computer to function.

iv) Magnetic Tape Drives

Magnetic tape drives record and retrieve data on magnetic
tapes. Magnetic tape drives are slow in accessing data
because they read or write one record at a time in sequence
on the magnetic tape.

v) Zip Drive
The zip drive records and retrieves data from a zip disk. Zip
drives offer faster storage and retrieval of data from zip
disks.

vi) Flash Drives

These drives record and retrieve data from flash disks. They
are portable, easy to use, and inexpensive and offer faster
storage and retrieval of data.

The hard, floppy, optical, zip and flash drives are random
access storage devices. A random access storage device
has the ability to read or write data to any sector of the
storage surface on a disk in any order. The tape drives are
sequential access storage devices. A sequential access
storage device has the ability to read or write data to the
storage surface one record after another in sequence.

Secondary Storage Media

Storage media are the physical materials or apparatus
where data is stored in computer systems. They include the
disks (hard, floppy, and optical) and tapes. The most
commonly used type of media today is the magnetic storage
media such as the magnetic disks and magnetic tapes.

With magnetic storage media, the storage device records

data by magnetizing small microscopic particles on the
storage surface of a disk or tape. Data on magnetic storage
media can be recorded and erased as many times as
possible.

Today, optical storage media such as the compact and

digital versatile disks are also being used to store large
quantities of data in computer systems. The optical media
uses laser light technology to burn (store) data.

The common types of storage

media include:
i) Floppy Disks
Floppy disks are magnetic
storage media that consist
of a thin, circular flexible
plastic mylar surface
coated (covered) with a
 magnetic oxide material where data is recorded
magnetically on the surface of storage enclosed in a
plastic shell. IBM introduced floppy disks as storage
media in 1970 with an 8 inch wide floppy disk, called
floppies because of being thin and flexible. Later the 5¼
inch wide disks were introduced in the 80s and early
90s. Today the 3½ inch wide disks are mainly used with
personal computers.

The storage capacity of a floppy disk today is 1.44

megabytes (1,474,560 bytes) because storage takes
place on both sides of the mylar surface hence the term
a double sided (DS or 2S) disk. Storage capacity
depends on two factors:

a) Tracks on the disk: The number of tracks on the

recording surface measured as tracks per inch
(tpi) determines the amount of data floppies store.
b) Density of the disk: Density refers to the amount
of magnetic particles in the coating. Two types of
disk densities include:
 Double Density (DD) or low density with a
storage capacity of 360 KB – 720 KB for both
5¼ and 3½ disks respectively.
 High Density (HD) with a storage capacity of
720 KB – 1.44 MB for both 5¼ and 3½ disks.
Density reflects the closeness of data on a disk. The closer the
data is the denser a disk is said to be. Regardless of the size of
the particle, it can only store one piece of data.

Uses of Floppy Disk Storage

Today floppy disks are basically used for:
a) Distributing software: When a new device is
purchased a set of floppy disks containing device
drivers is included in the package for purposes of
installing new hardware in the computer system
b) Sharing data: Documents, images, etc can be
shared among computer users on diskettes by
creating massive copies on many diskettes.
c) Backing up data: Diskettes can be used to create
duplicate copies of documents, images from another
storage medium such as a hard disk. The duplicate
copy that is created is called a Backup. The process
of creating a duplicate copy is called Backing up.
d) Floppy disks are also used to store data for
individuals who don’t have their own computers to
work from i.e. such as in a school or university where
computers are used by many students
Precautions for handling Floppy Disks
Users in handling floppy disks should take the following
precautionary measures
a) Do not touch the mylar surface because it can easily
get contaminated with dirty particles
b) Do not place or put heavy objects on top of disks
c) A disk shouldn’t be put near magnetic fields such as
telephones. Data can be easily lost if exposed to the
magnetic fields.
d) Floppy disks should be kept away from dust and
smoke. These can easily contaminate the storage
surface.
e) Floppy disks shouldn’t be exposed to excessive
sunlight, heat and cold conditions.
f) Keep disks away from food and drinks. Once they
get into contact with the storage surface, it is easily
contaminated.
g) Handle floppy disks by the edges while inserting it
into the floppy drive.
h) Do not eject the floppy from the drive when the drive
in use indicator light is glowing. This can easily
damage the mylar surface thereby creating bad
sectors, regions where data cannot be stored.
i) In case of movement over a long distance, floppies
should be kept in plastic floppy boxes and not in
papers, envelopes or pockets.
j) Keep floppy disks in a floppy disk storage bank to
prevent contaminants from accessing the mylar
surface when the disk is not in use.
k) To prevent data loss through malicious or accidental
erasure, always write protect your diskette using the
write protect notch found within the write protect
window.
Advantages of Floppy Disks
 A floppy disk is portable and inexpensive
 Data on a floppy disk can be accessed randomly
 Data on a floppy disk can be write protected from
being altered or erased accidentally
 Floppy disks can be used to transfer data from
one computer to another
Disadvantages of Floppy Disks
 A floppy disk is not durable (due to dust and dirt)
and can be destroyed by magnetic fields.
 Access time of a floppy disk is slow when
retrieving data (about 84 ms).
 Storage capacity of a floppy disk is limited to only
1.44 MB.
A diagram showing components of a floppy disk
ii) Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are magnetic storage media that
contain a thin ribbon of plastic coated with a magnetic
oxide material that can be used to record and retrieve
large amounts of data. Another term used to describe
magnetic tapes today is a data cartridge.
Today magnetic tapes are basically used for long-term
storage and backup of data. Backing up data means
the process of creating an extra copy of information on
another storage medium.
Magnetic tapes are sequential access storage media.
This means that they read or write data to the tracks
and sectors in a sequence or following some order one
record after another. Magnetic tapes were used in the
late 1950’s to early 1960’s as the primary means of
storing data.
iii) Zip Disks
Zip Disks are magnetic storage media that contain a
plastic surface coated with a magnetic oxide material
that can be used to record and retrieve large amounts
of data. Zip disks are portable storage media connected
to the system unit on a USB port for reading and writing
data. Zip disks transfer data between the port and
computer’s memory at a very fast speed. The storage
capacity of a zip disk ranges between 100–250 MB of
data.
The large zip capacity holds about 500 times a
standard floppy disc. These large capacity zip disks
 make it easy to transport many files or large items such
as graphic, audio, or video files.
Another use of zip discs is to back up data or
information. A backup is a duplicate copy of a file,
program, or disc that you can use incase the original
copy is lost, damaged, or destroyed.
Zip discs are slightly larger than and twice as thick as a
3.5-inch floppy disk. These drives cannot read standard
3.5-inch floppy disks. Many users prefer to purchase an
external zip drive, which connects to USB Port,
FireWire port, or parallel port on the system unit.
iv) Optical Disks
An optical disk commonly called a compact disc (CD) is a
flat, round, portable, storage medium that is usually 4.75
inches in diameter and less than one-twentieth of an inch
thick that stores data on land (flat areas) by using
microscopic pits found in the middle layer of the disc.

A compact disc stores items in a single track, which is also

divided into evenly sized sectors that spiral from the center
of the disc to the edge of the disc. The data is recorded by
use of a laser beam, which burns the data on the surface. A
high-powered laser beam creates the pits while a low
powered laser beam retrieves (reads) the data by reflecting
light through the bottom of a disk. The reflected light is
converted into a series of bits that the computer can
process.
There are two categories of optical disks namely:
i) Compact Disks (CDs)
ii) Digital Video (Versatile) Disks (DVDs)

The different types of compact discs designed for use with

computers include:

Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)

A CD-ROM is an optical disk that uses the same laser
technology as audio CDs for recording music. A CD-ROM,
however, can contain text, graphics, video, and sound. The
contents of standard CD-ROMs are written, or recorded, by
the manufacturer, and cannot be modified by the user. A
CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player is required to read items
on a CD-ROM. A CD-ROM can hold up to 650 MB of data,
instructions, and information.

Compact Disk Recordable (CD-R)

A CD-R is an optical disk with technology that allows a user
to write on a compact disc using his or her own computer. A
CD-R is a “write once, read many” technology disk. A user
can write on the disc in stages – writing on part of it one time
and writing on another part at a later time. However, the user
can write on each part only once and cannot erase it.

Compact Disk Rewritable (CD-RW)

A CD-RW optical disk is an erasable compact disc that can
be written to and erased from multiple times. A CD-RW acts
like a floppy disk or hard disk, allowing data, instructions,
and information to be written and rewritten onto it multiple
times. CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive are required in
order to write on a CD-RW disk. One problem with CD-RW is
that they cannot be read by all CD-ROM drives.

The different types of digital versatile discs designed for use

with computers include:

Digital Video Read Only Memory (DVD-ROM) Disk

A DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-ROM) is an
extremely high capacity compact disc capable of storing
from 4.7 GB to 17 GB. A DVD-ROM drive or DVD
player is required to read a DVD-ROM.

Digital Video Recordable (DVD-R) Disk

DVD-R is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-
ROM, which can be written once and read (played) for many
times.
 Digital Video Random Access Memory (DVD-RAM) Disk
DVD-RAM is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-
ROM, which allows items to be erased and recorded on it
multiple times.

Digital Video Rewritable (DVD+RW) Disk

DVD+RW is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-
ROM, which can be written and read (play) for many times.
A DVD+RW is similar to a CD-RW, except it has storage
capacities up to 4.7 GB.

Advantages of optical disks include

a) A compact disc is more portable than a hard disk.
b) The storage capacity of an optical disc is very much larger
than that of a floppy disk.
c) The average access time of a optical disc is faster than
that of a floppy disk.
d) Sound and picture files of high quality can be easily stored
on optical disks.
e) Optical disks are relatively easy to produce.

Disadvantages of optical discs include

a) Some kinds of optical discs are read only (CD-ROM and
DVD-ROM).
b) The average access time of an optical disc is slower than
that of a hard disk.
c) Optical disks are slower to access than a hard disk.
d) Optical disks have a smaller storage capacity as
compared to a hard disk.
e) Optical disks can be easily damaged by breaking or
scratching.

Precautions for handling optical disks

a) Handle the optical disk by the edges only or through the
hole in the middle of the disk.
b) Never touch the storage surface because it contaminates
easily.
 c) Do not write on optical disks except with a felt tipped
marker or simply paste labels on them.
d) Do not store disks in dirty, dusty or humid locations
because they easily get contaminants.
e) Do not expose optical disks to direct sunlight or put them
near heat generating devices.
f) Avoid spilling liquids on the disk.
To protect important data, always keep disks in their
protective plastics cases, optical disk wallets or optical disk
storage boxes.

Hard disks (HDD)

Hard disks are magnetic storage media that contains one or
more magnetic storage surfaces called platters coated
(covered) with a magnetic oxide material where data is
recorded. The platters are made of aluminium but newer
hard disks use glass or ceramic material for the platters.
Storage on the hard disk takes place on both sides. The
more platters the disk has the more data it can store. Each
platter has a read-write head to read and write data from and
to the disk. Hard disks are sealed in airtight cases to prevent
dust and other particles from getting into contact with the
storage surface.

Hard disks are permanently fixed inside the system unit and
are not removable hence the term a fixed disk. For a
computer to function, it requires a hard disk to store
programs and data. Storage capacity of a hard disk is
measured in megabytes and gigabytes. Today common hard
disk capacities range from 500 MB to 400 GB of data
storage.

Hard disk drives are of two categories:

a) Internal hard disks that are mounted inside the computer
system
b) External hard disks (Removable hard disks) that are
connected at the back or front USB ports on the system unit
of a computer.
Today, hard disks have enough storage capacity for majority of
the software. People use hard disk to store all types of
documents, spreadsheets, presentations, databases, web pages,
digital images, music and video files as well as software.
Businesses store invoices, contact information, websites, payrolls
and financial records

The system unit on most desktops and laptops contain at least

one hard disk used to process data in the computer. Hard disks
are also called fixed disks because it is installed and tightly fixed
in a drive bay. The storage capacity of micro computer hard disks
ranges from 20 GB to 500 GB. Computers containing one hard
disk, operating systems designate them as drive C: Any additional
hard disk is assigned the next drive letter in sequence.

Characteristics of a Hard Disk

Characteristics of a hard disk include its disk capacity, storage
medium, Revolution speed and access time

Disk Capacity
The capacity of the hard disc is determined from the number of
platters it contains, together with the composition of magnetic
coating on the platters.

Storage medium
A typical disk has multiple platters stacked on top of one another
on which data is stored. Each platter has two read/write heads, for
each side. On desktop computers, platters have a formal factor,
or size, 3.5 inches in diameter.
The location of the read/write head is always referred to by its
cylinder. A cylinder is the vertical section of the track that passes
through all the platters.

Revolution Speed
While the computer is running, the platters in the hard disk rotate
at a high speed. The spinning is usually 5400 to 7200
revolutions per second (rps), and allows for instant access to all
track and sectors on the platters. The platters typically continue to
spin until power is removed from the computer. A head crash
occurs when a read/write head touches the surface of a platter,
usually resulting in a loss of data or sometimes loss of the entire
drive.

Access Time
Depending on the type of hard disk, transfer rates normally
range from 15 Mbps to 320 Mbps. Access time for today’s hard
disks ranges from approximately 4 to 12 ms (milliseconds). The
average hard disk access time is at least seven times faster than
the average floppy disk drive.

Some computers improve hard disk access time by using disk

caching. A disk cache (pronounced cash) is a portion of memory
that the processor uses to store frequently accessed items. When
a program needs data, instructions, or information, the processor
checks the disk cache.

Hard Disk Interfaces.

A hard disk interface consists of a special purpose chip and
electronic circuits that control the transfer of data, instructions and
information to other components in the computer.

The different types of hard disk interfaces include:

vii) USB interface
viii) FireWire interface
ix) Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE) interface
x) Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) interface
xi) Serial Advanced technology Attachment (SATA) interface

Internet hard drives

An Internet hard drive also called online storage is a service on
the web that provides storage to computer users usually free or
charge or for a minimal monthly fee.

Users may store data and information on an Internet hard drive

because of the following reasons:
a) To access files from any computer that has Internet access.
b) To save time by storing large audio, video, and graphics files
instantly without downloading it to your computer.
c) To allow others to access files on your Internet hard drive
d) To view data and images immediately while away from the
main office or location.
e) To store offsite backups of data.

External hard disks and removable hard disks offer the following
advantages over internal hard disks (fixed disks):
1. Transport a large number of files.
2. Back up important files or an entire internal hard disk.
3. Easily store large audio and video files.
4. Secure your data; for example, at the end of a work
session, remove the hard disk and lock it up, leaving no
data in the computer.
5. Add storage space to the desktop computer without having
to open the system unit.
6. Add storage space to the notebook computer or Tablet PC.
7. Share a drive with multiple computers.

Advantages of Hard disks

a) Hard disks provide for larger storage capacities than floppy
disks and other media
b) Hard disks provide for faster access times than floppy disks
and other media
c) A hard disk is cheaper than a floppy disk per Megabyte
stored
d) Hard disk is usually more reliable than floppy disk (a better
protection against dust and dirt).

Disadvantages of Hard disks

a) Hard disks are not portable (except removable hard disks)
which is usually more expensive
b) Data becomes more less secure if left on a hard disk
c) Head crush might occur due to extreme shock or
contaminants
 g) iv)

v) Flash Memory
Flash memory disks are small mass storage media
technology integrated with a USB interface that uses flash
memory (non volatile computer memory) to store large
volumes of data. A flash drive consists of a small printed
circuit board encased in a plastic or metal casing. They are
typically small, lightweight, removable and rewritable. They
hold between 32 MB to 64 GB of data.

Uses of Flash Memory Storage Devices

a) Personal transportation of data i.e. documents, image and
video files
b) Used for computer repair to transfer recovery and
antivirus software
c) System administration where system and network
administrators load them with software for installation,
system maintenance and troubleshooting.
d) Application carriers where they are used to carry
programs to run on a computer that do not require
installing.
e) Audio players- some are designed with sound output to
hold and play music files
f) To boot a computer system- Bootable Flash drives are
used to start operating systems on a computer. They are
called LiveUSBs.
Flash memory is increasingly being used in a wide range of
devices. Some examples include:
a) Small lightweight USB memory sticks
b) Memory cards for digital cameras
c) Main internal storage for tablet computers
d) Digital audio players
e) Smart phones and mobile phones
f) Video game hardware

Advantages of Flash Memory Storage

a) They are more compact than floppy disks.
b) They are generally fast in accessing data.
c) They hold a lot of data.
d) They are more reliable due to their lack of moving parts
and more durable design.
e) They do not loose any data once power to the device is
switched off.

Disadvantages of Flash Memory Storage

a) They are easy to misplace, leave behind or lose.
b) They can sustain a limited number of write and erase
cycles before they start failing to store data.
c) Most flash memory doesn’t include a write protect
mechanism
d) Improperly wired USB ports can destroy the circuitry of
flash memory.
e) Some flash disks require a high-speed USB connection
port that doesn’t exist on old computers.

Formatting Disks:
Formatting is the process of preparing a storage media
usually a disk for storage purposes. The formatting process
creates tracks, sectors, clusters and cylinders on the storage
surface.

A track is narrow recording band forming a concentric circle

(a ring pattern) formed around the storage surface of the
disk. Tracks are further divided into sectors.

A sector is a pie shaped segment of a track on the storage

surface of the disk where data is stored. Each sector stores
512 bytes of data. A file that is 512 bytes or less fits in a
dingle sector. Larger files are stored in more than one
sector. Each sector is sequentially numbered. Sectors are
further grouped into clusters. Any sector that cannot be used
due to a physical flaw (damage) on the disk is called a bad
sector.
A cluster is a group of two to eight sectors. The size of a
cluster depends on the operating system that was used to
format the disk. A cluster is the smallest unit of space used
to store data.

A cylinder is a set of tracks that occupy the same position at

the top and bottom surface of storage on a disk with the
same track number.

When you format a disk, the operating system performs the

following tasks.
a) The storage surface is divided into tracks and sectors.
b) Any data on the disk surface is erased.
c) The storage surface is checked and marked for bad
sectors.
d) An internal address table called a File Allocation
Table (FAT) for Windows 95 OS is created on the
surface of the disk and is used to locate files on a disk.
For Windows XP OS and above the file system created
is referred to as the New Technology File System
(NTFS).

The FAT or NTFS records the following:

a) The name of the file stored on the disk
b) The size of the file stored on the disk
c) The tracks and sectors where the file is stored on the
disk
d) The date and time the file was created or last modified.

Storage Capacity:
Storage Capacity refers to the maximum amount of data that
a storage media can store. Storage capacity is measured in
kilobytes, megabytes or gigabytes. The amount of data a
media will store depends on the way the disk was formatted.

Media Failure
Media failure is a problem that affects the storage media
resulting in data loss. Magnetic storage media are mostly
affected when they lose their magnetic charge, hence
leading to data loss.

Device Failure:
A device failure is a problem with a mechanical device such
as a disk drive. Storage devices fail as a result of power or
circuitry problems.

A diagram showing a formatted disk surface

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software are a series of instructions that enable the computer to
do a task. Software tells hardware how to work. Software is often
called a computer program. Most software needs to be installed
onto the hard disk before it can be used, but some software can
be loaded into memory directly from the storage media.

The various forms of distributing software are:

i) Packaged software is commercial software, which is
copyrighted and designed to meet the needs of a wide
variety of users.

ii) Custom software or tailor-made software or bespoke

software, which is developed at a user's request to
perform specific tasks.

iii) Freeware is copyrighted software provided at no cost to

users.

iv) Shareware is copyrighted software that is distributed free

for a trial period (15 days or 30 or 60 days), and payment
is required for using the software after the trial period.

v) Public-domain software is free software donated for

public use and has no copyright restrictions.

vi) Open Source Software, which is free software designed

for public use and available for modification by any user.

The two major categories of software are:

i) System software and
ii) Application software

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software consists of programs that control the operations
of the computer and its devices. System software also serves as
the interface between the user, the application software and
hardware.

Some of the functions that system software performs are:

 Starting up the computer
 Loading, executing and storing application programs
 Storing and retrieving files
 Formatting disks
 Sorting data files, etc

Two types of system software are the operating systems and

utility programs.

UTILITY PROGRAMS
A utility program is a type of system software that performs a
specific task, usually related to managing a computer, its devices,
or its programs. Utility programs are also referred to as service
programs.

Popular types of utility programs include:

 A file viewer is a utility that displays and copies the contents
of a file. An operating system's file manager often includes a
file viewer. File viewers list the names of files, sizes of files
and date and time when the file was created as well as the
folders. They can also be used to edit, copy, and move and
delete files and folders. Examples include Windows
Explorer, File manager, etc

 A file compression utility reduces, or compresses, the size

of a file.
Compressed file takes up less storage space on a hard disk
or floppy disk, which frees up room on the disk and improves
system performance. Compressed files sometimes are
called zipped files because they usually have a .ZIP
extension. A compressed file must be unzipped or restored
to its original form before being used.
 A file decompression utility enlarges, or decompresses,
the size of a file from the compressed state to a big size.

Two popular file compression and decompression utilities

are PKZIP and WinZip; PKUNZIP respectively.

 A disk defragmenter is a utility that reorganizes the files

and unused space on a computer's hard disk and floppy disk
so data can be accessed more quickly and programs can
run faster. When the contents of a file are scattered across
two or more noncontiguous sectors, the disk is fragmented.
The process of defragmentation is reorganizing the disk so
the files are stored in contiguous sectors. Windows includes
a disk defragmenter, called Disk Defragmenter

 An uninstaller is a utility that removes an application, as

well as any associated files for that application from the
computer system. One of the popular stand-alone
uninstallers is McAfee's UnInstaller.

 A backup utility allows a user to copy, or backup, selected

files or the entire hard disk onto another disk or tape. Backup
files are usually not usable in their backup form because
many backup programs will compress the files during the
backup process. A restore program that is included with the
backup utility reverses the process and returns the backed
up files to their original form. Windows also includes a
backup utility and a restore program.

 A screen saver is a utility that causes the monitor's screen

to display a moving image or blank screen if no keyboard or
mouse activity occurs for a specified time period.

Screen savers originally were developed to prevent a

problem called ghosting, in which images could be
permanently displayed on a monitor's screen. Screen savers
can also be used for reasons of security, business, or
entertainment.
OPERATING SYSTEMS
An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing
instructions that coordinate all the activities among computer
hardware devices.
The operating system relies on device drivers to communicate
with each device in the computer. The operating system also
contains instructions to run application software.

Operating systems are usually stored on the hard disks of PCs.

Therefore a computer cannot operate without and OS installed.
Each time the computer is started, the most frequently used
instructions (commands) in the operating system are transferred
from the hard disk to memory.

Functions of an operating system include:

a) Controlling Input and Output

Operating systems control the flow of data into and out of the
computer system and to the peripheral devices. Input is
directed to memory for processing while output is directed to
the output and storage devices after processing.

b) Memory Management
The purpose of memory management is to optimize the
use of RAM. The operating system has to allocate, or assign
items to areas of memory, called buffers, while they are
being processed; to monitor carefully the contents of these
items in memory; and to clear these items from memory
when they are no longer required by the CPU. Some
operating systems use virtual memory to optimize RAM.

With virtual memory (VM), the operating system allocates a

portion of a storage medium, usually the hard disk, to
function as additional RAM. The area of the hard disk used
for virtual memory is called a swap file. The amount of data
and program instructions swapped or exchanged at a given
time is called a page.
c) Providing a User Interface
Users interact with software through its user interface. A
user interface is a portion of the software that defines how a
user interacts with a computer. A user interface controls how
you enter data and instructions, and how information is
displayed on the screen. Three types of user interfaces
include:
i) Command-Line Interface (CLI):
In a command line interface, a user types commands or
presses special keys on the keyboard to enter data and
instructions. The set of commands entered into the
computer in this interface is called the command
language. Command line interfaces are difficult to use
because:
 They require exact spelling, grammar and
punctuation
 Minor errors such as a missing period generate an
error message.

However they give a user more control to manage

detailed settings.
ii) Menu-Driven Interface:
In a menu driven interface menus are provided as a
means of entering commands. Menu driven interfaces
are easier to learn than command-line interfaces
because users do not have to learn the rules of entering
commands.
iii) Graphical User Interface (GUI):
In a GUI you interact with menus and visual images
such as icons, buttons and other graphical objects to
issue commands. Most users today work with a GUI.

d) Administering Security:
Most multi-user operating systems require each user to log
on to establish permission to use computer resources. The
permissions define who can access certain resources and
when they can access those resources. Both successful and
unsuccessful log on attempts are often recorded in a file so
 the system administrator can review who is using or
attempting to use the computer. Some operating systems
also allow a user to assign user ID (Identification) and
passwords to files so that only authorized users can open
them.
A user ID is a unique set of letters and numbers that
identifies a particular user on a PC. i.e. your initials, identity
card number, employee registration number, etc.
A password is a unique set of letters and numbers known
only to the PC and the user. Passwords are set by
administrators of computer systems and later changed by
individual users.
e) Managing Storage Media and Files
Most operating systems include a file manager program that
performs functions related to storage and file management.
A file manager is a program that performs functions related
to storage and file management. The file manager arranges
files on storage media in a File Allocation Table (FAT)
Functions performed by a file manager include:
 Formatting and copying disks.
 Displaying a list of files on a storage medium.
 Checking the amount of used or free space on a storage
medium.
 Copying, renaming, deleting, moving, and sorting files.
e) Configuring Devices
A driver, short for device driver is a small program that tells
the operating system how to communicate with a specific
device. Each device on a computer e.g. a mouse, keyboard
has its own specialized set of commands and thus requires
its own specific driver. When a computer is booted, the
operating system loads each device’s driver. Many device
drivers are included in the OS.
Today installation of drivers is easy because most devices
and OS support Plug and Play.
 The OS monitors each hardware device and detects failures.
During the booting process the OS detects any faults in each
device and displays error messages to the user such as
keyboard failure, mouse not attached, Bad CMOS, to
indicate a fault in the system. In other instances it produces
sounds called beeps to indicate an error during booting.
f) Monitors performance
The operating system monitors the systems’ performance
using a program called a performance monitor. A
performance monitor is a program that assesses and
reports information about various computer resources and
devices. For example users can monitor the processor,
disks, memory and network usage to detect the status of
each device and report failures and other information about
various system resource and devices. The information in
these reports can help users to identify system problems.
Types of Operating Systems
1. Single-user, single task operating systems allow one user
to do one thing at a time. This operating system is designed
to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do
one thing at a time. An example of a single-user, single task
operating system is the operating system used by personal
digital assistants (PDAs), also known as handheld
computers.
2. Single-user, multi-tasking - This is the type of operating
system most people use on their desktop and laptop
computers today. Microsoft's Windows and Apple's
Macintosh OS platforms are both examples of operating
systems that will let a single user have several programs in
operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely
possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word
processor while downloading a file from the Internet while
printing the text of an e-mail message.
3. Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows many
different users to take advantage of the computer's
resources simultaneously. Multi-user operating system
 allows for multiple users to use the same computer at the
same time and different times. Examples of operating
systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows 2000
4. Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of
supporting and utilizing more than one computer processor.
Examples of operating systems that would fall into this
category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows XP
5. Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of
allowing multiple software processes to run at the same
time. Examples of operating systems that would fall into this
category are:
Linux, Unix, Windows 8, Windows 10

Categories of Operating Systems

Early operating systems were either proprietary or device

dependent.
A device-dependent dependent program is one that runs only on
a specific type or brand of computer.
Proprietary software is privately owned and limited to a specific
computer model.

The trend today is toward device-independent operating systems

that will run on computers provided by a variety of manufacturers.
Three basic categories of operating systems exist today. They are
1. Stand-alone OS,
2. Network OS, and
3. Embedded OS.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software refers to programs that perform specific
tasks for users. Most application software is available as
packaged software that can be purchased in retail stores or on
the Web. Many application software packages are also available
as shareware, freeware, and public-domain software. However,
such packages usually have fewer capabilities than packaged
software.
Various application software programs are used to design letters,
posters, cards, produce budgets and financial statements, store
records in a database etc. Application software is further broken
down into the following:

a) Customized application software:

These are specific software programs designed to perform
specific tasks for users. For example a Payroll package to
compute salaries of employees, an inventory program to
control stock of assets, books, etc. Custom made software is
designed to address specific processing needs of users and
organizations. It is also referred to as tailor made software,
custom made software, bespoke software

b) Off-shelf application software:

These are programs designed to solve a variety of tasks.
The common types of off-shelf application software include:

i) Word processing software, also known as a word

processor, is an application used to create, edit, format, save,
and print documents that contain text and graphics. A word
processing file is often called a document. Word processing
documents are often associated with filename extensions ending
with .doc, .docx, .rtf, .txt, .wps

Examples of documents created using word processing software

include letters, memos, reports, mailing labels, mailing lists
and newsletters. Popular word processing programs include
Microsoft Word, Lotus WordPro, and Corel WordPerfect.
ii) Spreadsheet software:
Spreadsheet software is an application that is used to organize
data in rows and columns, and perform calculations on the data.
A spreadsheet file is often called a workbook. A work book is a
collection of many worksheets. In each worksheet, data is
organized vertically in columns and horizontally in rows. Each
column is identified by a letter (i.e., A, B, C ...) and each row is
identified by a number (i.e., 1, 2, 3 ...). A cell is the intersection of
a column and a row in a worksheet. Each cell has a unique cell
address (e.g., A1) to define its location on the worksheet. The
upper-leftmost cell is generally identified as A1 or Home Cell. A
cell can contain three categories of data entries namely:
- Labels are text that identify the data and help organize
the worksheet.
- Values are numbers to be used for calculations.
- A formula performs calculations on the data in the
worksheet, and displays the resulting value in the cell
that contains it.

Spreadsheet files are often associated with filename extensions

ending with .xls, .xlsx, .wk1, .csv. Examples of spreadsheet
programs Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, VisiCalc, Open Office
Calc, etc. Spreadsheet programs can be used to generate
worksheets including budgets, mark sheets, sales analysis
sheets, cash flow statements, invoices and balance sheets
and grade books.
iii) Presentation software is an application program used to
create presentations consisting of slides which can communicate
ideas and other information to a group of audience. The
presentation can be viewed as a slide show, which usually
displays on a large surface or on a projection screen. A
presentation file is often called a presentation.

Presentations are often associated with filename extensions

ending with .ppt, .pptx. Examples of presentations created using
presentations software include speeches, workshop reports,
lectures, advertisements, etc. Popular presentation software
includes Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, Lotus
Freelance Graphics and Open Office Impress.

iv) Database Management Systems (DBMS):

Database software, or a database management system
(DBMS), allows a user to create, access, and manage a
database. A database is a collection of data organized in a way
that allows access, retrieval, and use of the data. Common "paper
databases" include telephone books, dictionaries, recipe cards,
and television guides. Computerized databases in Hong Kong
include flight information phone inquiry system, and database
system in the public libraries. Databases can be categorized into
flat file databases and relational database.

A flat file database is made up of only one table while a

relational database can take information from two or more
database tables and combine them into a new table or report.

Databases are often associated with filename extensions ending

with .mdb, .mdbx. Popular database software includes Microsoft
Access, Microsoft Visual FoxPro, Borland dBase, Lotus
Approach, Corel Paradox, and Claris Filemaker Pro.
v) Desktop publishing (DTP) software is used to design and
produce complicated documents that contain text, graphics, and
brilliant colors. DTP software is ideal for the production of high-
quality color documents such as newsletters, catalogs, textbooks,
and annual reports. A desktop publishing file is often called a
publication.
Desktop publishing files are often associated with filename
extensions ending with .pub

Popular DTP software includes Microsoft Publisher, Adobe

PageMaker, Adobe In-Design, etc

Advantages of DTP software over word processors include:

 DTP software is specifically designed to support page
layout, which is the process of arranging text and graphics
in a document on a page-by-page basis.
 DTP software includes color libraries to ensure that colors
will print exactly as specified.
 DTP software supports colors separation for producing the
master copies used in the final presswork.
 When text is in a frame it can be manipulated with great
precision to fit into the space available
 Large amounts of templates are available which means a
novice user can create a professional looking publication
very easily.
 There is more control over the layout of the publication than
there is with word processing

vi) Web page authoring software is specially designed for

creating Web pages that contain text and multimedia elements.
Some Web page authoring software also includes the capabilities
of organizing, managing, and maintaining Web sites.

Popular Web page authoring software includes Microsoft

FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Adobe Go Live, and
Adobe PageMill, Content Management Systems website
building software such as Joomla

Advantages of using web page authoring software:

 Can set up and use templates to ensure consistency
between pages
 Can be used to set up hyperlinks and hotspots
 Can be used to insert multimedia into Web Pages
 The site manager facility can be used to update links within
the website
 It has a WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get)
Interface

Disadvantages of using web page authoring software:

 Requires some training and technical knowledge before it’s
used.
 A user needs a basic understanding of HTML to overcome
any formatting problems
 Doesn’t normally come as part of a general office suite.
 It’s quite expensive to purchase

vii) Educational software is designed to teach a particular skill

about any subject. Most educational software uses a computer-
based training (CBT) approach, so that students learn by using
and completing exercises with the software

vii) Computer-aided designed (CAD) software is mainly used

for creating engineering, architectural, and scientific drawings.
Three-dimensional (3-D) CAD programs even allow users to
rotate designs of 3-D objects in order to view them from different
angles.

Popular CAD software includes Autodesk AutoCAD and

Microsoft Visio Technical.

ix) Accounting software is used to record and report financial

transactions by companies. Accounting software can normally
handle activities involved with the general ledger, accounts
receivable, accounts payable, purchasing, invoicing, job costing,
and payroll functions.

Popular accounting software includes Intuit QuickBooks,

Peachtree Complete Accounting, Pastel Accounting, Tally
and Sage Accounting

x) Multimedia authoring software combines text, graphics,

animation, audio, and video into an application. Multimedia is
widely used in video games, electronic newspapers and
magazines, electronic books and references, simulations, virtual
reality, and computer-based training.

Popular multimedia authoring software includes Macromedia

AuthorWare, Macromedia Director, and Macromedia Flash.
xi) Graphics and Image Editing Software is used to create
and modify graphical and photo images.
Graphics software allows a user to draw pictures, shapes, and
other graphical images using various tools such as pen, brush,
and paint bucket, which come with the program.
Image editing software allows a user to retouch photographs,
adjust or enhance image colors, and add special effects like
shadows and glows. Image editing software usually provides the
capabilities of paint software as well as the capabilities to modify
existing images.
Popular graphics and image editing software includes Microsoft
PhotoDraw, Paint Shop Pro, Adobe Photoshop, Corel Draw,
Adobe Illustrator, and Macromedia Freehand.

Communications software consists of programs that help to

establish a connection between computers or networks, and
manage the transmission of data, instructions, and information to
other devices. Communications software usually includes one or
more of the following features:
i) Dialing feature that allows a user to store, review, select, and
dial telephone numbers to connect to another computer.
ii) File transfer feature that allows a user to send one or more
files from one computer to another.
iii) Terminal emulation feature that allows a personal computer
to act as a specific type of terminal, so that the user can
connect to and access data and resources on a minicomputer
or mainframe.
iv) Internet access feature that allows a user to use the
computer to connect to the Internet to send e-mail, participate
in chat rooms, visit World Wide Web sites, and so on.
Software related to communications includes:
a) E-mail Software
E-mail, or electronic mail, is the transmission of messages via a
computer network such as a local area network or the Internet.
E-mail software creates, sends, receives, forwards, stores,
prints, and deletes e-mail messages.
b) Web Browsers
A Web browser allows a user to access and view Web pages on
the Internet. Most Web browsers also allow the use of other
Internet services such as e-mail and chat rooms.
Popular Web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer,
Netscape Navigator, Opera, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome,
Safari, etc
c) Instant Messaging Software
Instant messaging (IM) is a real-time communications service
that notifies a user when one or more people are online and then
allows the user to exchange messages or files with them.
Popular instant messengers include Yahoo Messenger and MSN
(Microsoft Network) Messenger, Whatsapp messenger, We
Chat messenger, Viber messenger, etc
d) Video conferencing software
Video conferencing software is use to conduct video conferences
over a network for people in geographically separated areas. A
video conference conducted over the Internet, using Web
browsers and Web servers to deliver the service, is called a Web
conference or a Webinar (Web seminar).
Popular software used for video conferencing includes Skype,
Imo, etc
e) Chat room software
Chat room software is used to start chat sessions amongst users.
A user must connect to a chat server through a chat client
program on his or her computer. Most Web browsers also include
chat client software.
Besides the individual software application packages mentioned
above, two approaches have been devised of obtaining
applications. They include:
Software Suites
A software suite is a collection of individual application software
sold as a single package or a software bundle. A software suite
usually includes application software such as a word processor, a
spreadsheet software, a database software, and a presentation
software among others. Popular software suites include
Microsoft Office, Lotus SmartSuite, and Corel WordPerfect
Suite, Adobe Suite, Open Office, etc
Advantages of software suites include:
 A software suite normally costs significantly less than
purchasing each of the application packages separately.
 Ease of use because applications within a suite usually use
a similar interface and share common features.
 Shorter development and training time for the applications
Integrated Software
Integrated software combines application programs such as
word processing, spreadsheet, and database into a single, easy-
to-use package. Like a software suite, the applications within the
integrated software use a similar interface and share some
common features.
The most popular integrated software is Microsoft Works.
Advantages of integrated software include
 Integrated software normally costs significantly less than a
software suite, or purchasing each of the application
packages separately.
 Ease of use because applications within a suite usually use
a similar interface and share common features.
Disadvantages of integrated software include
 The applications within the integrated software normally do
not have all the capabilities of stand-alone application
software of the same kind.
Advantage of off-the-shelf software
a. They can be easily installed and run.
b. They are cheaper than in-house built software.
c. They are readily available for any task.
d. Minor or no error since they are thoroughly tasted.
e. They can easily be modified to meet users’ needs.
f. They are very flexible since they can be used by any
organization.
g. Do not need a lot of specialized skills.
Disadvantages
a. They may have some features not needed by the users
which may take extra storage.
b. They may require the user to processes and hardware for
compatibility which may be in turn very expensive.
c. They lack some features required by the user.
d. They are not very secure.

Advantages of custom software

a. Contains all user needs since it designed for a particular
user
b. Simple to develop as they only have features which are
needed by the user
c. Can be modify and used in other applications such as web
applications
d. Custom software solutions enable efficient data processing
matching your business requirements.
e. Allows you to differentiate from your competitors as the
system is developed for your specific needs.
Disadvantages of custom software
a. It can be costly to maintain and improve the system to
continuously meet business needs.
b. It requires more IT personnel which in turn lead to High
overhead cost.
c. High switching costs: it is more expensive to change to
newer technology.
d. It is time consuming to develop an in-house IT system as
opposed to buying it
e. If the company decides to sell the system, it may suffer from
a lack of portability, as the system maybe too tightly built into
the identity of the company
OTHER UTILITY PROGRAMS
Antivirus Programs
The term, computer virus, describes a potentially damaging
computer program that affects, or infects, a computer negatively
by altering the way the computer works without the user's
knowledge or permission.
An antivirus program protects a computer against viruses by
identifying and removing any computer viruses found in memory,
on storage media, or on incoming files Bit Defender, Kaspersky
Antivirus/Internet Security, McAfee Virus Scan, Norton Antivirus,
Avast anti-virus, Smadav, Dr Solomons antivirus, B etc.
Spyware and Adware Removers
Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the user's
knowledge that secretly collects information about user, often
related to Web browsing habits.
Adware is a program that displays an online advertisement in a
banner or pop-up window on Web pages, e-mail, or other Internet
services. Sometimes, spyware is hidden in adware.
A spyware remover is a program that detects and deletes
spyware and other similar programs. An adware remover is a
program that detects and deletes adware.
Internet Filters
Internet filters are programs that remove or block certain items
from being displayed. Four widely used filters are anti-spam
programs, Web filters, phishing filters, and pop-up blockers.
Image viewer:
An image viewer is a utility that allows users to display, copy, and
print the contents of a graphics file. With an image viewer, users
can see images without having to open them in a paint or image
editing program.
Disk scanner:
A disk scanner is a utility that searches for and removes
unnecessary files. It Detects and corrects problems on hard disk
or floppy disk.
Diagnostic utility:
A diagnostic utility compiles technical information about your
computer's hardware and certain system software programs and
then prepares a report outlining any identified problems. For
example, Windows includes the diagnostic utility Problem Reports
and Solution, which diagnoses problems as well as suggests
courses of action. Information in the report assists technical
support staff in remedying any problems.
Search utility
A search utility is a program that attempts to locate a file on your
computer based on criteria you specify. The criteria could be a
word or words contained in a file, data the file was created or
modified, size of the file, location of the file, file name,
author/artist, and other similar properties. Search utilities can look
through documents, pictures, music, and other files on your
computer and/or on the Internet, combining search results in a
single location.
File manager
A file manager is a utility that performs functions related to file
and disk management. Windows includes file managers called
Explorers: Documents Explore, Pictures Explore, and Music
Explore. Some of the file management functions that a file
manager performs are formatting and copying disks; organizing
files in folders; displaying a list of files on a storage medium;
checking the amount of used or free space on a storage medium;
organizing, copying, renaming, deleting, moving, and sorting files;
and creating shortcuts.

SYSTEM START-UP and CONFIGURATION

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS AND

NETWORKS

Computer communications describes a process in which two or

more computers or devices transfer data, instructions and
information. Originally, only large computers had communications
capabilities. Today, even the smallest computers and devices
communicate directly with one another, with hundreds of
computers on a company network, or with millions of other
computers around the globe. The internet provides a means for
worldwide communications.

Some communications involve cables and wires; others

communicate wirelessly sending signals through the air.
Communications systems contain all types of computers and
computing devices. For successful communications, you need the
following:
 A sending device that initiates an instruction to transmit
data, instructions, or information.
  A communications device that connects the sending
device to a communications channel such as a sending
modem.
 A communications channel, or transmission media on
which the data, instructions, or information travel. The
communications channel consists of telephone lines, cable
television and other underground lines, microwave stations
and satellites.
 A communications device that connects the
communications channel to a receiving device such a
receiving modem.
 A receiving device that accepts the transmission of data,
instructions, or information

All types of computers and mobile devices serve as sending and

receiving devices in a communications system. This includes
mainframe computers, servers, desktop computers, notebook
computers, tablet PCs, PDAs, smart phones, internet receivers,
and GPS receivers. People use sending and receiving devices for
many different types of communications.

Analog and Digital Communications

Data, instructions, and information travel along a communications
channel in either analog or digital form, depending on the type of
communications channel. Two examples of communications
channels are cable television lines and telephone lines. Cable
television lines use digital lines, while some telephone lines use
analog signals. An analog signal consists of a continuous
electrical wave. A digital signal consists of individual electrical
pulses that represent bits grouped together into bytes.
One type of communications device that connects a
communications channel to a sending or receiving device such as
a computer is a modem. Computers process data as digital
signals. Thus, for communications channels that use digital
signals, the modem transfers the digital signals between the
computer and the communications channel. If a communications
channel uses analog signals, however, the modem first converts
between analog and digital signals.
Various uses of communications, different types of networks, and
several types of communications devices and communications
channels are discussed in this chapter.

A modem connects a communication channel, such as a cable

television line or a telephone line, to a sending or receiving device
such as a computer. Depending on the type of communications
channel, a modem may need to convert digital signals to analog
signals (and vice versa) before transferring data, instructions and
information to or from sending or receiving device.

USES OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATON

Computers communications are everywhere. Many require that

users subscribe to an internet access provider. With other
computer communications, an organization such as a business or
school provides communications services to employees, students,
or customers. The following pages discuss a variety of uses for
computer communications.

Internet Worldwide collection of networks that link millions of

businesses, government agencies, education institutions, and
individuals

Web worldwide collection of electronic documents on the

Internet that uses access through a Web browser

E-Mail Transmission of messages and files via a computer

network.

Instant Messaging: This is a real-time Internet communication

services that notifies yon when one or more people are online and
then allows you to exchange messages or files.

Chat Rooms Real-time typed conversations services that take

place on computers connected to a network
Newsgroups Online areas in which users conduct written
discussion about a particular subject

FTP Internet standards that permits users to upload and

download files to and from FTP servers on the Internet

Web Folders Shortcuts to a location on a Web server to which

users publish documents and other files

Video Conferencing Real-time meeting between two or more

geographically separated people who use a network to transmit
audio and video data

Fax Machines or Computer Fax/Modem Transmit and receive

documents over telephone lines

Other uses of computer communications include Internet

telephony, Internet printing, Web services, collaborations,
groupware, Public Internet access points, cybercafés, global
positioning systems, voice mail, and wireless messaging services.

Internet Telephony
Internet telephony, some times called voice over IP (VolP),
enables users to talk to other users over the internet. That is,
Internet telephony uses internet (instead of public switched
telephone network) to connect a calling party and one or more
called parties.
To place an internet telephone call, you need internet telephone
software. As you speak into a computer microphone, the internet
telephone software and the computer’s sound card digitize and
compress your spoken words (the audio) and then transmit the
digitized audio over the internet to the called parties. Software
and the equipment at the receiving end reverse the process so
the receiving parties can hear what you have said, just as if you
were speaking on the telephone.

Internet Printing
Most network printers have Web addresses built into them. This
feature allows users to send a print job to the printer from
anywhere in the world. Instead of printing to local printer, with
internet printing, users print to a Web address that is associated
with a particular printer.
With the necessary software, a printer with Internet printing
capability can receive print instructions from desktop computers,
mobile computers, or mobile devices such as PDAs and smart
phones. Many hotels use internet printing, which enables guests
to print to print to the hotel printer- as long as they have the
printer’s Web address. Airlines also use internet printing so air
travelers can print while in flight and pick up their printed
documents when they arrive at an air port. Some industry experts
predict that internet printing will replace the need for faxes.

Web Services
Web services describe standardized software that enables
programmers to create applications that communicate with other
remote computers over the Internet or an internal business net
work. Businesses are the primary uses of Web services because
this technology provides a means for departments to
communicate with each other, suppliers, vendors, and with
clients. For example, third-party vendors can use Web services to
communicate with their on line retailer’s Web site to manage their
inventory levels.

Web services do not require a specific programming language,

operating system, or Web browser. Different applications from
different platforms can communicate with each other by sending
properly formatted XML (extensible Makeup Language) to the
Web services. A windows application, for example, can
communicate with a UNIX application. Web services do not have
a user interface because the application’s user interface interacts
with the Web service.

Collaboration
Many software products provide a means to collaborate, or to
work on line, with other users connected to the server. With
Microsoft Office 2003, for example, users can conduct online
meetings. An on line meeting allows users to share documents
with others in real time. That is, all participants see the document
at the same time. As someone changes the document, everyone
in the meeting sees the changes being made. During the online
meeting, participants have the ability to open a separate window
and type messages to one another. Some programs refer to this
window as a chat room.
Instead of interacting in a live meeting, users often collaborate via
e-mail. For example, if users want others to review a document,
they can attach a routing slip to the document and send it via e-
mail to everyone on the routing slip. When the first person on the
routing slip receives the document, he or she may add comments
to the document. As changes care made to the document, both
the original text and the changes are displayed. When
subsequent persons on the routing slip receive the document via
e-mail, they see all the previous users’ changes and can make
additional changes. Once everyone on the routing slip has
reviewed the document, it automatically returns to the sender.

Groupware
Groupware is a software application that helps groups no people
work together on projects and share information over a network.
Groupware is a component of a board concept called workgroup
computing, which includes network hardware and software that
enables group members to communicate, manage projects,
schedule meetings, and make decisions. To assist with these
activities, most groupware provides personal manager (PIM)
functions, such as an electronic appointment calendar, an
address book, and a note pad. A major feature of groupware is
group scheduling, in which a group calendar tracks the schedules
of multiple users and helps coordinate appointments and meeting
times.

Public Internet Access Points

In many public locations, people connect wirelessly to the internet
through a public internet access point using their mobile
computers or devices. Public internet access points are
appearing in airports, hotels, schools, shopping malls and coffee
shops. Through the public internet access point, mobile users
check e-mail, browse the web, and access any service on the
internet-as long as their computers or devices have an
appropriate network card and they are in a hot spot.
A hot spot is an area with the capability of wireless internet
connectivity. Most hot spots range from 100 to300 feet; some can
extend to 15 miles.
Some public internet access points provide free internet access,
while others charge fee. Another type of access requires users to
subscribe to a wireless internet service provider (WISP), to
which they pay per access fees, daily fees, or monthly fee. Per
access fees average $3, daily fees range from $5 to $20, and
monthly fees provide national internet access, while lower fees
limit access to local areas.

Cybercafés
More than 6,000 cybercafés exist in cities around the world. A
cybercafé is a coffee house or restaurant that provide free internet
access, most charge per hour or a per minute fee. Cybercafés
allow the mobile to access the e-mail, the web, and other services
on the Internet when traveling without a computer. Internet
connection fees at a cybercafé usually range from $10.00 per
hour. To print, the fees range from $0.25 per page to $3.00 per
page. Printing fees depending on black and white versus color
print outs and the type of paper used (e.g., plain paper, photo
paper). Some cybercafés offer lower or waived rates to customers
who purchase food or become a member of the café

Global positioning system

A global positioning system (GPS) is a navigation system that
consists of one or more earth-based receivers that accept and
analyze signals sent by satellites in order to determine the
receiver’s geographic location. AGPS receiver is a handheld,
mountable, or embedded device that contains an antenna, radio
receiver, and a processor. Many include a screen display that
shows an individual’s location on a map.
A new era of GPS places the GPS receiver on a computer chip.
One chip, called Digital Angel, is worn as a wristwatch or chain or
woven into fabric. The chip measures and sends a person’s
biological information to a wireless network. If the information
relayed indicates a person needs medical attention, dispatchers
use the data from the GPS receiver to calculate the person’s
location and immediately send emergency medical help. Other
possible uses of Digital Angel and similar products include
locating a missing person or pet, tracking parolees, and protecting
valuables.

Voicemail
Voicemail, which functions much like an answering machine,
allows someone to leave a voice message for one or more
people. Unlike answering machines, however, a computer in the
voicemail system converts an analog voice into a digital form.
Once digitized, the message is stored in a voicemail box. A
voicemail box is a storage location on a hard disk in the voice mail
system.
A voice mail system usually provides individual voice mail boxes
for many users (for example, employees in a company or
students and faculty at a college). By accessing their mail boxes,
recipients of a call listen to messages, may add comments to a
message, and reply or forward a message to another voice mail
box in the voice mail system. Some voice mail systems allow
users to broadcast a message, which sends the same message
to a group of people or to everyone listed in the system’s
database. Colleges, for example, might use voice mail to notify
every student of registration deadlines and weather-related school
closings.

Wireless Messaging Services

Users can send and receive wireless messages to and from smart
phones, cellular telephones, or PDA’s using three techniques; text
messaging, instant messaging, and picture messaging. In most
cases, you can receive these messages at no cost but pay per
use fee to send messages to others-usually about $5 per month.
The type of messaging you use depends primarily on the services
offered by the wireless Internet service provider (WISP) that
works with the cellular phone or PDA you select.

Text messaging
With text messaging, also called SMS (short message service),
users type and send short text messages from a smart phone,
PDA, or a personal computer to a smart phone or PDA with a
compatible text messaging service. Most text messages have a
limit about 160 characters per message.

Instant messaging
Instant messaging is the real time Internet communications
service that allows you to exchange messages with one or more
online users. Some wireless Internet service providers partner
with instant messaging service providers to help users send
instant messages using their smart phones and PDAs i.e. Yahoo
Messenger, Windows messenger offered by AT&T wireless. With
instant messaging you can send instant messages to other online
computer users as long as both the sender and receiver have
identical and compatible IM software.

Picture Messaging
Picture messaging allows users to send graphics, video, digital
images as well as sound files combined with text messages.
Picture messaging is also referred to as Multimedia Message
Service (MMS). Such a messaging option can be exchanged with
another phone or PDA with picture messaging capability. A digital
camera is usually built into a smart phone or PDA with picture
messaging.

COMPUTER NETWORKS
A network is a collection of computers and devices connected
together via communications devices and transmission media.
Many businesses network their computers together to facilitate
communications, share hardware, share data and information,
share software and transfer funds. Businesses use networks to
facilitate communications, share hardware, share data and
information, share software, and transfer funds.
 A network can be internal to an organization or span the world by
connecting its self to the internet. Networks facilitate
communication among the users and allow Fusers to share
resources with other users. Some examples of resources are
data, information, hardware, and soft ware.

The following paragraphs explain the advantages of using a

network.
 Facilitating communication- Using a network, people
communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant
messaging, chartrooms, video telephone calls, video
conferencing, Internet telephony, groupware, and wireless
messaging services. Some of these communications such
as e-mail occur within a business’s internal network. Other
times, they occur globally over the internet. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, users have a multitude of devices
available to send and receive communications.

 Sharing hardware- In networked environment, each

computer on the network has access to hardware on the
network. Suppose several desktop computers on the
network each require the user of a laser printer. If the
computer and the laser printer are connected to a network,
the computer users each access the laser printer on a
network, as they need it. Business and home users network
their hardware to save money. That is, it may be too costly to
provide each user with the same piece of hardware such as
a printer.

 Sharing data and information- In a networked environment,

any authorized computer user can access data and
information stored on the computers on the network. A large
company for example, might have a data base of customer
information. Any authorized person, including a mobile user
with a PDA or smart phone connected to the network, has
access to the database. The capacity of providing access to
and storage of data and information on shared devices is an
 important feature of many networks. Most businesses use a
standard, such as EDI (electronic data interchange), that
defines how data transmits across telephone lines or other
means. For example, companies use EDI to handle product
catalogue distribution, bids, requests for quotations,
proposals, order placement, shipping notations, invoicing,
and payment processing. EDI enables business to operate
with a minimum amount of paperwork.

 Sharing software- Users connect to a network having access

to software on the network. To support multiple users’
access of software, most vendors sell network versions or
site licenses of their software, which usually costs lees than
buying individual copies of the software for each computer. A
network license is a legal agreement that allows multiple
users to access the software on server simultaneously. The
network lice se fee usually is based on the number of users
or the number of computers attached to the network. Some
organizations instead, have a site license agreement with a
software vendor. A site license is legal agreement that
permits users to install the software on multiple computers –
usually at a volume discount.

 Transferring funds - called electronic funds transfer (EFT), it

allows users connected to the network to transfer money
from one bank account to another via telephone lines or
other transmission media. Both business and consumers
use EFT. For example consumers use their ATM to access
their bank account. Business deposited payroll checks
directly in employee’s bank accounts. Consumers use credit
cards to make purchases from a retail web site. Business
use EFT to purchase and pay for the goods purchased from
vendors. Both business and consumers pay bills online, with
which they instruct a bank to use EFT to pay creditors

LANs, MANs, and WANs

Network usually classified as a local area network, metropolitan
network, or wide area network. The main differentiation among
these classifications is their area of coverage, as described in the
following paragraphs.

LAN
A Local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers
and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home,
school computer laboratory, office building, or loosely positioned
group of buildings. Each computer or device on a network, called
a node, often shares resources such as printers, large hard disk,
and programs. Often the nodes are connected via the cables. A
wireless LAN (WLAN), by contrast, is a LAN that uses no physical
wires.

MAN
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a high speed network that
connects local area network in a metropolitan area such as a city
or town and handles the bulk of communications activity across
that region. A MAN typically includes one or more LANs, but
covers a smaller geographical area than a WAN. The state of
Pennsylvania, for example, has a MAN that connects agencies
and individual users in the region around the state capital. A MAN
usually is managed by a consortium of users or by a single
network provider that sells the services to the users. Local and
state governments, for example, regulate some MANs. Telephone
companies, cable television operators, and other organization
provide users with connections to the MAN

WAN
A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a large
geographic area (such as a city, country, or the world) using a
communication channel that combines many types of media such
as telephone lines, cables and radio waves. A WAN can be one
large network or can consist of two or more LANs connected
together. The Internet is the worlds largest WAN.

Network Architectures
The design of computers, devices and media in a network,
sometimes called the network architecture is categorized as either
client/ server or peer to peer. The following paragraphs discuss
these network architectures.

Client/Server
On a client/ server network, one or more computers act as
server, and the other computers on the network request services
from the server. A server sometimes called a host computer,
controls access to the hardware, software, and other resources
on the network and provides a centralized storage area for
programs, data, and information. The clients are other computers
on the network that rely on the server for its resources. For
example a server might store a database of customers. Clients on
the network (company employees) access the customer database
on the server.

Some servers, called the dedicated servers, perform a specific

task and can be placed with other dedicated servers to perform
multiple tasks. For example a file server stores and manages
files. A print server manages printers and print jobs. A database
server stores and provides access to database. A network server
manages network traffic (activity).

Although it can connect a small number of computers, a client/

server network typically provides an efficient means to connect 10
or more computers. Most clients or server networks require a
person to serve as a network administrator because of the large
size of a client/ server network.

Peer To Peer (P2P)

A peer to peer network is a simple, inexpensive network that
typically connects less than 10 computers. Each computer called
a peer has equal responsibilities and capabilities, sharing
hardware (such as a printer), data, or information with other
computers on a peer to peer network. Each computer stores files
on its own storage devices. Thus, each computer on the network
contains both the network operating system and application
software. All the computers on the network share any peripheral
device(s) attached to any computer. For example one computer
may have a laser printer and scanner, while the other has an ink-
jet printer and an external hard disk.

Peer to peer networks are ideal for very small business and home
users. Some operating systems such as Windows include a peer
to peer networking utility that allows users to set up a peer to peer
network.

Internet Peer To Peer

Another type of peer to peer, called P2P, describes an internet
network, on which users connect directly to each other’s hard
disks and exchange files over the internet. This type of peer to
peer network sometimes is called a file sharing network because
users with compatible software and an Internet connection copy
files from someone else’s hard disk to their disks. As more users
connect to the network, each user has access to the other users’
hard disks. To maintain an acceptable speed for communications,
some implementations of P2P limit the number of users.

Examples of networking software that supports P2P are Gnutella ,

KaZaA , AND K-Lite , which allows users to swap MP3 music files
via the Web. For example when one user requests a song, the
program searches all connected users’ hard disks. If a match is
located, MP3 file is copied to the requesting computer. These
programs initially stirred much controversy with respect to
copyright infringement of music because they allow users to
easily copy MP3 music files free from one computer to another.
To help reduce copyright infringement, today’s music sharing
services are fee based, and music files are encrypted as they
travel across the internet.

Many businesses also see an advantage to using P2P. That is

companies and employees can exchange files using P2P, freeing
the company from maintaining a network server for the purpose.
Business-to-business e-commerce web sites find that P2P easily
allows buyers and sellers to share company information as
product databases.

CAN (campus area network): CAN is a type of a network that

connects the buildings/offices of a university, educational or office
complex.

Intranet: Intranet is a private network that belongs to an office,

college or an organization and that is only accessible to the
authorized users.

Internet: The internet is a network of networks and connecting

millions of computes with each other by different designs.

MAN (metropolitan area network): MAN is a type of a network

that is designed for a city. A MAN is larger than LAN but smaller
than WAN.

SAN (storage area network): SAN is a type of a network that is

used to connect the storage related devices like RAID, file servers
and tape systems.

VLAN (virtual local area network): VLAN is a type of a network

that allows computers on separate physical networks to
communicate as if they were connected to the same network.

WIRELESS NETWORKS
Whether you want to make a phone call from your mobile,
received a message on your pager, checked your email from a
PDA we have come across a wireless data or voice network. If a
user or a company wants to make a data portable then Wireless
networking is the answer. A wireless networking system can avoid
the downtime, which may be caused in the wired network. A
wireless network is also save your time and efforts in installing the
lot of cables. Also, if you need to relocate a client machine in your
office, you only need to move the computer with wireless network
card.
Wireless networking is very useful in the public places, libraries,
hotels, schools, airports, railway stations where one might find
wireless access to the internet. A drawback in the wireless
internet is that quality of service (QOS) is not guaranteed if there
is any interference then the connection may be dropped.

Wireless Network Types

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANS)

WLANS allow users in local area, such as in a university or a

library to form a network and gain wireless access to the internet.
A temporary network can be formed by a small number of users
without the need of access point; given that they do not need to
access the resources.

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANS)

There are two current technologies for wireless personal network

Bluetooth and Infra Red. These technologies will allow the
connectivity of personal devices within an area of 30 feet. Infra
Red requires a direct line and the range is less as compared to
Bluetooth technology.

Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMANS)

WMANS allow the connectivity of multiple networks in a

metropolitan area such as building in a city. The network
connectivity is the alternative of copper or fiber cabling.

Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWANS)

WWANS or Wireless Area Networks can be maintained over large

areas such as in different cities or between different countries, via
multiple satellite systems or antenna sites. The types of system
are called 2G systems.
The following table shows the range those different types of
wireless network covers.
Network Meter
Type of Network Network Meter Coverage
Personal Area Network 0-10
Local Area Network 0-100
Wide Area Network 0-10000

Security in Wireless Networking

The following different types of security methods are available in
the wireless networking.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)

Wired Equivalent Privacy is intended to stop the interference of
radio frequency that is signaled by unauthorized users and this
security measure is most suitable for the small networks. There is
not key management protocol and each key is entered manually
into the clients that’s why this is very time consuming
administrative task. The WEP security method is based on the
RC4 encryption algorithm. In the WEP all the client computers
and Access points are configured with the same encryption and
decryption keys.

Service Set Identifier (SSID)

Service Set Identifier (SSID) acts a simple password by allowing
WLAN network to be split up into different networks and each
having a unique identifier. These identifiers are configured in the
multiple access points. To access any of any networks, a
computer is configured in such a way that each is having a
corresponding SSID identifier for that network. If the SSID match
between the two computers or networks then access is granted to
each other.

Media Access Control filtering (MAC Access Control)

A list of the MAC addresses of the client computers can be
inputted into an Access point and only those computers are
granted to give the access to the network. When a computer
makes a request, its MAC address is compared to the list of the
MAC addresses to the Access point and based on this access
permission granted to deny.
This is a good security method but it is mainly involved in the
small wireless networks because there is more manual work is
involved of entering the MAC address into the Access point.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a simple type of the wireless networking that
operates in the digital devices, like mobiles phones, personal
computers, PDA, Laptops, digital camera, MP3 players and other
Bluetooth enabled devices to form a small network. In the
Bluetooth technology eight devices can be connected to each
other at the same time. Bluetooth can also be found in the
headsets, hands-free kits, wireless keyboards and mouse.
Bluetooth technology was invented by Ericsson in 1994 and after
four years in 1998 some major mobile phone companies such as
Nokia, Ericsson, Intel and Toshiba formed a group to promote this
technology.

Bluetooth technology falls in the category of personal area

networking because it operates in the range of 30 to 300 feet.
Bluetooth uses the radio waves technology, which is not very
expensive and has low power consumption. Many different
companies are intended to add the Bluetooth chip in their digital
devices. Bluetooth technology is getting very popularity because
of its low cost and portability.

The Future of Wireless Networking

WLANS wireless networking type is very popular in home
networking and more than 20 percent homes with broadband
internet are using WLANS and this number is increasing. In a
general estimate worldwide hotspots have now reached more
than 30,000 and will grow about 210,000 in the next few years.
Most large hotels already offer Wi-Fi and the business travelers
are willing to pay wireless access. 802.11 is the next Wi-Fi speed
standard is set to offer bandwidth around 108Mbps and is still
under development. With the speed of 70 Mbps and a range up to
30 miles, the 80216 standard, known as WiMAX is sure to get
boost.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A net work topology refers to the layout or design of computers
and devices in a communications network. Network Topologies
can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical
design of a network including the devices, location and cable
installation. Logical Topology refers to the fact that how data
actually transfers in a network as opposed to its design. Topology
can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network.
This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical
design of the devices on the computer network. The computers
on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it
does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology.

Three commonly used net work topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Others include hybrid, mesh and trees networks. Networks
normally use a combination of these topologies. The following
pages discuss each of these topologies.

Bus Network Topology

A bus network consists of a single central cable to which all
computers and other device connect in a linear shape. The bus is
the central cable that connects computers and other devices
forming a shared communications medium for all computers with
an interface connector. The device, which wants to communicate
send the broadcast message to all the devices attached with the
shared cable but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
process that message. The bus in a bus network transmits data,
instructions, and information in both directions. When a sending
device transmits data, the address of the receiving device is
included with the transmission so the data is routed to the
appropriate receiving device.

Ethernet bus networks are popular on LANS because they are

inexpensive and easy to install. 10Base-2 and 10BaseT are two
popular types of the Ethernet cables used in the Bus topology.
One advantage of the bus network is that computers and other
devices can be attached and detached at any point on the bus
without disturbing the network. Another advantage of is that
failure of one device usually doesn’t affect the rest of the network.
The transmission simply bypasses the failed device. The greatest
risk to the bus network is that the bus itself might become
inoperable. If that happens, the network remains inoperative until
the bus is back in working order. Additionally, if the backbone
cable fails then all networks become useless and no
communication fails among all the computers.

Ring Network Topology

On the ring network, a cable forms a closed loop (ring) with all
computers and devices along the ring. Every computer or devices
has two adjacent neighbors for communication. Data transmitted
on a ring network travels from device to device around the entire
ring, in one direction. When a computer or a device sends data
the data travels to each computer on the ring until it reaches its
destination.

FDDI, SONET or Token Ring Technology can be used to

implement Ring Technology. Ring topologies can be found in
office, school or small buildings. If a computer or the device on
the ring network fails, all the devices before the failed device are
unaffected but those after the failed device cannot function. A ring
can span a larger distance than a bus network but it is more
difficult to install. The ring topology primarily is used for LANs, but
also used in WANs. On a ring all connected devices form a
continuous loop.

Star Network Topology

On a star network all of the computers and devices (nodes) on the
network connect to the central device, thus forming a star. The
central device that provides a common connection point for nodes
on the network is called a hub or switch. Data transferred from
one node to another passes through the hub.

Similar to a bus network, star networks are fairly easy to install

and maintain. Nodes can be added to and removed from the
network with little or no disruption to the network. On a star
network, if one node fails, only the node is affected. The other
nodes continue to operate normally. If the hub fails, however, the
entire network is inoperable until the hub is repaired. Most large
star networks, therefore, keep hubs available in case the primary
hub fails. A star network contains a single centralized through
which all devices in the network communicate.

Tree Topology
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a
bus. Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together
onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the
tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network
devices. This bus/star/hybrid combination supports future
expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus
or star.

Mesh Topology
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology,
message sent to the destination can take any possible shortest,
easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies
star and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every
computer, especially in bus topology. Similarly in the Ring
topology message can travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or
anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the
message finds its route for its destination. Router works in find the
routes for the messages and in reaching them to their
destinations. The topology in which every device connects to
every other device is called a full Mesh topology unlike in the
partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the
other devices.

Hybrid Network Topology

Hybrid networks are the complex networks, which can be built of
two or more above mentioned topologies.

NETWORK COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Today networks connect terminals, devices and computers from
many manufacturers across many types of network, such as wide
areas, local areas, and wireless. For the different devices on
several types of networks to be able to communicate, the network
must use a specific combination of hardware and software that
has common network technology that allows them to
communicate. The following sections discuss some of the more
widely used network communication technologies for both wired
and wireless networks including Ethernet, TCP/IP, 802.11,
Bluetooth, IrDA, RFID and WAP.

Ethernet
Ethernet is a network technology that allows nodes to contend for
access to the network. If two computers on the Ethernet attempt
to send data at the same time, a collision will occur and the
computers will attempt to send their messages again. Ethernet is
based on a bus topology, but Ethernet networks can be wired in a
star pattern. Today Ethernet is the most popular LAN technology
because it is relatively inexpensive and easy to install and
maintain.

Ethernet often use cables to transmit data. At a 10 Mbps (million

bits per second) data transfer rate, the original Ethernet standard
is not very fast by today’s standards. For a mid sized network,
however Ethernet works quite well. Amore recent Ethernet
standard, called fast Ethernet has a data transfer rate of 100
Mbps, ten times faster than the original standard. Gigabit Ethernet
provides an even higher speed of transmission, with transfer rates
of one gigabit per second (Gbps). The 10 Giga Ethernet supports
transfer rates up to 10 gigabyte

Token Ring
The second most popular LAN technology is token ring which
controls access to the network by requiring that the devices on
the network share or passes a special sign called token A token is
a special series of bits that function like a ticket. The device with
the token can transmit data over the network. Only one token
exists per second. This ensures that only one computer transmits
data at a time. Token ring is based on ring topology although it
can use a star topology. Some token ring networks connect up to
72 devices. Others use a special type of wiring that allows up to
260 connections. The data transfer rate on a token ring network
can be 4Mbps, 16 Mbps or up to 100 Mbps

Intranets
Recognizing the efficiency and power of the internet, many
organizations apply internet and Web technologies to their own
internet net-works. An intranet (intra means within) is an internet
network that uses Internet technologies. Intranets generally make
company information accessible to employees and facilitate
working in groups. Simple intranets applications include electronic
publishing of organizational materials such as telephone
directories, event calendars, procedure manuals, employee
benefits information, and job postings. Additionally, an intranet
typically includes a connection to the Internet. More sophisticated
uses of intranets include groupware applications such as project
management, chat rooms, newsgroups, group scheduling, and
video conferencing.

An intranet essentially is a small version of the Internet that exists

within an organization. It uses TCP/IP technologies, has a Web
server, supports multimedia Web pages coded in HTML, and is
accessible via a Web browser such as Microsoft Internet Explorer
or Netscape Navigator. Users up date information on the intranet
by creating and posting a Web page, using a method similar to
that used on the Internet. Sometimes a company uses an
extranet, which allows customers or suppliers to access part of its
intranet. Package shipping companies, for example, allow
customers to access their intranet to print air bills, schedule pick-
ups, and even track shipped packages as the packages travel to
their destinations.

Computer Network Protocols

Protocol is one of the most important components of a computer
network. Protocol means a set of rules, agreed upon ways or a
communication language which all computer and devices
understand. A protocol defines error checking, how data will be
send and receive, and transmitting data between the systems.
There are a large number of protocols and following is a list of the
most commonly used protocol in the computer communications.

AppleTalk: AppleTalk is a communication protocol that was

developed by the Apple System to connect Macintosh computers
to the printers.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM): ATM is a type of protocol

in which data travels in the form of fixed size packets. These fixed
size packets provide high speed, data security, and video and
voice communication over the same network.

DECnet: DECnet is a protocol that was developed by the Digital

Equipment Systems to connect the PDP and VAX systems.

Ethernet: Ethernet is a LAN protocol that was developed by the

Intel, Xerox and Digital Equipment System. Ethernet is a most
widely used LAN communication standard.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI): FDDI is a protocol that

is used to transmit the data over the fiber optic cables.

Internet Protocols (IP): IP is a protocol transmitting data

between the packet switched IP networks originally developed by
the DOD (department of defense). TCP/IP (Transmission control
protocol/Internet protocol) is a suite of protocol and FTP, HTTP,
E-mail, Telnet are all IP protocols.

Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX): IPX is a networking

protocol that is used by the Novell Netware operating systems.

NetWare: Netware is a LAN protocol that is developed by the

Novell Corporation.

Signaling System 7 (SS7): SS7 is a telecommunication protocol

that was developed by the International Telecommunication
Union.
Systems Network Architecture (SNA): SNA is a set of protocols
that was developed by the IBM mainframe systems.

Token Ring: Token Ring is a LAN protocol that was developed

by the IBM where systems have the tokens before they transmit
the data. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP): TCP/IP is a suite of the protocols used to connect the
computers on the internet. TCP/IP is a most commonly used
protocol.

X.25: X.25 is a protocol that was developed by CCITT for the

packet switched network.

COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE
Communications software consists of programs that
1. Help users establish a connection to another computer or
network;
2. Manage the transmission of data, instructions, and
information; and
3. Provide an interface for users to communicate with one
another.

The first two are system software and the third is application
software. Some communications devices are preprogrammed to
accomplish communications tasks. Other communications
devices require separate communications software to ensure
proper transmission of data. For two computers to communicate,
they must have compatible communications software.
Communications software usually is bundled with the operating
system or purchased network devices.

Often, a computer has various types of communications software,

each serving a different purpose. One type of communications
software helps users establish an Internet connection using
wizards, dialog boxes, and other on-screen messages.
Communications software also allows users to configure a
network such as a home or office network and connect devices to
an existing network. You also can use communications software
to connect to an FTP server.

COMMUNICATIONS OVER THE TELEPHONE NETWORK.

The public switched telephone network is the world wide
telephone system that handles voice-oriented telephone calls.
Nearly the entire telephone network today uses digital technology,
with the exception of the final link from the local telephone
company to a home, which often is analog.
While initially it was built to handle voice communications, the
telephone network also is an integral part of computer
communications. Data, instructions, and information are
transmitted over the telephone network using dial-up lines or
dedicated lines. The following sections discuss dial-up lines and
the various types of dedicated lines that use the telephone
network for data communications.

Dial-up Lines
A dial-up line is a temporary connection that uses one or more
analog telephone lines for communications. A dial-up connection
is not permanent. Using a dial-up line to transmit data is similar to
using the telephone to make a call. A modem at the sending end
dials the telephone number of a modem at the receiving end.
When the modem at the receiving end answers the call, a
connection is established and the data can be transmitted. When
either modem hangs up, the communications end.

Using a dial-up line to connect computers costs no more than

making a regular telephone call. Computers at any two locations
establish an internet or network connection using modems and
the telephone network. Mobile users, for example, can use dial-up
lines in hotels to connect to their main office network to read e-
mail messages, access the Internet, and upload files.

Dedicated lines
A dedicated line is a type of always-on connection that is
established between two communications devices (unlike a dial-
up line where the connection is reestablished each time it is
used). The quality and consistency of the connection on a
dedicated line are better than a dial –up line because dedicated
lines provide constant connection.

Business often uses dedicated lines to connect geographically

distant offices. Dedicated lines can either be analog or digital.
Digital lines increasingly are connecting home and business users
to connect networks around the globe because they transmit data
and information at faster rates than analog lines.

Four popular types of digital dedicated lines are ISDN lines, DSL,
T-carrier lines, and ATM. Although cable television (CATV) lines
are not a type of standard telephone line, they are a very popular
type of dedicated line that allows the home user to connect to the
internet. A later section in these chapter discuses the use of
CATV lines to connect to the internet.

The table lists the transfer rates (speeds), as compared with dial-
up lines.

ISDN lines
For the small business and home user, an ISDN line provides
faster transfer rates than dial-up lines. With ISDN (integrated
services digital network) is a set of standards for digital
transmission of data over standard copper telephone lines. With
ISDN, the same telephone line that could carry three or more
signals at once through the same line, using a technique called
multiplexing.

ISDN requires that both ends of the connection have an ISDN

modem. This type of modem is different from the type used in
dial-up connections. ISDN lines also may require a special ISDN
telephone for voice communications. Home and business users
who choose ISDN lines benefit from faster web page downloads
and clearer video conferencing. ISDN connections also produce
voice conversations that are very clear, when used with ISDN
voice equipment.
DSL
DSL is another digital line alternative for the small business or
home user. DSL (digital subscriber line) transmits at a fast speeds
on existing standard copper telephone wiring. Some DSL
installations I include a dial tone, providing users with both voice
and data communications. Others share services with an existing
telephone line.

To connect a DSL, a customer must have a special network card

and DSL modem. Similar to an ISDN modem, a DSL modem is
different from the modem used for dial-up connections. A
disadvantage of DSL is that the user’s location (and DSL modem)
and the telephone company’s DSL modem must be located within
a certain distance from each other. Thus, for rural residents, DSL
may not be an option.

ADSL is one of the popular types of DSL’s. ADSL (asymmetric

digital subscriber line) is a type of DSL that supports faster
transfer rates when receiving data (the down stream rate) that
when sending data (upstream rate). ASDL is ideal for internet
access because most users download more information from the
internet than they upload. Some experts predict that DSL
eventually will replace ISDN because it is much easier to install
and provides much faster data and transfer rates.

T-carrier lines
A T-carrier line is any several types of long – distance digital
telephone lines that carry multiple signals over a single
communications line. Whereas a standard dial-up telephone line
carries only one signal, digital T-carrier lines use multiplexing so
that multiple signals share the line. T-carrier lines provide very
fast transfer rates. Only medium to large companies usually can
afford the investment in T-carrier lines because these lines are so
expensive.

The most popular T-carrier lines are the T1 line. Business often
uses TI lines to connect to the internet. Many internet access
providers use TI lines to connect to the internet backbone. Home
and small business users purchase fractional T1, in which they
share a connection to the T1 line with other users. Fractional T1 is
slower than dedicated T1 line, but it is also less expensive. Users
who do not have other high speed internet access in their areas
can opt for fractional T1.

A T3 line is equal in speed to 28 T1 lines. T3 lines are quite

expensive. Main users of T3 lines include large companies,
telephone companies, and internet access providers connecting
to the backbone. The internet back bone itself also uses T3 lines

ATM
ATM (asynchronous transfer mode) is a service that carries
voice, data, video, and multimedia at very high speeds.
Telephone networks, the Internet and other networks with large
amounts of traffic use ATM. some experts predict that ATM
eventually will become standard for data transmission, replacing
T3 lines

COMMUNICATIONS DEVICES
A communication device is any type of hardware capable of
transmitting data, instructions, and information between a sending
device and receiving device. At the sending end, a
communications device sends the data, instructions, or
information from the sending device to a communications
channel. At the receiving end, a communications device receives
signals from the communications channel. Sometimes, the
communications device also converts the data, instructions, and
information from digital to analog signals or vice versa, depending
on the devices and media involved.

Each of these devices plays a specific role in a computer network

and only the complex and the large network use all these
devices. Being a network engineer or the systems administrator,
you need to know the role and features of each device in your
network. There are different communication devices such as
routers, hub, switches and brides. These devices are required to
transmit the data between one computer and another. Based on
the infrastructure of your network, you need to use different
devices. Hub and Switch are the LAN devices and the router is a
LAN/WAN device. These devices provide the medium of sending
and receiving the data and connect the LAN and WAN segments
of a network.

Some of more common types of communications devices are dial-

up modems, ISDN and DSL modems, cable modems, network
cards, wireless access points, routers, switches bridges and hubs.
The following section describes these devices.

Dial-Up Modems
As previously discussed, a computer’s digital signals must be
converted to analog signals before they are transmitted over
standard telephone lines. The communications device that
performs this conversion is a modem, some times called a dial up
modem. The word modem is derived from the combination of
words, modulate, to change into analog signals, and demodulate,
to convert an analog signal into a digital signal. Both the sending
and receiving ends of a standard telephone line (communications
channel) must have a dial-up modem for data transmission to
occur. For example a dial-up modem connected to a sending
computer converts the computer’s digital signals into analog
signals. The analog signals then can travel over a standard
telephone line. At the receiving end, another dial-up modem
converts the analog signals back into digital signals that a
receiving computer can process.

A modem usually is in the form of an adapter card that you insert

into an expansion slot on a computer’s motherboard. One end of
a standard telephone code attaches to a port on the modem card
and the other end plugs into a telephone outlet. Devices other
than computers also use modems. A stand alone fax-machine, for
example has modems that converts a scanned digitized image
into an analog that is sent to a recipient’s fax machine.

Notebooks and other mobile computers often use a PC card

modem often inserted into a PC card slot on the computer. The
PC card modem attaches to a telephone out let with a standard
telephone code. Mobile users without access to a telephone outlet
also can use a special cable to attach the PC card modem to a
cellular telephone, thus enabling them to transmit data over a
cellular telephone. Some mobile users have a wireless modem
that allows access to the web wirelessly from a notebook
computer, a PDA, cellular telephones and other mobile devices.
Wireless modems typically use some waves used by cellular
telephones.

ISDN and DSL Modems.

If you access the internet using ISDN or DSL, you need a
communications device to send and receive the digital ISDN or
DSL signals. A modem used for dial-up access will not work
because it converts digital signals to analog signals and vise
versa. In the case of ISDN and DSL, this conversion is not
necessary. Both the computer and the ISDN or DSL already use
digital signals, thus no digital-to-analog conversion is required.

A digital modem is a modem that sends and receives information

to and from a digital telephone line such as ISDN or DSL. An
ISDN modem send digital data and information from a DSL line.
ISDN and DSL modems usually are external devices, in which
one end connects to the telephone line and the other end
connects to a port on the system unit.

Cable Modems
A cable modem, sometimes called broadband modem, is a digital
modem that sends and receives digital data over the cable
television (CATV) network. With more than one million homes
hired for cable television, cable modems provide a faster internet
alternative to dial up for the home user and have speeds similar to
DSL. Cable modems currently transmit data at speeds that are
much faster than either a dial-up modem or ISDN. Home and
business users may be able to take the advantage of the
resources available on the internet and other networks with high-
speed cable service provided the CATV uses digital cable
capable of providing internet service.
CATV service enters a building through a single line. To access
the internet using the CATV service, the CATV Company installs
a splitter inside your house. From the splitter, one part of the
cable runs to your television and the other connects to the
modem. Most CATV operators provide a cable modem as part of
the installation; others require that you purchase one separately.
A cable modem usually is an external (separate) device, in which
one end of a cable connects to a CATV wall outlet and the other
end plugs into a port, such as on an Ethernet card, in the system
unit. An Ethernet card is a type of network card.

Network cards
A network card sometimes called a Network Interface Card
(NIC) is an adapter card, PC card or compact flash card that
enables a computer or device to access a network. Personal
computers on a LAN typically contain a network card .The
network card coordinates the transmission and receipt of data,
instructions and information to and from the Computer or device
containing a network card

Network cards are available in a variety of styles. A network card

for a desktop computer is an adaptor card that has a port to which
a cable connects. A network card for mobile computers and
devices is in form of a type11 PC card or a compact flash card.
Many of these network cards have more than one port that
enables different types of cables to attach to the card. For
example some cable modems and DSL modems require that one
end of the cable plug into the modem and the other end into a
network card. Network cards that provide wireless data
transmission also are available. These adapter cards always have
an antenna. Sometimes the antenna is detachable, allowing the
user to position it in an area with the best signal strength. Some
network cards include support for both wired and wireless
networks.

Network card works with a particular network technology, such as

Ethernet or token ring. An Ethernet card is the most common type
of network card. Depending on the type of wiring used, the
transfer rate on an Ethernet network is 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or
1000 Mbps (1 Gbps). Ethernet cards typically support one or
more of these speeds. For example, some are called 10/100
because they support both 10Mbps and 100 Mbps. Some network
cards are also a combination of Ethernet and dial-up modem
card.

Wireless Access Points

A wireless access point is a device that allows computers and
devices to transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to
transfer data wirelessly to a wired network. Wireless access
points have high quality antennas for optimal signals. For the best
signal some manufacturers suggest positioning the wireless
access point at the highest possible location

Routers
A router is a device that connects multiple computers or other
routers together and transmits data to its correct destination on
the network. All sizes of networks use routers. On the largest
scale, routers along the backbone forward data pockets to their
destination using the fastest available path. For smaller business
and home networks, a router allows multiple computers to share a
single high speed Internet connection such as through a cable
modem or DSL modem. These routers connect from 2 to 250
computers.

To prevent unauthorized users from accessing files and

computers, many routers are protected by built-in firewalls. Some
also have built-in antivirus protection. Routers also may serve as
print servers or support wireless communications, eliminating for
a separate wireless access point in a wireless network. If the
network has a separate wire access point it connects to the router
via a cable.

Hubs
Hub is a LAN networking device and every computer in an
Ethernet based network is directly connected with the hub. All the
computers that are connected to the network share the same
bandwidth. When a hub receives the data packets at one of its
port, it distributes the data signals to all the ports in a network.

When two or more computers try to send the data signals at the
same time, a collision occurs and the process is known as Carrier
Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection. Hubs are usually
come with the 4, 8, 16 and 24 ports. In the data communications,
a hub is a place for the convergence where data arrives from
multiple directions and forward to the multiple directions. The
most advanced form of the hub is the intelligent or smart hub that
contains the management software which is used to troubleshoot
the most common problems.

Bridges
Bridges are the networking devices that divided up the network
into different segments to reduce the amount of traffic on each
network. A bridge blocks and forwards the data packets based on
their MAC addressees. Be blocking the unnecessary traffic to
enter the other part of the network segments, it reduces the
amount of traffic and the other issues such network congestions
and the bottleneck. There are following three common types of
the bridges.

a) Transparent Bridge
A Transparent bride is invisible to the other part of the
computer network and it performs the functions of blocking
and forwarding the data packets based on the MAC
addressees. They are the most popular types of the bridges.

b) Translational Bridge
Translation bridges are used to connect the two different
networks such as Ethernet and Token Ring. It translates the
data and forward to the other network.

c) Source-Route Bridge
 Source-Route bridges are designed for the Token Ring
networks. In the Source-Route Bridge, the entire route of
the network frame is embedded into the frame.

Switches
A network switch is a LAN/WAN communication device. It joins
the multiple computers together in the LAN and WAN. In the
LAN, the switches do not broadcast the data to all the connected
computers like the hub. Based on the IP/MAC addresses of the
computer, a switch sends data only to the destined computer.
Switches operate on the data link and network layers of the OSI
layers model. Different models of the switches support the
different number of the connected devices. In the LAN, switches
support 10mbps 10/100 mbps or 100mbps data transmission
speed. A switch conserves the bandwidth and offers the grater
performance than the hub.

CONNECTING NETWORKS
Today thousands of computer networks exist, ranging from small
networks operated by small home users to global networks
operated by numerous telecommunications firms.
Interconnecting these various types of communications networks
requires various types of communications devices. For example,
a hub is a device that provides a point for cables in a network.
Some hubs include routers. That is, the hub receives data from
many directions and then forwards it to one or more destinations

Home Networks
An estimated 20 million homes have more than one computer.
Thus, many home users are connecting multiple computers and
devices in a home network. Home networking saves the user
money and provides many conveniences. For example, an older
computer that does not have a CD drive can access the CD drive
on a newer computer. Instead of using floppy disks to transfer
files from one computer to another, a home net work allows users
to access files on other computers in the home. Each net worked
computer in the home has the following capabilities:
 Connect to the internet at the same time
 Share a single high speed internet connection
 Access files and programs on other computers in the house
 Share peripheral devices such as printers, a scanner,
external hard disk, or DVD drive
 Play multiplayer games with players on other computers in
the house

Many vendors offer home networking packages that include all

necessary hard ware and soft ware to network your home using
wired or wireless techniques. Some of these packages also offer
intelligent networking capabilities. An intelligent home net work
extends the basic home network to include features such as
lighting control, thermostat adjustment, and a security system.

Wired Home Networks

As with other net works, a home network can use wires, be
wireless, or use a combination of wired and wire less. Three types
of wired home networks are Ethernet, power line cable, and
phone line.

Ethernet
Some home users have an Ethernet network. As discussed
earlier, traditional Ethernet networks require that each computer
contain a network card, which connects to a central network hub
or similar device with a physical cable. This may involve running
cable through walls, ceilings, and floors in the house. For the
average home user, the hardware and software of an Ethernet
network can be difficult to configure.

Powerline Cable Network

A home power line cable net work is a network that uses the
same lines that bring electricity into the house. This net work
provides no additional wiring. One end of a cable plugs into a
computer’s parallel or USB port and the other end plugs into a
wall outlet. The data transmits through the existing power lines in
the house.

Phone Line Net Work

A phone line network is an easy-to-install and an inexpensive
network that uses existing telephone lines in the home. With this
network one end of the cable connects to an adapter card or PC
card in the computer and the other end plugs into a wall
telephone jack. The phone line network does not interfere with
voice and data transmissions on the telephone lines. That is, you
can talk on the telephone and use the same line to connect to the
internet. One slight disadvantage is that that the room with the
computer must have a wall telephone jack.

Wireless Home Network

To network devices that connect and spun multiple rooms or
floors in a home, it may be more convenient to use a wireless
strategy. One advantage of wireless networks is that you can take
a mobile computer outside, for example, in the backyard and
connect to the internet through the home network, as long as you
are in the networks range. Two types of home net works are
HomeRF and Wi-Fi.

A HomeRF (radio frequency) network uses radio wave, instead

of cables, to transmit data. A HomeRF network sends signals
through the air over distances of up to 150 feet. One end of the
cable connects to a special card in the computer and the other
end connects to the receiver/ transmitter that has an antenna to
pick up signals. A HomeRF network usually can connect up to 10
computers.

Another home network that uses radio waves is a Wi-Fi network,

which sends signals over a wider distance than the HomeRF
network- up to 1,500 feet in some configurations. A Wi-Fi home
network is more expensive than a HomeRF network. Despite the
increased costs, increasingly more users set up Wi-Fi networks in
their homes because they are fairly easier to configure. Each
computer that accesses that network needs a wireless network
card, which may communicate with a wireless point or
router/wireless access point. Even in a wireless home network,
one desktop computer usually connects to the router/ wireless
access point using a cable.
Wireless networks do have the disadvantage of interference.
Walls, ceilings and electrical devices such as cord less phones
and microwave ovens can disrupt wireless communications.

How to Setup a Local Area Computer Network

Computer networking enables you to share the data and
resources like printers, scanners, hard disk, CD/ROM and internet
connection with the other network users. You can communicate
with the other people in your home or office, send and receive
files, share internet connection and printer, play games, listen to
music and share the multimedia experience with the other users
and create a bridge between two networks,. Today no business is
successful without fulfilling its data, voice and video
communication requirements. No office work can be performed
efficiently where there are more than two computers

There are multiple options available to connect two or more

computers to make a computer network. After establishing the
wired or wireless connections you need to check that the
connectivity and the configurations of the computers are okay. Be
default, Windows XP Professional computer provides a “Network
Setup” utility.

By and through this utility you can configure your whole network.
You can select this utility in the Programs > Accessories >
Communications > Network setup wizard.

Setting up a computer network requires the little technical

knowledge and the required software and hardware tools. There
are three main types of the computer networks i.e. LAN (within an
office), MAN (within city) and WAN (within two cities or two
countries). In this article, you will learn that how to setup LAN in
your home or office. The first step is to identify your requirements
and based on these requirements you need to purchase the
following software and hardware devices.

Software/Hardware Requirements
 How many computers do you want to connect with each
other? Computers with LAN Cards are required. (Number
of computers is based on the number of users).
 Hub or Switch. (Switch is recommended and the number of
ports in the switch is related to the number of computers in
your network.
 UTP/STP Straight Cable. Each piece of cable is required
between a computer and the hub/switch.
 DSL Router to share the internet with the computers.
 What type of operating systems you are running on your
computer.
 Windows based operating system CDs (Windows 2000
Professional is recommended for the client computers) and
Windows 2000/2003 Server is for the Server computer.
 All other required software.
 Whether networked computers will be located in one room or
hall or inside a building.
 What are your security requirements?
 What’s your main purpose of networking the computers?
 What type of internet connection will be used?

After knowing your requirements you can configure your network

either through the setup wizard in the Windows XP or manually.
You can setup the computers in the workgroup or domain.

In the Workgroup, there is no centralized management and least

security while in the domain there is domain controller (centralized
server) that controls the whole domain and provides services like
user authentication, data sharing, resources sharing and internet
connectivity to the client computers.

A LAN can be configured as a:

 Peer to Peer Network

 Client/Server Network
Configuring a LAN using Network Setup Wizard in Windows
XP Professional

The following configuration steps will tell you that how to setup
peer to peer network.

 After installing the Windows 2000 Professional or Windows

XP Professional on all the computers, you need to install and
configure the LAN cards.
 Make a straight network cable and attach one end of it to the
computer and one end to the hub/switch.
 In most of the cases Windows 2000 Professional/XP
Professional has built-in drivers for the LAN cards.
 Click Start > Services > Control Panel > double click network
connections.
 Right click the Local Area connection > Click properties and
in the general select TCP/IP and click Properties.

 In the TCP/IP Properties select this option “Use the

Following IP Address” and provide the IP address and
subnet mask. The IP addresses should be of the same
series like 100.100.100.1, 100.100.100.2, 100.100.100.3,
100.100.100.4 and 100.100.100.5 etc. one for each
computer. The subnet mask will be automatically selected
when you will press the tab.
 Click Ok and close all the open Windows.
 After you successfully run the setup wizard, you will ask to
create a network setup disk.
  You have to run the setup wizard on all the computers to
make them connected with each other.
 Now, you need to provide the unique computer names and
same workgroup name to all the computers.
 Right click My Computer on your desktop and click
Properties.
 In the Network Identification or in the Computer name
provide your unique computer and in the Workgroup provide
the same workgroup name and click Ok.
 You will be prompted to restart the computer.
 You’re done.
 Now you can share your files and folders with the other
users in your home or office network.

To check the connectivity between the computers, you can use

the following diagnosing and administrative utilities which are
installed by default with the TCP/IP protocols in the Windows
based operating systems.

PING: Ping is a first troubleshooting command in the IP based

networks. With this utility you can check the connectivity between
two computers.

IPconfig: IPconfig is used to check the configurations of a

computer such as IP address, subnet mask, DNS, gateway and
DHCP addresses etc.

Tracert: Tracert is a TCP/IP utility that is used to find and record

the routes between your computer and the specified destination.

Hostname: To check the name of your computer.

COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL

PHYSICAL TRANSAMISSION MEDIA

Physical transmissions media used in communication include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. These
cables typically are within or under-ground between buildings.
Ethernet and token ring LANS often use physical transmissions
media. The table below lists the transfer rates of LANS using
various physical transmissions media.

Transfer rates for various types of LANS using physical

transmission media

Type of Cable and LANS Maximum Transfer Rate

Twisted-Pair Cable
 10Base-T (Ethernet) 10 Mbps
 100Base-T (Fast Ethernet) 100Mbps
 1000Base-T (Gigabit 1 Gbps
Ethernet) 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps
 Token ring
Coaxial Cable
 10Base2 (Thin Wire 10Mbps
Ethernet) 10Mbps
 10Base5 (Thin Wire
Ethernet)
Fiber-Optic Cable
 10Base-F (Ethernet) 10Mbps
 100Base-FX (Fast Ethernet) 100Mbps
 FDDI (Fiber Distribution 100Mbps
Data Interface token ring
 Gigabit Ethernet 1 Gbps
 10-Gigabit Ethernet 10 Gbps
Table: The speeds of various physical communication media
used in LANS

The following sections discuss each of these types of cables.

Twisted-Pair Cable
One of the more widely used transmission media for network
cabling and telephone system is twisted-pair cable. Twisted-pair
cable consists of one or more twisted-pair wires bundled together
(figure Twisted Pair Cable). Each twisted-pair wire consists of
two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted together. The
wires are twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an electrical
disturbance that can degrade communication.

Coaxial Cable
Often referred to as coax (pronounce KO-ax), consists of a single
copper wire surrounded by at least three layers:
(1) An insulation material,
(2) A woven or braided metal, and
(3) a plastic coating.

Cable television (CATV) writing often uses longer distances than

twisted-pair cable. Most of today’s computer networks, however,
do not use coaxial cable because other transmission media such
as fiber- optic cable transmissions signals at faster rates.

Fiber-Optic Cable
The core of fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of
thin strands of glass or plastic that use light to transmit signals.
Each strand, called an optical fiber, is as thin as a human hair.
Inside the fiber-optic cable, an insulating glass cladding and a
protective coating surround each optical fiber.

Fiber-optic cables have the following advantages over cables that

use wire, such as twisted-pair and coaxial cables.
 Capacity of carrying significantly more signals that wire
cables.
 Faster data transmissions
 Less susceptible to noise (inference) from other devices
such as a copy machine.
 Better security for signals during transmissions because they
are less susceptible to noise.
 Smaller size (much thinner and lighter weight).

Disadvantage of fiber-optic cable and can be difficult to

install and modify.
Despite these limitations, many local and long-distance telephone
companies are replacing existing telephone lines with fiber-optic
cables. Business also is using fiber-optic cables in high-traffic
networks or as the backbone in a network.

WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Wireless transmission media are when it is inconvenient,
impractical, or impossible to install cables. Types of wireless
transmission media used in communication include infrared,
broadcast ratio, cellular radio, microwaves, and the
communications satellites.
The table below lists transfer speed rates of various wireless
transmission media.

Transmission Media Maximum Transfer Rate

Infrared 115 Kbps to 4 Mbps
Broadcast radio
 Bluetooth 1 to 2 Mbps
 HomeRF 1.6 Mbps to 10 Mbps
 802.11b 11 Mbps
 802.11g 54 Mbps
 802.11a 54 Mbps to 108 Mbps
Cellular Radio
 2G 9.6 Kbps to 19.2 Kbps
 3G 144 Kbps to 2.4 Mbps
Microwave radio 150 Mbps
Communications satellite 1 Gbps

Infrared
As discussed earlier, Infrared (IR) is a wireless transmission
medium that sends signals using infrared light waves. Mobile
computers and devices such as a mouse, printers and smart
phones often have an IrDA port that enables the transfer data
from one device to another using infrared light waves. If your
notebook computer has an IrDA port, simply position the port in
front of the IrDA port on a printer to print the document wirelessly.
Many PDAs also have IrDA ports that allow users to transfer data
to another PDA wirelessly or to a network.

Broadcast Radio
Broadcasting radio is a wireless transmission medium that
distributes radio signals through the air over a long distance such
as through cities, regions and countries and short distances such
as within an office or home. For radio transmissions, you need a
transmitter to send the broadcast signal and a receiver to accept
it. To receive the broadcast signal, the receiver has an antenna
that is located in the range of the signal. Some networks use a
transceiver, which both sends and receives signals from wireless
devices. Broadcast radio is slower and more susceptible to noise
than physical transmission media but it provides flexibility and
portability.

Bluetooth, HomeRF, and Wi-Fi communication technologies use

broadcast signals. Bluetooth is an alternative to infrared
communications and together with Wi-Fi technologies are being
used for home and small business technologies. Public internet
access point also uses Wi-Fi networks. In a Wi-Fi business
network, employees have access to network from their notebook
computers while roaming from one meeting room to another.

Cellular Radio
Cellular radio is a form of broadcast radio that is used widely for
mobile telecommunication, specifically wireless modems and
cellular telephone. A cellular telephone is a device that uses high
frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital data
messages. Some mobile users connect their note book
computers to cellular phone to access the web, send and receive
e-mails, enter a chat room or connect a school or an office.

Several categories of cellular transmissions exist, defining the

development of the cellular networks:
 1G (first generation) transmitted analog data
 2G (second generation) transmitted analog at a speed of 9.6
Kbps and 19.2 Kbps
 3G 9thrid generation) transmitted digital data at speed from
144 Kbps to 2.4
Mbps

GMS (Global System for Communications) and CDMA (Code

Division Multiple Access) are 2G digital telephone technologies.
UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) and GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service) are 3G technologies based on
GSN.

These 3G technologies allow users to quickly display multimedia

and graphics, browse the Web, watch television or a video, have
a video conference and transfer data on a cellular device.
Personal Communication Services (PCS) is the term used to
identify all wireless digital devices. Devices that use PCS include
telephones, PDAs, pagers, and fax machines. These devices
have voice mail, call forwarding, fax capability, caller ID, and
wireless modem for internet and e-mail access.

Microwaves
Microwaves are radio waves that provide-speed signal
transmission. Microwaves transmission, sometimes called fixed-
point wireless, involves sending signals from one microwave
station to another. Microwaves transmit data at rates up to 4500
times faster than a dial-up modem. A microwave station is an
earth-based reflective dish that contains the antenna,
transceivers, and other equipment necessary for microwave
communication. To avoid possible obstructions, such as buildings
or mountains, microwave stations often no the tops of buildings,
towers, or mountains.

Microwave transmission typically is used in environments where

installing physical transmission media is difficult or impossible and
where line-of-sight transmission is available. For example,
microwave transmission is used in wide-open areas such as
deserts or lakes; between buildings in a close geographic area; or
to communicate with a satellite. Current users of microwave
transmission include universities, hospitals, city governments, and
telephone companies.

Communications Satellite
A communication satellite is a space station that receives
microwave signals from an earth-based station, amplifiers
(strengthens) the signals, and broadcasts the signals back over a
wide area to any number of earth-based stations. These earth-
based stations often are microwave stations. Other devices, such
as PDAs and GPS receivers, also can function as earth- based
stations. Transmission from an earth-based station to a satellite is
an uplink. Transmission from a satellite to an earth-based station
is a downlink.

Applications such as air navigation, television and radio

broadcasts, weather forecasting, video conferencing, paging,
global positioning systems, and internet connections use
communications satellites. With the proper satellite dish and a
satellite modem card, consumers access the internet using
satellite technology. With satellite, internet connections usually
are slower than downlink transmission. This difference in speed
usually is acceptable to most Internet satellite users because they
download much more data than is uploaded. Although a satellite
internet connection is more expensive than cable internet or DSL
connection, sometimes it is the only high speed internet option in
remote areas.
THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB
The internet is a network of networks and connecting millions of
computes with each other by different designs.

History of the Internet

The revolutionary idea

In 1962, as Communism grew stronger, the US Air Force asked a
small team of researchers to create a military communications
network that could withstand a nuclear strike. The concept of this
network relied on a decentralized system, so that the network
could continue to function even if one or several machines were
destroyed.

The Baran model

Paul Baran is considered one of the main figures in the creation of
the Internet. In 1964, he had the idea to create a network in the
form of a large web. He had realized that a centralized system
was vulnerable, as destroying its core would bring down all
communications. For this reason, he created a hybrid network
using both mesh and star topology, in which data would travel
dynamically, "searching" for the clearest pathway, and "waiting" if
all routes were blocked. This technology was called "packet
switching."

ARPANET
In August 1969, separate from the military project, the
experimental network ARPANET was created by ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency, a division of the United
States Department of Defense) in order to link four universities
together:
 The Stanford Research Institute;
 The University of California at Los Angeles;
 The University of California at Santa Barbara;
 The University of Utah.
The ARPANET is now considered the precursor to the Internet. At
that time, it already included several fundamental characteristics
of the current network:
 One or several cores could be destroyed without disrupting
the network's
operation;
 Communication between machines could take place without
the direction of a
central machine;
 The protocols used were basic.

E-mail
In 1971, Ray Tomlinson developed a new means of
communication: electronic mail. The contents of the first e-mail
were: QWERTYUIOP. Additionally, the character "@" was
already being used to separate the user's name from the rest of
the address. In July 1972, Lawrence G. Roberts improved upon
the horizons pioneered by Tomlinson by developing the first
application for listing, selectively reading, archiving, and
responding to or forwarding an e-mail. Since then, e-mail has
never stopped growing in influence, becoming the most common
use of the Internet at the turn of the 21st century.

Also in 1972 (October), the ARPANET was introduced to the

general public for the first time, at the ICCC (International
Computer Communication Conference). Around that same time,
ARPA became DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency) and the term "internetting" was used to refer to
ARPANET, which was later shortened to "Internet."
TCP protocol
The NCP protocol then in use did not enable error checking, and
therefore was in principle usable only on the ARPANET, whose
infrastructure was correctly controlled. For this reason, Bob Kahn,
who came to ARPA in 1972, started work on the foundation for a
new protocol, called TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), for
routing data over a network by fragmenting it into small packets.
In the spring of 1973, he asked Vinton Cerf (then at Stanford) to
help him build the protocol. In 1976, the DoD decided to use TCP
on the ARPANET, composed of 111 interconnected machines. In
1978, TCP was split into two protocols: TCP and IP, forming what
would become the TCP/IP suite.
DNS
The naming system DNS used today was implemented in 1984, in
order to remedy the lack of flexibility inherent in host files, in
which machine names and their respective addresses were
stored in text files that had to be updated manually.

RFCs
In 1969, Steve Crocker (then at the University of California)
perfected the "Request for Comments" (RFC) system. It was a
group of documents in memorandum form, allowing researchers
to share their work. Jon Postel (6 August 1943 - 16 October 1998)
was in charge of administrating these documents until his death.

The World Wide Web

Beginning in 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN in
Geneva, engineered a hypertext navigation system, and
developed, with the help of Robert Cailliau, a software program
called Enquire for navigating it. In late 1990, Tim Berners-Lee
finished the protocol HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), as well
as HTML (HyperText Markup Language) for browsing networks
by using hyperlinks. The World Wide Web was born.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB

The World Wide Web (or “Web” for short) is a global collection of
information and electronic documents on the Internet, the global
computer network linked together. The basic component of the
Web is the "web page," which can present text and graphics in an
attractive, easy to use format.

These documents are stored on computers called servers located

around the world. The Web has evolved into a global electronic
publishing medium and a medium for conducting electronic
commerce.

The Web is popular for a couple of basic reasons:

 It is easy to jump from page to page, all over the world, with
a click of the mouse or a keyboard entry. This is made
 possible by hypertext, the Web's defining feature. Hypertext
refers to the highlighted words or graphics (called links)
found in most web pages. Clicking the mouse on a link will
cause the page at the other end of the link to be called up,
sent to your computer, and displayed on your screen. The
author of any Web page can easily make a link to any other
Web page in the world.

 It is easy to create basic hypertext documents (web pages).

Many individuals have developed Web pages and put them
on the Internet, including young students and people with no
special computer training or skills.

WHY USE THE WEB?

Information on almost any topic can be found somewhere on the
Web. Government agencies and educational institutions are
probably the best sources of reliable and useful information.

Increasingly, it is possible to shop, make purchases, and do other

business on the Web. This can be a significant convenience.

WHAT IS THE WEB MADE OF?

The Web consists of:
 Your personal computer
 Web browser software to access the Web
 A connection to an Internet service provider (ISP)
 Servers to host the data
 Routers and switches to direct the flow of data

HOW THE WEB WORKS

Web pages are stored on web servers located around the globe.
When you enter the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) or website
address of a web page in your web browser or click on a link, a
request is sent to the sever that hosts the page. The server
transmits the web page data to your computer and your web
browser displays it on your screen.
The first page displayed is called the home page. The home page
is the main, or introductory, web page for a company, school or
other organization.
Web Pages
A web page (such as the ones we access when we connect to the
Internet) is an electronic document written in a computer
language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). Web pages
can contain text, graphics, audio, video, and animation, as well as
interactive features, such as data entry forms and games.

Each page has a unique address known as a URL (Uniform

Resource Locator), which identifies its location on the server.
Web pages usually contain hyperlinks to other web pages.
Hyperlinks are text and images that reference the addresses of
other web pages.

Websites
A website consists of one or more web pages that relate to a
common theme, such as a person, business, organization, or a
subject, such as news or sports. The first page is called the home
page, which acts like an index, indicating the content on the site.
From the home page, you can click links to access other pages
on the site or other resources on the Web. A link is a connection
from one webpage to another webpage.

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

a) Computer with modem or network card

A modem is a device that translates your computer's digital
signals into a format that can be sent over a regular phone line.
Most new computers sold today come with a 56.6 Kbps modem.
A network card is needed if you get cable or DSL service at your
home. Some companies may install the network card for you if
you purchase their service.

b) Internet connection
An Internet connection is somewhat similar to having cable TV or
telephone service. What you are paying for is the connection to
the service. The equipment needed to use the service is
additional. You can get an Internet connection at your home or
business using a regular dial-up phone line for around $20 month.
Much faster but more expensive service includes DSL ($40-$60
per month) or cable ($40-$50 per month).

To use the Web, you will need a connection with at least the
following features:
 Dial-up networking
 Internet Service provider
 Internet programs such as a Web browser (Internet Explorer
or Netscape are the most common) and Email (Outlook
Express and Netscape are the most common)
 Good technical support and customer service

The two main types of Internet access providers are:

 The major online services, such as America Online,
CompuServe and Prodigy. These services offer access to
the Internet in addition to their own content and services
(which are accessible only to service subscribers).

 Internet-only access providers.

Hundreds of companies nationwide specialize in providing
Internet access. Some are national in scope and others
companies serve in a local or regional area, such as a city,
and have local access phone numbers.

c) Web "browser"
A Web "browser" is simply the software used to view and navigate
the Web. A browser (also known as client software) retrieves data
from remote web servers, assembles it, then displays a web
page. Examples of popular browsers are Microsoft Internet
Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape Navigator and Opera.
Browsers basically work the same way. Once you know one, you
can easily use others.
Web browsers come in many different varieties, made by different
companies, though they all perform the same basic functions. Any
browser will allow you to view and navigate simple, text-based
pages. The better browsers will also display graphics and more
complex pages. Most Web browsers are very easy to use. If you
can use other software for the operating system you're running
(Windows, Macintosh, etc.), chances are that you can quickly
learn to use the browser with minimal instruction or practice
required. Knowing a few basic techniques will make your Web
experience more enjoyable and productive.

NAVIGATING THE WEB

There are three main ways to move between web pages or
websites:
 Clicking a text link.
 Clicking a hyperlinked graphic, such as a button,
photograph, or drawing.
 Typing the URL of a web page in the location box (also
known as the address field) of your web browser and then
pressing the Enter or Return key.

Web addresses (URLs)

A Web address or URL (Uniform Resource Locator) indicates
where the web page is stored on the Internet. The Uniform
Resource Locator (URL) is the addressing system used on the
Web. Every Web page, graphic or other file has a unique URL
(address), so that it can't be confused with anything else on the
Internet. You need to type a URL exactly for your browser to
locate the desired web page; otherwise you will access the wrong
site or get an error message. Although URLs may contain spaces
between characters, they usually do not.

The location box or address field on your browser indicates the

URL of the page you arrived at after clicking a link.
Examples of URLs

http://www.bbc.com
The home page for the British Broadcasting Corporation website.

http://amkhan.blogspot.com
Blogs or weblogs for an individual.

ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/
A directory of files at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) that you can download.

news:rec.gardens.roses
A newsgroup about rose gardening.

Anatomy of a URL
Here's how to interpret the various parts of a URL: http:// www.
shack.com /english/ start.htm

http://
Short for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, this indicates a Web
document or directory.

www.
This indicates the presence of a web page on the World Wide
Web. (These days, the "www" is optional.)

shack.com/
Called the domain name, it often indicates the name of a
company, university, organization or individual who owns the
website. It can also tell you the country of origin.
www.shack.com/
Together, these indicate the web server name.

english/
This is directory or folder on the web server that contains a
group of related web pages within the website.

start.htm
This is a web page inside the folder. (The same file can be
named start.html) A URL doesn't always include the name of the
web page.

Reading a Typical URL

http://www.bisznet.net/resources/index.html

Web server
protocol directory filename
name
http www.bisznet.net resources index.html

The last part of the Web site name often specifies what type of
organization operates the site. Some common ones are:

Address Meaning Example

.com commercial http://www.yahoo.com/
organization
(private business)
.gov Ugandan governmenthttp://www.ura.gov/
agency
.net network orhttp://www.bushnet.net/
communications
entity
.org Non-profit organization http://www.nssf.org/
.mil U.S. military http://www.navy.mil/
In addition, the URLs of non-U.S. sites may indicate where the
Web site is located, as in the following examples:

Address Meaning Example

.uk United Kingdom http://www.bbc.co.uk/
(Great Britain)
.nz New Zealand http://www.converge.org.nz
.no Norway http://www.norwaypost.no
.za South Africa http://www.multichoice.co.za

Make and use a Favorite list

Most Web browsers allow you to easily save the name and URL
(address) of a Web page. This information is added to the
bookmark list. This allows you to return to frequently-visited pages
without having to remember or retype the page's URL.
Maintaining a good bookmark list is similar to keeping a
phone/address book of friends and family. In Netscape, select
Bookmarks, Add Bookmark while you are on the page you want to
save. For Internet Explorer, select Favorites, Add to Favorites.

Hyperlinks
A hyperlink commonly called a link is a word, symbol, image, or
other element in a hypertext document that electronically
connects one web page to other web pages on the same web
site, or web pages located on another web site. More specifically,
a hyperlink is a connection between one page of a hypertext
document to another. A hyperlink is a navigation element on a
webpage.

Identifying a Hyperlink
Text links are usually underlined and in a different color from the
rest of the text.

To determine if a graphic is hyperlinked, move your cursor arrow

over the image. You know the item is hyperlinked if:
 The arrow turns into a hand.
 A URL appears in the status bar at the bottom of your web
browser.
How Hyperlinks Work
A text or graphic hyperlink hides a URL.
 Clicking a hyperlink passes the URL to your browser.
 Clicking different parts of a linked graphic, called an image
map, takes you to different web pages or different places on
the same page.
 In addition to pointing to web pages, hyperlinks can access
media files, such as audio or video clips.

Navigating using Browser Buttons

Back and Forward buttons

This is used for the same purpose as the History list, except that
Back and Forward are more convenient when you need to go
back or forward just one or two pages.

Back Button – The Back button returns you to the previous page.
Forward Button – The Forward button returns you to the page
you have backed up from.

For example, say you are looking at the Yahoo web page, and
then you go to the Alta Vista page. Clicking on Internet Explorer’s
Back button will return you to the Yahoo page. From Yahoo, the
Forward button will take you again to Alta Vista.

Note that this is not the same as the "Go Back" or "Next Page"
buttons found on many Web pages (including this one). The
difference is that the browser's buttons will take you back (or
forward) to where you have been. The buttons on Web pages
take you to the previous or next pages in a series of pages at that
Web site, depending on how the Web site is organized.

Home button
The Home button takes you to the home page specified in the
browser preferences.

Reload or Refresh button

The Reload (Netscape) or Refresh (Internet Explorer) button
causes the current page you're viewing to be downloaded or sent
again from its source and displayed "fresh". This can be useful if
the page's contents change frequently (for example, a weather
map). If you don't reload, the changes will not be displayed.
Reloading is also useful if the page was not received properly for
whatever reason--reloading it will usually work.

The Stop Button

Both Netscape and Internet Explorer have a stop sign in the top
menu. Click on this button to stop loading of a current page that
you are receiving or downloading. This is useful when you find
that you've selected the wrong page, or a page that isn't what you
expected or needed.

The Find Button

The Find button (Netscape) with binoculars is very handy for
searching the text of the Web page that is currently being
displayed. On Internet Explorer, you must go to Edit on the menu
bar and choose Find on this page. For example, you may have
retrieved the page using a search engine to find Web pages that
contain a certain word. Once you pull up one of those pages, use
Find to quickly locate the word, instead of having to skim through
the page. The Find button does not search the Internet.

The Print Button

The Print button lets you make a hard copy of the current page
displayed in your browser.

Status bar
The Status bar at the bottom of browser window reports on the
progress of the data downloaded from a web server

History Button
The History button produces a History Explorer bar and lets you
select a web page you have previously accessed.

SAVING THE INFORMATION FROM THE WEB

One of the most popular uses of the Web is to save documents or
files for later use or reference. This can be done in one of several
ways, depending on the type of file and what you want to do with
it.

Saving a Web page as plain text

Most Web pages are written in Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) format, which requires a Web browser to read. However,
most browsers can save an HTML file in plain text (also called
ASCII text), which can be read by any word processor (though the
formatting will be lost). In Microsoft Internet Explorer,
 Select File, Save As.
 This will bring up the Save As dialog box, which should be
familiar to you from other Windows applications.

Internet Explorer gives you more choices. When you pull up the
screen, it will actually save the complete web page - pictures and
all! If you don't want everything, you can change the "Save as
Type" to web page only.

Printing a Web page

Popular browsers such as Netscape and Internet Explorer can
print a Web page almost exactly as it appears on screen (minus
the colors, unless you're using a color printer). Some browsers
will also print the page's URL (address) and title at the top of the
page, which makes it easier to look up the page again on the Web
if it wasn't saved as a bookmark. In Netscape and Internet
Explorer,
 either click on the Print button, or
 Use the menu: File, Print.
 You can also use the "Print Preview" on Netscape version 4
or above or Internet Explorer version 5.5 or above to see
what you will get before you actually print.

Some web pages are divided into multiple sections called frames.
You can only print one frame at a time. To print a particular frame,
first select it by clicking it. Then click the Print button or select
Print Frame from the File menu.
Saving an Image from the Web
Place your cursor over the graphic you want to save.

Click the right mouse button. A pop-up box appears.

Save the image to your hard drive by selecting a Save option.
You can accept the current file name or rename the file. (Graphic
files are usually in .gif or .jpg formats.)

Copying text from a Web page

Text on a Web page can be selected and then copied and pasted
into another document, such as a word processor document. This
has many practical uses. The normal Windows copy and paste
procedures can be used:

 Select (highlight) the text on the web page that you wish to
copy
 Copy the selected text by pressing the Ctrl and C keys at the
same time
 Go to the program you want to paste the text into (e.g.,
WordPerfect or e-mail)
 Move the cursor to where the text should go, and click the
mouse once
  Paste the text by pressing the Ctrl and V keys at the same
time

Action Menu Keyboard

Copy Edit, Copy Ctrl + C
Cut Edit, Cut Ctrl + X
Paste Edit, Paste Ctrl + V

Copying Web addresses (URLs)

Because Internet addresses are often so lengthy, it's worthwhile
to avoid manually retyping them if possible. If you want to check
out an address contained in a newsgroup article or in an e-mail
someone has sent you, simply copy and paste it into the box in
the Web browser where the addresses go (the "Location" or
"Netsite" box). The procedure is similar to that described above.

 Click the left mouse button in the address ("Location") box of

Netscape
 Select (highlight) the complete URL (address), by
highlighting it all
 Copy the selected URL by pressing the Ctrl and C keys at
the same time
 Go to the program you want to paste the text into (e.g.,
WordPerfect or e-mail)
 Move the cursor to where the text should go, and click the
mouse once
 Paste the text by pressing the Ctrl and V keys at the same
time

Some e-mail and newsgroup software will highlight the address

as a link, which you can simply click on to go to that page.

Downloading files
Downloading a file simply means to transfer a copy the file from a
remote computer (a server) to your computer. Many files are
available for downloading on the Internet, using a Web browser.
These include shareware software programs, multimedia files
(such as sound, video and graphics), and document files of all
types.

Many times you are given instructions on how to download files

on the particular web page - you may only need to "click on the
link." With both Netscape and Internet Explorer (with Windows
computers)
 you can right-click with your mouse to bring up a menu and
 choose "Save File As" (Netscape) or "Save Target As"
(Internet Explorer).

Multimedia on the Web

Audio, video, animation, and interactive games are referred to as
multimedia. Some multimedia content, called streaming media,
are embedded in a web page and begin to play when you access
the page. Others require that you download the multimedia file to
your computer first. Multimedia files often require that your
browser use a plug-in program to play the file, like QuickTime or
Macromedia Flash Player.

COMMUNICATION USING THE INTERNET

This chapter looks at:

 The use of e-mail for communication between individuals
and groups
 The main search principles of Internet search engines, e.g.
string
 Searching including multiple criteria searches.
 The main features of browser software e.g. forward and
back buttons, book marking and organizing favorites.
 Purposefully navigating large websites, e.g. locating a
specific information resource in a given site

Overview
E-mail was one of the first uses of the Internet and is still the most
popular. This chapter looks at the different features of e-mail and
how it is used for communication between individuals and groups.
It also looks at how the Internet can be used to search for
information, including Internet search engines, the main features
of browser software and how to navigate large websites.

E-mail
You have probably used e-mail at school or college, and
increasingly more people are using e-mail at home. If you go on
work experience or when you srtart your first job after school or
college, you will almost certainly find that e-mail plays an
important role in business. In fact, nowadays, few businesses
would be able to function without it.

What is e-mail?

E-mail is like an electronic letter sent in most instances via the

computer, instead of the postal service. It is a very sophisticated
method of the electronic transfer, where messages and
documents can be sent from one computer to another using a
communications link such as a modem and a telephone line.

E-mail Addresses
In order to send an e-mail, you have to know the e-mail address
of the person you wish to e-mail. This is usually a short code,
often made up of the users name followed by the Internet
Service Provider’s (ISP) code, but this can vary. Look at the
three e-mail addresses below.

From: PhillipDavey@globalnet.co.uk
To: RosalindaDavey@aol.com
Cc: G.Davey@freeserve.co.uk
Each has a different ISP-Globalnet, AOL and Freeserve
To send an e-mail via the internet, you have to connect the ISP’s
server. Once you are connected, you can send the e-mail. The e-
mail is then sent from your ISP server to the destination ISP
server
Check point
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides access to the
internet via it’s services. Examples of ISP’s are Btopenworld,
pipex, freeserve and AOL
INTRODUCTION TO WEBSITE DESIGNING AND PUBLISHING
A website (also called an Internet site) is a group of HTML files
connected by hypertext links and stored on a web server, i.e. a
computer that hosts webpages and is permanently connected to
the Internet.

Why Have a Website?

There are many motivations for having a website:

 Need for visibility: a well promoted website can be a good

way for a company or organization to increase its visibility
 Improved reputation: with an institutional website or a mini
publicity website, a company can expand its popularity with
the public
 Data collection: the Internet is a fantastic opportunity for
companies to collect client data and attract prospective
clients
 Online sales: while initially wary, Internet users have now
understood that the Internet is a great medium for buying
certain consumer goods. For some companies, a website is
a great marketing tool
 A user support service: more and more companies are
using the Internet as a medium for providing before- and
after-sales service. A website is an inexpensive way for a
company to provide Internet users with the maximum
amount of business and technical information.

Generally, we divide websites up into several different categories

depending on their objective:

 Storefronts are websites whose main objective is to

promote a company's brand image by showing examples of
its products or services
 Catalog websites are sites whose goal is to present what a
company is selling
  Information websites are sites that supply a particular type
of information to a particular type of Internet user
 Commercial websites are sites that sell products directly to
Internet users. Some of these sites allow buyers to pay
online
 An institutional websites is a site that presents an
organisation and its values. This type of website generally
describes the organisation's activity and key figures and
supplies clients and/or beneficiaries with necessary
information
 Personal websites are sites set up by individuals and
usually are dedicated to an individual's favourite leisure
activity, topic or sport
 Community websites are sites that bring together users
with a common interest
 Intranet websites are sites accessible within a business or
office and are used to share professional information

What is Webmastering?
A webmaster is a person in charge of a website, i.e. the
individual who designs a website and updates it.
The website's life is made up of two different facets, both of which
can be broken down into specific phases:

 Creation, which corresponds to converting an idea into a

website that is online, indexed and visited
 Operation, which corresponds to the daily management,
evolution and updating of the site
The creation phase is a project in and of itself that is made up of
many steps

 Designing (the act of formalising the idea)

 Fulfillment (the act of developing the website)
 Hosting (the act of placing the website permanently online)

The operation phase includes the following activities (among

others):

 Monitoring the website's technology and positionning as well

as those of its competition
 Promotion and indexing of the website in order to increase
traffic
 Maintenance and updating, which involves inputting updates
daily and keeping the website in good working order

Therefore, setting up a website is a multidisciplinary activity that

requires the participation of people with various skills. Depending
on the organisation, a webmaster may be more like a project
manager than a one-man-band in charge of all jobs, from
designing to indexing.
The term webmastering refers to all the tasks that must be
performed for a website to operate properly.

Designing
 Most books about website creation only deal with the mainly
technical "fulfillment" phase (creating webpages with HTML) and
generally neglect all of the the pilot study stages.
Building a website does not only involve creating the webpages. It
is a strategic and creative collective endeavour that must involve
all stakeholders (employees, management, clients, etc.).
Therefore, website design is of utmost importance. This step
involves reflecting first on what the overall goals of the site are
and who the target audience might be and then on the structure,
ergonomics and navigation.

Fulfillment
The fulfillment step involves the act of creating the webpages and
graphic elements. Creating webpages consists of creating HTML
files. There are two ways to create this type of file:

 By writing HTML files "by hand", i.e. by entering HTML

code in a text file with a simple text editor. This is the most
tedious solution (despite HTML's relative simplicity) but
nevertheless remains the best way to learn to make a website,
understand how it works and thus be able to create optimised and
clean code.
 By using an HTML WYSIWYG editor (What You See Is
What You Get). This is a piece of software that allows individuals
to create webpages visually by placing objects and controls on
the page. The software takes care of generating the HTML code
automatically. This is a very practical method for creating
webpages because the complexity of the process is largely
hidden. However, this method can prove to be very annoying if
the editor will not allow the user to create the page as he so
desires. Knowledge of HTML is desirable in order to be able to
master the software's more advanced editing options that allow
users to manually modify style attributes.

In addition, a welcoming website must have images. Design

software must be used to liven up a website with images (in GIF,
JPG or PNG format).
Hosting
A company that provides web servers that are permanently
connected to the Internet is called a host. The service they
provide is called hosting. There are two main categories of hosts:

 Free hosts: They give users server disk space to create

their webpages. This service is generally totally free of
charge. These hosts earn money either through
advertisements on your website (a practice that is becoming
more and more rare) or simply from traffic on their own
website.
 Professional hosts: This type of hosting guarantees service
quality (bandwidth) and security (data security and less
failures). This type of hosting is essential for websites with
high levels of traffic (more than 1,000 visitors a day) and
allows the owner to buy their own domain name (such as
www.commentcamarche.net).

Publishing the Website

You do not need to be connected to the Internet to create a
website because you first have to create HTML files and images.
However, when the website is ready to be visited, it must "go
live", i.e. the files must be transferred (copied) from your
computer to the server. To do so, you must connect to the
Internet and then send the pages to the server by using an FTP
client (file transfer protocol).

Promotion
A website will only be visited only after some type of promotional
campaign has been conducted. Once a website is well known, the
promotion campaign will run itself thanks to hypertext links
inserted on other pages by webmasters, provided that the
website's content is of interest to enough people

Website Design
Website design must be a user-oriented collective effort. This
means that, when possible, the design process must include
participation of a group of representatives from the business or
organization and their beneficiaries, with the common goal of
obtaining maximum satisfaction among users. Thus, the design
process must mainly focus on the user and must take place in
close collaboration with a representative panel of users, at a
brainstorming session, for example.

The main goal of the design phase is to analyse all of the needs
and then imagine the contexts for use. Analysing needs falls into
two categories:

 The needs of the organization, corresponding to a goal

strategy
 The needs of the users, corresponding to a target strategy

Goal Strategy
Before starting any website project, it is necessary to go over the
website's goals. For a business or organization, this involves
analyzing how the website will help the organization meet its own
strategic goals. It is a good idea to make a list of the website's
goals and define the operational and quantifiable criteria that will
allow the organization to measure whether or not the desired goal
was truly met.

Target Strategy
A website is generally intended for a category of users. Precisely
targeting the user type in question will allow the business or
organization to establish a user profile and thus focus the content
on a specific type of information. Thus, it is necessary to think
about the type of information that target users are likely to search
for and try to determine their main questions and the type of
responses they are expecting to receive. This step can be done
by interviewing a business's clients or an organization’s
beneficiaries, or, in the case of a personal website, through
conversations with the website owner's friends and family.

Competitive Intelligence
Competitive Intelligence consists of determining a website's
main competitors, analyzing how they serve their clientele and
finding any possible weaknesses in order to offer a service that
fills in the competition's gaps. This involves performing a
competitive analysis, based on one business sector that will be
used to draw up a comprehensive picture of the existing offer and
the needs to be satisfied, in order to establish a website that
offers something more to future visitors.

Scenarios
Writing up scenarios involves a business or organization putting
themselves in the user's shoes and imaging the different possible
use cases for a website.

Specifications
Specifications are an all-encompassing contractual document that
allows the client to specify his needs to the project manager
(service provider). Even if a service provider is not hired to build
the website, writing up even a small list of specifications in order
to formalize ideas is still useful procedure for a business or
organization.

Planning
The planning step consists of:
 making a list of the people working on the website project
 dividing up the tasks according to skills
 establishing a schedule for each task
 figuring out the cost of the project by calculating the time
spent by each
person and multiplying it by their hourly (or daily) cost

A website project team generally includes the following jobs (one

person may have several jobs):
Job Description
Person at the core in charge of the overall
Project Manager
management of the project.
 Person at the heart of the project who is in
Multimedia
charge of managing the technical teams
Project Manager
(developpers, web architects, etc.).
Chief-Editor Person in charge of establishing the website's
(editor or section written content in order to best meet Internet
editor) users' expectations and increase traffic.
People in charge of writing the content. A web
Web Journalist journalist's job is very similar to that of a
traditional journalist.
Person whose role it is to design and develop
Developer the dynamic parts of the website. This is a
(programmer) technical job that is modeled after that of the
multimedia project manager.
Person in charge of coordinating artistic
creations in order to translate the client's ideas
into a multimedia dimension. The artistic
Artistic Director
director must monitor all of the artistic teams in
order to guarantee the website's visual
harmony.
Computer
Person who designs the website's graphic
Graphics
elements (illustrations, diagrams, logos, etc.).
Designer
Web Designer
Person who designs the graphic side of the
(or often layout
website.
artist)
Person who designs website's pages and puts
HTML Integrator them online. They incorporate the articles and
graphic elements into the pages.
Person in charge of designing a usable
interface in order to maximize a site's usability
Ergonomist
and establish user loyalty. This job can very
easily fall under one of the other job titles.
 In most cases, network adminstration is
provided by the host. However, if the website is
hosted on the organisation's premises or the
Network
website is built on a large network architecture,
Administrator
the network administrator will be in charge of
its correct operation, both in terms of service
quality and security.
This is a job that is essential to the website. Its
main objective is the smooth operation of the
exchanges in the discussion spaces (forums,
chatrooms). Moderators intervene by deleting,
Moderator modifying or moving messages that conflict
(sometimes mod) with the website's ethics and beginners guide.
The moderator tries his or her best to answer
user questions. And finally, he or she can start
discussions or polls in order to create a spirit of
community.

Feasibility Study
When designing a website, the project must be analyzed in terms
of budget and time, as well. The project must include long-term
plans, i.e. the organization must anticipate the means necessary
for creating the site but also for maintaining and updating it. As
such, if the website is not regularly updated, the company's brand
image may suffer rather than increase in value. During this step,
the initial goals can be reviewed and prioritized in order to
choose, depending on the budget and deadlines, only those that
are most important.

Website Ergonomics

The Criteria of Ergonomics

The following are the main criteria of website ergonomics (non-
exhaustive list):
Criteria Sub-Criteria Description
Soberness Simplicity An uncluttered website will
reinforce an organisation's
credibility.
Not Animated images are not
Overloaded recommended. Animated
images should be reserved for
strong messages because they
attract the user's eye.
Legibility Clearness The fact that written information
is harder to read on screen than
on paper (25% more reading
time) should be taken into
account. Thus, the text should
be sufficiently spaced out.
Structuring The text should be structured by
paragraphs and titles at different
levels in order to facilitate
reading.
Layout The different pieces of
information must be organised
by level of importance. The
most important pieces of
information must appear at the
top of the page.
Usability Ease when The widely followed "three-click
browsing rule" stipulates that all
information must be accessible
in less than 3 clicks.
Location The visitor must be able to
locate where he is on the
website at all times. Moreover,
the logo must be in the same
spot on all the pages and a
 uniform graphic charter must be
applied to all of the pages to let
the user know that he is still on
the same website. A site map
may be an excellent way to help
the visitor to know where he is.
Freedom when The website must give the user
browsing the possibility to return to the
home page and the main
headings with one simple click,
no matter what page he is on
(e.g. by using a navigation bar).
As far as possible, the user
should be able to browse
through the content without
having to return to the home
page. Intro pages and splash
screens should be avoided
because they will annoy most
visitors.
Address The page's URL must always be
Visibility visible and sufficiently clear to
allow users to know where they
are and easily return to that
page.
Tangibility of The information on the website
the Information must be qualified, i.e.
information such as the date of
the last update and the name of
the author must be present. In
addition, it is a bad idea for a
website to have a attention-
grabbing home page that leads
to pages that are under
construction.
 Structure The elements used for browsing
Homogeneity must be located at the same
spot on every page and should
have the same presentation
from one page to another, if
possible.
Speed Loading Time A page's loading time must be
as short as possible because
most Internet users will not wait
more than 15 seconds for a
page to load. This factor
depends particularly on the
visitor's connection, the size of
the page and its images as well
as the webserver capabilities.
Optimized It is a good idea to optimize
Images image size as much as possible
by choosing a well-adapted
format and the fewest of colours
possible. The recommendation
is to not have more than 30 or
40 kb per image, unless
voluntary action is required (e.g.
the user can download a high-
resolution image).
Non-resized For the same reason, images
Images should preferrably not be
resized.
Interactivity Hypertext Links Interactivity describes the
possible interactions between
users and a website. Hypertext
links offer users vast
possibilities in this area and give
visitors multiple paths that they
can take as they like. Web
 designers are advised to place
enough links between the
different pages. However, too
many links can make reading
difficult.
Segmenting In order to allow visitors to take
Information in information more easily and,
in some cases to pique
curiosity, it is a good idea to
segment information. In
particular, segmenting
information can be done by
having a catchline and a
hypertext link that leads to the
rest of the article.
Facilitating It is a good idea to have
Exchanges everything set up to make
communication with visitors
easier, particularly in order to
gather their impressions and
requests in order to adapt the
website to their needs. At a
minimum, it must be easy for
visitors to contact someone,
either by email or by filling out a
contact form.
Adaptability Adaptability describes the
possibility to personalize a
website through user
intervention.
Font Resizing A website's text should
preferrably not use fonts whose
sizes are not expressed in
absolute value. This way users
can resize the font if they so
 desire.
Adaptativeness Adaptivity describes the ability
for a website to automatically
become personalised without
user intervention.
Accessibility Access to all Accessibility means the ability
for a website to be accessed
universally, i.e. by all types of
users including partially sighted
and visually handicapped
people. A certain number of
simple accessibility rules exist
and should be followed so as to
give access to the greatest
number of people, independant
of their software or hardware
configuration or their handicap.
Interoperability Respect for standards, in
particular theW3C accessibility
recommendations, helps to
guarantee a good level of
interoperability, i.e. the ability for
clients using different software
to access a website.
Format Preferentially, the formats used
Transparency should be transparent, i.e. they
can be read in text mode. Thus,
HTML should preferrably be
used instead of Flash. In
addition, images and animation
must not detract from written
information or be a bother for
visually handicapped people.
Therefore, graphic illustrations
should only be used to visually
 compliment the text.
Caption A caption or replacement text
should exist to replace images
(by using the alt atribute), in
order to allow visually impaired
people to understand an
image's meaning.
Choice of Colours should be chosen so
Colours that colour blind people can
correctly distinguish the colours.
Healthy Use of The information must be
Style Sheets accessible even without a style
sheet.
Adapted Their must be enough contrast
Contrast between the background colour
and the text so that partially
sighted people can read it.
Modifiable Font Font size must be adaptable so
Size that users can enlarge the font
size if necessary.
In addition, the fonts used must
not be so small that they tire
readers' eyes or are illegible.

Navigating Websites

Designing a Web Navigation System

A website's structure must be the reflection of a strategy.
Navigation scenarios must be worked out in order to push users
into follow a path on the website.
However, visitors should not feel trapped and should be free to
leave or change sections at any time.
Visual Path
Studies have shown that the eye of the average Internet user
generally travels over webpages in a "zigzag" pattern, starting at
the upper left-hand corner and working its way down to the lower
right-hand corner.

The upper-middle area represents a particularly strategic spot for

placing information.

Structuring a Website
Structuring a website consists of building the website's overall
architecture by organizing the different pieces of information.
The first step is to make a list of the website's content and group
the content together by theme in order to form sections. This is
sometimes called section building.
As soon as the main sections are identified (no more than a
dozen main sections should be used), they must be organized
and divided into subsections. Most of the time, a website's
structure is like the shape of the tree, with the home page at the
roots:
Standard Elements
Some elements are found on almost every website:

 The website's logo in the upper left-hand corner. Clicking on

this logo leads directly to the website's home page
 A link to the home page is present on every page of the site
 Navigation elements are present on every page so that
users can see where they are on the website and easily return to
the main section

Elements of Navigation
Elements of navigation are tools that help visitors to know where
they are on the website, go back, and move between sections.
There are several methods for setting up navigation elements:

 Breadcrumb Trail
 Tab navigation
 Site map

Breadcrumb Trail
A breadcrumb trail is a navigation tool made up of a series of
hierarchical links. A breadcrumb trail represents the navigation
path and allows users to:
 see where they are on the website
 easily return to the main sections

A breadcrumb trail looks like this:

Home Page >Webmastering> Navigation

A breadcrumb trail includes the following:

 Links separated by the character ">", symbolising the idea of

hierarchy
 The last link cannot be clicked and appears in bold. This
represents the page that the visitor is on

The term "breadcrumb" refers to the Grimm fairytale "Hansel and

Gretel", which tells the story of two children lost in a forest who
drop pieces of bread behind themselves to be able to find their
way back.
The French term for this translates as "Ariadne's string", which
refers to Greek mythology. In the myth, Ariadne gives Theseus,
her love, a ball of yarn before he runs into the labyrinth to kill the
Minotaur. By unwinding it and then winding it up, Theseus is able
to get out of the labyrinth.

Tab Navigation
Tabs are useful navigation tools that help visitors to make out the
sections of a website and easily move from one section to
another. Colour codes can also be used to reinforce the
difference between sections.

Site Map
A site plan gives Internet users a global view of a website. In
addition, a "you are here" label can help internet users to figure
out where they are on a website.

Navigation Arrows
Navigation arrows (next, previous, return to chapter, return to
home page) are intuitive natigation tools for the user.

Introduction to Web design

The term "webdesign" refers to the discipline that consists of
structuring a website's graphic elements in order to esthetically
express the visual identity of a company or organisation. This is a
visual design step rather than a functional design step
(ergonomics, navigation).
The goal of webdesign is to enhance a company or organisation's
image with graphic elements in order to reinforce its visual identity
and invoke a feeling of trust in the user. Nevertheless, along with
ergonomic criteria, a website must above all meet users'
expectations and allow them to easily find the information they are
seeking.
Therefore, webdesign involves finding a compromise between a
presentation that has amazing graphics and that gives the
company credibility and brand image, and a presentation that is
simple and plain that allows users to easily find what they are
seeking.
By extension, the term web designer refers to the person whose
job it is to design websites.

Necessary Inspiration
Designing a webpage is above all an artistic endeavour that
combines inventiveness and creativity. The goal of this guide is to
list several key elements used to obtain an effective design.
However, inspiration can also be found by visiting reference
websites, especially professional websites. It is especially
interesting to study how each website arranges information, how
the menus and blocks of information are presented and, in
general, determine what gives a website a "professional"
appearance.

Page Layout
Generally, templates are created and used as patterns when
designing a website. Templates are "carbon copy" images or
webpages that represent the graphic skeleton of a model page.
The traditional structure of a webpage is as follows:

 a logo located in the upper left-hand corner. Most of the time

the logo is clickable and sends users back to the home page
 a menu located on the left and/or on the right
 a header that contains the website's name, a navigation
banner and an area set aside for a banner (advertisement or
otherwise)
 the page's main body, which contains most of the
information
 a footer that includes useful information such as the last
update, a link to a contact form, a link to a site map, etc.

In the template, the web designer must distinguish between

elements that do not change and are identical on every page and
elements that vary from one page to another.

Graphic Charter
A "graphic charter" is the comprehensive document that lists the
presentation rules for the graphic elements that convey a
website's visual identity.
The graphic charter defines a webpage's graphic outfitting,
especially the sizes, colours and appearance of text, the site's
images and buttons, as well as their position in relation to other
objects on the page.
Mock-up
A mock-up is a model or prototype of a website that presents the
website's graphics and navigation. Mock-ups allow designers to
formalise a website's design and are generally used to validate
the design phase before moving to the "fulfillment" phase.
A mock-up includes static pages representing the website's main
pages (without content), which are used to simulate navigation. In
simulation, dynamic elements such as the search engine may
lead to a page presenting made-up results, for example.

Page Sizes
The size of a webpage depends mainly on the user screen
definition (not resolution).
In terms of width, it is better to choose a value that is less than
most visitors' horizontal definition so that they do not have to
scroll the screen with the horizontal scroll bar. A short page allows
visitors to easily skim information to find the items that interest
them.
Concerning length, it is best to not exceed three to five times the
height of the screen. Indeed, excessively long pages run the risk
of not being read fully and take longer to load.
There are several strategies that exist to guarantee optimum page
display on most visitors' computers:

 Choose the smallest width supported by the largest number

of computers (e.g. between 600 and 800 pixels wide)
 Choose a page containing invisible tables with varible width
(defined by percentage)
 Use a script (e.g. JavaScript) to detect user resolution and
redirect visitors to a page with the proper width. This method
requires visitors to use a browser with activated JavaScript
and requires the creation of as many pages as widths
requested.

The Positioning of Information

How information is positioned is an important element of web
design. Given the direction in which users read information
(diagonally from the upper left-hand corner down to the lower
right-hand corner), information located at the top of the page will
have a higher chance of being read by Internet users.

Choice of Colours
It is recommended to use no more than three different colours on
a website in order to meet the criteria for simplicity. The colours
should correspond to the organisation's colours (especially those
of the logo) and should express a particular feeling.
No matter what colours are chosen, a dominant colour should be
picked and used as the webpage's main colour. One or several
more dynamic (brighter) secondary colours should be chosen and
used in smaller proportions to underline the page's elements.
Colours possess implicite symbolism. Therefore, it is important to
choose them with a goal in mind. Colours influence individual
behaviour:

 physically (appetite, sleep, body temperature, etc.)

 emotionally (feelings of fear, safety, joy, etc.)
 psychologically (energy, concentration, etc.)

The table below lists the meanings that are classically associated
with specific colours:
Negative
Colour Positive Meanings Areas
Meanings
calm, trust,
authorisation,
appeasement, sailing, new
Blue serenity, protection, cold, sleep technologies, IT,
seriousness, medicine
mysticism, kindness,
water, space, peace
delicacy, passion, melancholy,
Purple discretion, modesty, sadness, grief, culture, politics
religion dissatisfaction
 charm, intimacy, private journal,
Pink naivety
woman, beauty women
heat, strength, violence, anger, luxury, fashion,
courage, dynamism, danger, urgency, sports,
Red
triumph, love, restriction, blood, marketing,
enthousiasm hell media
lukewarmness,
comfort, glory,
entertainment,
Orange happiness, wealth, fire, warning
sports, travel
pleasure, fruit, smell,
energy, vitality
light, cheerfulness, deceit,
sun, life, power, selfishness,
Yellow tourism
dignity, gold, wealth, jealousy, pride,
immortality warning
nature, plant life, help,
balance, faith, discovery,
Green appeasement, rest, nature, travel,
trust, tolerance, hope, education
pride, youth, charity
calmness, philosophy,
Brown filth environment
countryside
purity, innocence,
White snow, cleanliness, fashion, news
freshness, wealth
design,
associations,
Grey neutrality, respect
not-for-profit
organisations
death, darkness, cinema, art,
Black simplicity, luxury, night sadness, photography,
monotony restriction
Colour composition also influences how volumes are perceived.
Colour composition can give of a feeling of well-being, both when
in a nicely decorated house as well as on a website.
The colour circle is a good tool for understanding how colours
interact. The colour circle is a circular representation of colours. It
includes the following colours:

 The primary colours (red, blue, green) or "pure" colours,

which cannot be obtained by mixing other colours
 The secondary colours (cyan, magenta, yellow), which are
obtained by mixing equal parts of two adjacent primary
colours. Secondary colours are diametrically opposed to
their complementary (subtractive) colour on the colour circle
 Tertiary colours, which are obtained by mixing a primary
colour and a secondary color

Colours are also divided up into "warm" colours (with tones closer
to red) and "cool" colours (with tones closer to blue).

There are universal rules that govern colour harmony that are due
to the eye's physical properties. When the eye sees one colour, it
automatically creates a filter of the complementary colour around
it. This is called "simultaneous contrast". With this, how colours
are perceived depends on the surrounding colours. Thus, yellow
will appear more orangish when it is grouped with blue and the
blue will appear more purple. Blue next to red will appear more
green, etc.
Moreover, neighboring colours on the chromaticity diagram create
a feeling of balance for the eye because of the absence of
contrast; this is called "color harmony".
Generally there are two ways of choosing harmonising colours:

 by choosing nuances of the same colour, either colours of

the same shade with similar tones
 by mixing complimentary colours (warm and cool), i.e.
colours that are far from each other on the chromaticity
diagram. For two colours, complementary, diametrically
opposed colours should be chosen; for three colours, the
colours must form a equilateral triangle, etc.

Finally, on the whole, objects in warm colours will appear larger

than objects in cool colours.

Choosing Images
Images help to liven up a website and make it more cheery. That
said, misused images can disturb visual comfort as well as page
loading.
Novice webmasters like to liven up their website with fun
animated images picked up on the web. However, this should be
avoided as much as possible because such images can annoy
readers and give a website an amateur feel.

Background Colour
Correctly choosing a background colour is vital because a poorly
chosen background can hamper readability. Good contrast
between the foreground colour and the dominant background
colour is essential. For this reason, it is better not to choose a
graphic background because it can hinder readability and project
a general feeling of amateurism. Generally, the background
colour should be rather pale.

Typography
It is strongly recommended that no more than two types of font be
used on a website. Stylised fonts should be used sparingly (e.g.
for a title) and most of the webpage should use a classic font
(Arial, Verdana, Helvetica, etc.)
For traditional printed texts, serif fonts generally facilitate reading
because the serifs help readers to follow the text.
Using serifs on the Internet is not recommended because,
depending on the user's screen definition, serifs can easily
become a spidery scrawl that hinder reading. It is better to opt for
rounder, sans-serif fonts.
Finally, please note that texts with non-standard fonts run the risk
of not displaying correctly on some screens. In order to create
titles that use these fonts, this limitation can be avoided by
creating transparent images that contain the text.

Graphic Symbols
Using pictogrammes and icons to establish visual signs is highly
recommended. Be careful though when choosing symbols
because users may misinterpret them, especially in the case of
international websites. The following pictogrammes are commonly
used:

 a magnifying glass typically symbolises a search function

 a envelope symbolises the possibility to contact the
webmaster by email
 a question mark symbolises online help
 a house represents a link to the home page
 a flag symbolises the language of the current page or the
possibility to change to a different language

WEBSITE CONTENT

The Importance of Content

Visitors generally return to a website for its content more than for
its design. Studies conducted on Internet users show that the
number one most valued part of a website is its written content.
Thus, a very simple website with extremely interesting content
would potentially be visited more often than a website that is weak
on content but has well-crafted graphics.
 Description of the Information
Every piece of content must be described, i.e. pieces of
information must appear that allow visitors to get an idea of what
the content is. The essential elements, among others, are:

 A clear title that appears in the browser's title bar

 The author's name
 The last modification date
 The page's copyrights and particularly the terms of
distribution
 Possible sources of information

Editorial Style
The editorial style of a website should be adapted to the type of
readers who are going to visit it. The website's editorial policy is
the policy used when writing articles. A well-defined editorial
policy helps to guarantee cohesiveness between articles as well
as a certain kind of content harmony throughout the website.
In most cases, given the diverse nature of a website's readership,
businesses and organizations are advised to adopt an editorial
style close to that of a journalist, i.e. particularly following these
rules:

 Do not use the first person singular ("I")

 Avoid the impersonal pronoun "one"
 Use a neutral tone

The language used must be the closest to that of the reader

without being informal. Thus, preferentially the content should be
made up of simple, clear, precise and concise sentences.

Calibration
Calibration refers to determining the length of an article. Studies
have shown that people read text on screen 25% more slowly
than text on paper. Considering the difficulty reading on screen, it
is highly recommended to write concise articles.

WEB LANGUAGES
Introduction to the Web
The term "web" refers to the Internet service that allows users to
browse through webpages. The protocol used for this type of
communication is
HTTP Protocol (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which explains why
the URLs that you type into a browser begin with http://.
Version 1.1 of HTTP protocol is currently being used (specified by
the W3C consortium). More and more, however, HTTPS protocol
(secure HTTP protocol) is being used along with electronic
commerce systems because it is a secure protocol that enables
encrypted requests to be exchanged between the browser and
the server.
Today, the WAP protocol (Wireless Application Protocol) allows
WAP compatible mobile phones to communicate with the mobile
telephony operator's WAP gateway. Then the communications
are converted according to HTTP protocol by the gateway. The
latest version of the WAP protocol specified by the WAP Forum
(the authority in charge of defining the WAP standard) is version
1.1 (beginning of 2001).

HTML and Static Pages

For now, the standard language established for the distribution of
documents on the web is HTML (HyperText Markup Language).
HTML is the language used to specify a document's presentation
and hypertext links to other documents through the use of
formatting tags.
TheW3C, an organisation in charge of standardized Internet rules,
specified HTML version 4.01 at the beginning of 2001.
The often talked about DHTML (Dynamic HyperText Markup
Language) is not a true markup language. In truth, it is a group of
languages that work with HTML that are used to make a webpage
more dynamic. These languages are:

 HTML 4.0 or higher

 JavaScript, which is used to perform operations on the
client’s browser
 DOM (Document Object Model), which defines an object tree
structure that represents a document's configuration. DOMs
are used to modify the objects included in the document.
 CSS (Cascading Style Sheet), which groups together in one
document the definition of each tag's style for an entire
webpage or website

Dynamic Webpages
A "static webpage" is a webpage made up of a text file
containing HTML code and possibly some images and links to
other documents. A website made up of static webpages is thus
defined as a "static website". A static website will work fine if it
contains less than a couple dozen pages. However, operating and
updating it may run up against the following limitations:

 difficult to maintain because each page must be manually

modified (especially when all the pages have the same
menu)
 impossible to display a page personalised for each visitor
 impossible to dynamically create a page depending on
database entries
 etc.

This is why solutions have been perfected that allow servers to

automatically generate webpages. Many solutions exist that allow
scripting languages to be used on web servers. The most widely
used are:

 The first solution, called CGI (Common Gateway Interface),

interpreted programs (generally written in perl or C
programming language) and then had them send back a
content that was compatible with the HTTP protocol
 Microsoft's ASP language (Active Server Pages) made
writing these scripts easier through the manipulation of
objects in VBScript
 The language PHP (Hypertext preprocessor) uses its own
language (a derivative of C++ and Perl) and enables many
functionalities (equivalent to those in ASP technology)
 The JSP language (Java Server Pages) is the most recent
among these technologies. JSP allows web designers to use
all the power of Java to create dynamic webpages.

Java and the Web

For a long time, Java was mostly used to write applets, i.e. small
programs run on the client's browser within a webpage that make
the page much more interactive (but much slower, as well).
Now Java is mainly used on web servers for the following
reasons:

 Java is portable (it can be run on every kind of platform)

 Java is safe (it was designed to not cause any runtime errors
that can create security weaknesses for the server)

The different Java objects are:

 Servlets, which allow user requests to dictate processing

(access to databases with JDBC, communication with other
servlets thanks to RMI technology, accessing LDAP, etc.) ;
 JSP pages representing HTML code in which the Java code
is called
 EJBs (Enterprise JavaBeans), server-side components
written in Java used to access their methods

Java technologies are based on use of these three objects within

an application server, i.e. a specific server using a virtual Java
machine. The main application servers are:

 Oracle Application Server (Oracle)

 WebLogic (BEA)
 Websphere Application Server (IBM)
 Jrun (Allaire/Live software)
 Iplanet (Alliance Sun Netscape)
 Jserv and Tomcat (Apache)
 WebObjects

XML
HTML quickly showed its limitations not only because of its limited
number of tags but especially because it is impossible to separate
content and presentation, which leads to problems when making
even minor adjustments to presentation. Thus, XML was
introduced as a meta language, i.e. a language used to define a
new language (comprised of new tags).
Moreover, given that XML separates the presentation from the
data, it is possible to exchange documents in XML format without
influencing their form. This makes adapting content to a browser
and other display devices simple (in that way, WML (Wireless
Markup Language) is an XML implementation option for
displaying webpages on mobile terminals).
XSL (eXtensible StyleSheet Language) is used to format an XML
document with the help of formatting rules in order to compose a
document in another format (HTML, WML, PDF, LaTeX, etc.)
XML organises information according to a tree structure defined
by the DOM (Document Object Model). Thus, it is possible to read
an XML document by using a parser (also called a syntactic
analyzer), i.e. a programme that uses a function library (API, for
Application Programmable Interface) to read and modify an XML
document.

What is a Domain Name?

An Internet website is defined by its URL. A website hosted by a
free host (e.g. anInternet Access Provider) generally has an
address such as:
http://www.your-provider.com/yourname
This type of address is rather difficult to commit to memory, so an
address such as the following is preferable:
http://www.yourname.com

Usefulness of Domain Names

A website with its own domain name is much easier to memorize.
It is much easier for a visitor to return to a website whose name is
easy to remember than to a website whose name is extremely
complicated.
What's more, a well-chosen domain name will help the site's
popularity grow exponentially by word of mouth.
Finally, a domain name generally gives a touch of professionalism
and credibility to a website and gives the Internet user a stronger
feeling of trust.

Choosing a Domain Name

Given that a domain name must be easy to spread, it is essential
to choose the easiest one possible. Obviously a domain name is
not just a complex list of characters, so it should be chosen
carefully by avoiding the following pitfalls:

 Choosing complicated names

 Choosing names that are too long
(www.commentcamarche.net is already pushing it length-
wise)
 Using special characters such as underscores (_) (it is much
easier to sa "comment ça marche dot net all one word" than
"comment hyphen ça hyphen marche dot net")

Moreover, the domain name must:

 be pronouncable
 have a meaning, if possible
 be available

Verifying a Name's Availability

There are tools (provided by the organisations in charge of
domain names) called Whois that allow you to verify the
availability of a domain name and even to find out who owns it.

Registering a Domain Name

Domain names are registered with an international organisation
(Internic) or with a registrar (in France the organisation is Afnic).
Domain classification (by business: commercial, not-for-profit,
network organisation, etc.), sometimes called TLD (Top Level
 Domain, generally corresponds to geographic distribution.
Nevertheless, there are names originally created for the United
States that allow you to classify the domain according to business
sector. For example:

 .arpa is for machines from the original network.

 .com is for commercial businesses (but now this domain
code is extremely general and has become international)
 .edu is for educational organisations
 .gov is for governmental organisations
 .mil is for military organisations
 .net is for organisations dealing with networks
 .org is for not-for-profit organisations

In addition, some of these domains have sub-domains. In France,

for example:

 .asso.fr is for associations

 .gouv.fr is for governmental organisations
 .tm.fr is for trademarked business organisations
 etc.

Acquiring an .fr Domain Name

Opening a domain name in France (a website whose name ends
with .fr) is governed by more complicated acquisition rules.
AFNIC, the organisation in charge of assigning .fr domain names,
only allows certain entities meeting certain conditions to acquire a
.fr domain name. Here is a non-exhaustive list of conditions:

 Holder of a registered trademark

 A company (business) registered at the trade register
 An association registered at the INSEE (French National
Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies)
 Liberal professions
 Self-employed craftsmen
 Public sector organisations

It is obviously necessary to have documents proving that the

organisation belongs to one of these categories:
 For businesses: an official document from the trade register
and the SIREN/SIRET number
 The SIREN/SIRET number for associations registered at the
INSEE
 For trademarks: a certificate from the INPI (French National
Institute of Intellectual Property), to be provided within 6 months if
the application is in progress

However, AFNIC is gradually liberalising the .fr domain code. It is

a good idea to regularly consult their website to find out the latest
rules. New organisations that will soon be able to acquire a
.fr domain name are:

 all the above-mentioned categories

 individual people
 all associations, even those not registered with INSEE

Redirection
It is possible to choose a redirection, i.e. a domain name that
redirects the Internet user to a specific URL. This type of solution
is a compromise that allows webmasters using free hosting
services to benefit from an easy-to-remember name.
Nevertheless, this system does not make the domain name
appear in the browser address bar.
Warning: providers who offer free domain name redirection also
become the owners of those domain names, too!

Grabbing
Some crafty Internet users take pleasure in buying large numbers
of domain names. This process is called grabbing and consists
of buying the domain names that certain companies could use
before the companies buy them (e.g. the .com, .net and .org
versions of the same domain name. This process is not
controlled).
In the past, many unscrupulous individuals grabbed domain
names and were successful at reselling these domain names
(which often are brand names) to companies at very high prices
(sometimes several million dollars). Since then, legislation
regarding the Internet has become more rigid and only on rare
occasions do courts side with cybersquatters.

What is Web Hosting?

In order to make a website available 24/7, it must be hosted on a
server that is permanently connected to the Internet. It is
technically possible to host your Internet website yourself
provided you have a sufficiently high upstream bandwidth.
Because visitors to a website are mostly downloading information,
this means that the server is mostly sending webpages, or
uploading.
For this reason, in order to give visitors a high quality service, it is
best to call on the services of a host, i.e. a company that offers to
host the website on specialised servers that are permanently
connected to the Internet with very high bandwidth.
In generall, there are the following types of hosting offers:

 Free Hosting
 Professional Hosting
 Shared Hosting: when a server hosts a large number of
websites
 Dedicated Hosting: when a client leases an entire server
 Colocation: when a client rents a hosting bay that can
house its servers.

Free Hosting
In their plans, Internet Access Providers generally offer a website
hosting option with fairly limited storage space. A large number of
sites offering free services exist, but the conditions of service
must be studied in detail.
These hosting services are often funded by advertisements
displayed on the website either in a corner or in the form of pop-
ups. Moreover, access time for this type of service is fairly
average and website availability is not guaranteed. It is important
to note that while it is relatively rare to be able to set up a domain
name with this type of hosting offer, it is nevertheless possible to
set up an automatic redirection from a domain name to the URL
 the free host offers (such as http://perso.my-
provider.com/mywebpage).

Shared Hosting
Shared hosting involves hosting several websites on the same
server. This solution is relatively inexpensive and allows clients to
benefit from a high-quality service at a reasonable price.
This type of option offers a server with a set configuration and a
software offer (server, databases, email accounts, distribution lists
server, etc.) as well as a specific amount of storage space.
In this type of solution, clients do not have direct access to the
server as an administrator. The server is configured through web
interfaces. Therefore, it is important to verify which configuration
parameters can be set (configuration of the domain name server,
web server, database management system, etc.).

Figuring out what to choose

In order to choose a shared host, a client must determine its
needs. Here is a non-exhaustive list of options generally offered
by hosts who offer shared hosting:

 Allocated disk space

 Authorized bandwidth: verify whether or not there are
surcharges if authorised traffic is exceeded
 Type of server: check the configuration (htaccess)
 Languages supported by the server
 Domain names
o Possibility to configure virtual domains
o Number of domain names
o Number of subdomains
 Access by SSH
 File updating by FTP
 Email server
o Existence of webmail
o Number of email accounts allowed
o Number of email aliases authorised
o Option to collect emails using an alias
o Option to forward emails to an external address
o Presence of antivirus and antispam software
o Distribution list manager supplied
o Automatic answering service
 Database management server
o Type
o Maximum number of databases
o Managing the database by web interface
 Statistics
o Access to statistics worked out by web interface
o Access to raw logs
o Additional web services
 Email contact form
 Personalised counter

Dedicated Hosting
Dedicated hosting consists of putting an entire server at the
client's disposal.

What is Web Positionning?

"Web positioning" generally means all the techniques used to
improve website visibility:

 referencing), which consists of introducing the website into

search tools by filling out the search tools' forms
 positionning), which consists of positionning the website or
specific pages of the website on the first results page for certain
keywords
 ranking, whose goal is similar to that of positionning but for
more elaborate phrases; part of the work is to identify these
requests

The difficulty of this process does not lie in promoting the website
to search engines but rather in structuring the content so that the
page is positionned high in the results for the chosen keywords.
 Indeed, a majority of Internet users use search engines in order to
find information and search for this information with the help of
keywords. Therefore companies and organisations must first
focus on the content that their websites offer in order to best meet
the needs of Internet users and then identify the keywords that
are likely to be entered by these users.

Improving Web Positionning

There are some design techniques that can be used to more
effectively position webpages:

 original and attractive content

 an aptly chosen title
 an fitting URL
 a body text that can be read by search engines
 META tags that precisely describe the page's content
 well thought out links
 ALT attributes to describe image content

Webpage Content
Search engines seek above all to give their users a quality service
by giving them the results that best match their search. So before
companies and organisations even think about web positionning,
they must endeavour to create consistent and original content.
Original content does not mean content that is offered by no other
website; that would be virtually impossible. It is however possible
to deal with a subject and give it an added bonus by going more
in-depth on certain points, organising the information in an original
way or relating different pieces of information.
On the other hand, still with the goal of supplying visitors with
better content in mind, search engines attach importance to
updating information. Updating a website's pages serves to either
increase the rating given by the engine to the website or how
often the indexing robot visits the site.

Page Title
The title is the best element for describing the page contents in
just a few words. Because it is the first information that the visitor
reads on the search engine's results page, special importance
must be attached to it. The title of a webpage is described in the
webpage's header in between the tags <TITLE> and </TITLE>.
The title must describe the webpage's content as precisely as
possible (in under 7 words and 60 characters).
The title is all the more important because it will appear in the
user's favorites as well as in the search history.

Page URL
Some search engines attach major importance to keywords
present in the URL, especially to keywords that appear in the
domain name. Companies and organisations are advised to use a
fitting file name that contains one or two keywords for each of the
websites files rather than names like page1.html, page2.html, etc.

Body of the Page

In order to enhance the content of each page as much as
possible, the content must be transparent (in contrast to opaque
content such as Flash), i.e. it must contain as much text as
possible that is indexable by search engines. Above all, page
content must be high-quality content aimed at visitors. However, it
is possible to improve it by making sure that different keywords
are present.
Frames are strongly advised against because they sometime
keep websites from being properly referenced.

Meta Tags
Meta tags are non-displayed tags that are inserted at the
beginning of an HTML document in order to subtly describe the
document. Among these tags, keywords and description tags
are ways to add keywords and a description to the page without
displaying them to visitors (e.g. terms in the plurial form and even
with intentional spelling mistakes). HTML codes should be used
for letters with accents. No more than 20 keywords should be
included.
Meta robots help define what a robot should do on a page,
notably by indicating whether or not the page must be indexed
and if the robot is authorised to follow the links.
Given the abusive use of meta tags in a large number of
websites, search engines now use this information less and less
when indexing pages.

Hypertext Links
In order to give each of your pages maximum visibility, you should
set up internal links between your pages to allow indexing robots,
or crawlers, to browse your entire website structure. Thus,
creating a page that presents your website's architecture and
contains links to each of your pages might be a very good idea.
In addition, it is important to have external links pointing to your
website because this increases your site's traffic and visibility and
because some search engines take into account the number and
quality of the links pointing to a site when defining relevancy (this
is true for Google, which has a PageRank index).

ALT Attributes for Images

A website's images are opaque to search engines, i.e. they are
not capable of indexing image content. Therefore, it is a good
idea to place an ALT attribute on every image that describes the
content. The ALT tag is also of utmost importance for the blind
who browse the Internet with a Braille terminal.
Here is an example of an ALT tag:
<img src="images/commentcamarche.gif"
width="140"
height="40"
border="0"
alt="CommentCaMarche
logo">

Web Positioning Hinges on the Page

The items that search engines index are web pages. Therefore,
when designing a webpage, the above-mentioned advice must be
taken into account when structuring each page.
Most webmasters remember to correctly index their website's
home page but neglect the other pages, even though it is the
other pages that contain the most interesting information. It is
therefore absolutely imperative to choose an appropriate title,
URL and meta tags (etc.) for every page of a website.

ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN COMPUTER USE

As with any powerful technology, computers can be used for both
good and bad intentions. The standards that determine whether
an action is good or bad are known as ethics.
Computer ethics are the moral guidelines (conduct) and human
values that govern the use of computers and information systems.
Computer Integrity refers to the loyalty or faithfulness to a
principled set of laws regarding computer use.
Six frequently discussed areas of computer ethics are:
i) Computer code of conduct,
ii) Unauthorized access and use of computers and networks,
iii) Software theft (piracy),
iv) Information accuracy,
v) Intellectual property rights, and
vi) Information privacy.
1) Computer Code of Conduct
A Computer Code of Conduct is a written guideline that
helps determine whether a specific action is ethical or
unethical. A set of Ten Commandments for Computer
Ethics is listed below:
Computer Code of Conduct
i) Computers may not be used to harm other people.
ii) Users may not interfere with other's computer work.
iii) Users may not meddle in other's computer files.
iv) Computers may not be used to steal.
v) Computers may not be used to bear false witness.
vi) Users may not copy or use software illegally.
vii) Users may not use other's computer resources without
authorization.
viii) Users may not use other's output.
 ix) Users shall consider the social impact of programs and
systems they design.
x) Users should always use computers in a way that
demonstrates consideration and respect for other
people.
b) Unauthorized access is the use of a computer or network
without permission. A cracker, or hacker, is someone who
tries to access a computer or network illegally. Some
hackers break into a computer for the challenge. However,
others use or steal computer resources or corrupt computer
data.
Unauthorized use is the use of a computer or its data for
unapproved or possibly illegal activities. Examples of
unauthorized use of computers include:
 An employee using a company computer to send
personal e-mail.
 Someone gaining access to a bank computer
and performing an unauthorized transfer.
One way of preventing unauthorized access and
unauthorized use of computers is to utilize access controls.
An access control is a security measure that defines who
can access a computer, when they can access it and what
actions they can take while accessing the computer.
Another way is by using a firewall. A firewall is a security
system consisting of hardware and software that prevents
unauthorized access to data, information and storage media
on a network.
Other ways of preventing unauthorized access and use
include:
 Keep computer rooms closed when nobody is using
them.
 Reinforce weak access points like doors and windows
with metallic bars.
 Enforce strict network security measures in
organizations.
  Encrypt the data and information during transmission.
 Install burglar alarms and closed circuit television
(CCTV) systems to prevent unauthorized intruders from
accessing the computers.
 Use biometric devices that capture personal
characteristics of users to allow them gain access to
computer systems.
 Use of possessed objects such as smart cards and
badges that you must carry to gain access to a
computer system.
c) Software piracy or software theft refers to the
unauthorized and illegal duplication and use of copyrighted
software. Purchasing software only provides a consumer
with a license agreement, or the right to use the software.
The license agreement provides specific conditions for the
use of the software which a user must accept before
installing the software. Almost all software programs are
licensed to be used on one computer.
A single-user license agreement or end-user license
agreement (EULA) is the most common type of license
included with software packages purchased by individual
users.
A software site license gives the buyer the right to install the
software on multiple computers at a single site (e.g., a
school computer laboratory).
A network site license allows network users to share a
single copy of the software, which resides on the network
server.
Risks encountered when you pirate software include:
a) Increases the chance of spreading computer viruses.
b) No technical support for the software can be received.
c) Increases the cost of software for all legal users.
d) Upgrades and updates of software cannot be possible.
To control software theft:
a) Keep original software boxes in a secure location.
 b) All computer users should backup their software copies.
c) Escort terminated employees immediately to protect
company software and programs
d) Software manufacturers should issue users license
agreements such as the single user license agreement
or commonly known as an end-user license agreement
(EULA)
d) Information accuracy becomes an important issue when it
is necessary to access information maintained by other
people or companies, such as that on the Internet.
Inaccurate input can result in erroneous information and
incorrect decisions made based on that information. Never
assume that information provided on the Web is always
correct. Always evaluate the content provided on a Web
page before using it.
e) Intellectual Property (IP) refers to work created by
inventors, authors, and artists. Intellectual property rights
are the rights to which creators are entitled for their work.
A copyright gives authors and artists exclusive rights to
duplicate, publish, and sell their materials. A common
infringement of copyright is software piracy.
A copyright law usually gives the public fair use to
copyrighted material (e.g., for educational purposes).
A trademark protects a company's logos and brand names.
f) Information privacy refers to the right of individuals or
organizations to deny or restrict the collection and use of
information about them. In the past information privacy was
easier to maintain because information was kept in separate
locations.
Today huge databases store this data online. Much of the
data is personal and confidential and should be accessible
only to authorized users. Websites often collect data about
you, so they can personalize email messages. Some
employers also monitor your computer usage and email
messages.
The following techniques are used by companies and
employers to collect personal data from computer users and
they include:
i) Electronic Profiles:
Individuals fill forms with information such as age,
address, and telephone numbers, marital status
number of dependants for magazine subscriptions,
product warranty registration cards and all this is
usually entered into a database. This information is
later sold to national marketing firms and Internet
advertising firms which later sell the electronic profiles
to any company that requests it such as car dealers,
electronics shops, etc who want to send advertisement
posters or e-mail messages.
ii) Cookies:
A cookie is small text file that a web server stores on a
user’s computer, which is used by e-commerce and
web applications to identify the user and customize web
pages.
Websites use cookies for the following purpose:
- Cookies are used to track user preferences, i.e.
what they would like to get from a particular
website.
- Cookies are also used to store user’s passwords
on some websites so that they don’t need to enter
it every time they log into the website.
- Cookies, most often session cookies are used to
keep track of items purchased by a user in a
shopping cart.
- Cookies are also used to track how often users
visit a site and the web pages they visit while at
the site.

iii) Spyware:
Spyware is a program placed on a computer without the
user’s knowledge that secretly collects information
about the user. Spyware can enter a computer as a
virus or as a result of a user installing a new program.
The Spyware program communicates information it
collects to some outside source while you are online.

Internet advertising firms often use spyware, which is

called adware. Adware is a type of spyware that
collects information about a user’s web browsing habits.
Another type of spyware called a web bug is hidden on
web pages or in e-mail messages in form of graphical
images to monitor online habits of web site visitors and
sometimes link to cookies stored on the hard disk.
Spyware can be removed using one of these methods:
a) Purchase a special program that detects and
deletes spyware called anti spyware.
b) Install a firewall which is a security system
consisting of hardware and software that prevents
unauthorized access to data, information,
programs and storage media on a network.
iv) Spam
Spam is an unsolicited e-mail message or newsgroup
posting sent to many recipients or newsgroups at once.
Spam is Internet junk mail which contains information
that is selling a product or service, promoting a
business opportunity, and advertising offensive
material.

Users can reduce spam by using the following

techniques:
a) Some e-mail programs have in-built settings that
allow users to delete spam automatically.
b) Users can also sign up for e-mail filtering from their
Internet Service Providers (ISP). E-mail filtering is a
service that blocks e-mail messages from reaching
designated sources.
 c) Purchase anti spam programs that attempt to remove
spam before it reaches your inbox.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SECURITY

Computers are an important part of our day to day life. Browsing,
instant messages, emails and internet telephony are heavily used
services for communication purposes. Every computer user may
face security related issues at least one time. The general
technical areas of the computer security are integrity, availability,
authentication, performance and confidentiality. Improving the
security of the business is of the great concern of every business
personnel.

Your home computer can be the easiest target for the hackers if
no security mechanisms have been implemented. Computer
security is required for every home computer or business
computer for preventing it from the attacks of viruses, hackers,
spyware, intruders and software vulnerabilities. For protecting the
home computer it is important to use strong passwords, run up-to-
dated antivirus and anti spyware programs, apply security
patches and backup your important data regularly.

Windows based operating systems contain certain security

vulnerabilities and by implementing the following security aspects
you can secure your personal as well as network computer from
the known security threats.

Types of Security Attacks

 Virus Attack
 Hackers Attack
 Spyware, Trojan Horses, Adware & Browser Hijacks
 Unauthorized Access
 Data lost/Theft
 Web worm
 Computer Crash
 Physical damage
 Identity Theft
 Denial of Service
 Password Cracking
 Important Security Aspects
 Cryptography
 Firewall
 Backup
 Antivirus Software
 Encryption
 Authentication
 Physical Security
 Anti Spyware, latest service packs and security patches
 Using Strong Passwords
 Intrusion Detection
 Fault Tolerance
 Security Policies

How to Secure Your Computer

The following tips are helpful in maintaining the security of your
computer.
1. Install Antivirus Program. Install an up-to-date antivirus
software program on your computer and get rid of the
viruses’ attacks. The well known antivirus programs are
Norton Antivirus, Trend Micro, McAfee and Panda Antivirus
etc.

2. Install Anti spyware Program. Spyware is a piece of

software program that is intentionally designed for stealing
the personal information of the computer user and
monitoring the user’s activity on the internet. Install up-to-
dated antivirus program and get rid of spyware, Trojan
horses, Adware and Malware.

3. Keep Your Passwords Strong. Always use the

combination of alphanumeric, spaces and special characters
in the passwords. Most of the systems rely on the password
authentication and weaker passwords can provide the great
havoc to the computer systems. Additionally, passwords
cracking software can crack the weaker password so best
practice is to use a strong password for your computer.
4. Don’t Open Email Attachments. Never try to open the
email attachments that came from the suspicious sources
because it may contain viruses and it can harm your
computer immensely.

5. Don’t leave your computer unattended. Leaving your

computer unattended even for few minutes can comprise
your system it may results in the permanent lost of your
precious data. Operating Systems such as Windows 2000
Professional, Windows XP Professional and Windows 20003
Server provides the passwords enabled screen savers. Use
strong passwords on the screen savers and set the timer to
minimum time.

6. Update your Operating system regularly. By regularly

updating your operating system you make it secure from the
latest security threats on the internet. You can go to the
Microsoft’s website and update your operating system on the
regular basis.

7. Use Firewall Program. Firewall is a software program or

hardware and it provides an additional layer of security to
your computer from the network users, unauthorized access,
intruders and hackers from the internet. Windows XP
Professional provides the built-in firewall utility.

8. Apply Security Policies. Implement strong security policies

and encryption methods to protect your precious data on
your computer.

9. Regular backup: Take regular backup of your data on the

CD, DVD or another hard drive and in case of any
emergency such as data lost, your backup copy would be
your precious asset.

Security Risks On Internet

Some users exploit the internet through the criminal behaviors
and other harmful practices. These users are known as hackers
and intruders. Hackers and online attackers use the stealth tactics
and to attack on the online computer users. There are number of
potential threats on the internet such as hackers, viruses,
spyware, adware, Trojan horses, web worms and malware. The
following list will help you to better understand the internet
security risks and the solutions to avoid it.

Hackers
A hacker is a person who breaks into the computer and network
security of the online computer users. Hacking is an act of
exploiting the vulnerabilities of the operating system without the
user’s notice.

Viruses
A computer virus is a piece of code or a self-replicating, malicious
software program that exploit the computer by attacking on it.
Computer viruses are specifically designed to perform a number
of harmful effects from annoying to destroying. There are different
types of the computer viruses and the most dangerous viruses
can crash your computer’s hard disk and motherboard. A most
common way of spreading the viruses is through emails. A
computer once attacked by the viruses can quickly spread the
viruses to all other connected computers.

Spyware
A spyware is a privacy invading program that is designed to steal
the personal and confidential from the computer users. Spyware
can be delivered in a variety of ways including being attached with
the legitimate software.

Adware
Adware is an advertising-supporting program that automatically
downloads, displays and performs at the user’s computer who
downloads the adware-supported software.

Malware
Malware is malicious software or a program such as viruses and
spyware that is designed to damage or disrupt the computer
system. The other types of the malware are Trojan horses, logic
bombs, popups and spam.

Trojans
Trojan is a destructive program that is contained in the harmless
program and gets control of all programs. Like the viruses the
Trojan do not replicate itself. Trojan can redistribute itself as the
part of the computer viruses. There are different types of the
Trojans like remote access Trojans, destructive Trojans, proxy
Trojans, FTP Trojans and denial-of-service (DOS) Trojans.

Phishing
Phishing is an act of tricking someone by emails to steal the
confidential and personal information.

Keylogger
A keylogger is a malicious program that is secretly installed on
your computer to record the keys that you type on your keyboard.
Keyloggers are used to collect the secret and personal
information such as user name, password, credit card information
and others. Once the data is collected it can be transferred to the
destination by the variety of ways.

Security Vulnerabilities and Threats

 File sharing applications.
 Instant messaging
 Windows Remote Access services
 Web servers and services
 SQL Injections.
 Weak Passwords
 Outdate antivirus and anti spyware programs.

The above mentioned security risks are the biggest threats for
every online user. Following solutions can help you to protect your
data, privacy and identity on the internet.
Security Solutions
 Install an up-to-dated antivirus program on your computer.
 Install anti spyware program.
 Install and configure software or hardware firewall on your
gateway computer.
 Update your operating system regularly by installing latest
security patches and hot fixes.
 Encryption your data while transmitting over the internet.
 Never open an email attachment from the unauthorized
source.
 Never download a software program from the websites who
has no integrity.
 Do not open any website links that you receive through the
messenger programs from known users.

PC Troubleshooting Guide
Computer troubleshooting is the process of fixing hardware and
software errors and networking. Troubleshooting the computer
problems is a very vital role of the system administrators,
hardware technicians and system specialists. Every hardware
component in the computer system has its own configurations
methods and troubleshooting techniques.

If you use a computer at your home or in office, this guide will be

wonderful help for you in diagnostic and troubleshooting your
basic computer problems. There are some basic techniques and
you should be aware of them. If you encounter a slow boot up
problem, there are some basic tips and by implementing these
tricks you can increase the speed of your computer.

How to Speed up the Computer

1. Windows Defragmenter utility: You can use this utility by using
this path Start > Programs > Accessories > System tools > Disk
defragmenter. This is built-in utility in Windows operating systems
and this will automatically analyze the empty disk space on the
hard disk and defragment and all scattered files.
2. Shutdown Unnecessary programs: By using this path Start >
Run > Msconfig > Startup, you can close all unwanted programs
at the Windows startup and this will automatically increase the
windows loading time and speed of the computer will also be
increased.

3. Increase RAM: By increasing the RAM in your system you can

get exceptional fast speed of your computer.

4. Disk Cleanup: By using the disk clean up utility Start >

Programs > Accessories > System tools > Disk clean up utility,
you can delete unwanted programs and files from your computer
and this will be helpful in increasing the speed.

5. Empty Recycle Bin: When you delete a file or a folder form your
computer it first goes to the recycle bin and it covers the disk area
of your C drive. It is imperative, to delete all the files and folders
from the recycle bin and you will get the space of C drive for
reusability.

6. Delete Temporary Files: Delete the temporary files and cookies

from your computer to get the better speed. You can do this like
Internet explorer > Tools > Internet options > Generals > Settings
> View files > here you can delete all the temporary internet files.

How to Troubleshoot the Computer?

Here you will learn the basic troubleshooting methods of your
computer.

1. Trial and error: When you find a faulty component in your

computer, first of you check it with the other computers so that
you can make sure whether the fault is in the component or not.

2. Check cables: In case of any device failure, check all the

cables of your computer such as data cables, power cable,
internal circuitry cables etc and make sure that all the cables are
plugged in and working fine.
3. Hardware settings: Check the hardware settings in the CMOS
and in the device manager of the system and make all the device
drivers and up to date and all the cards are plugged in properly.

4. Notice changes: When you notice a software or hardware error

in your computer, determine what was changed before the
problem occurred.

5. Event viewer: Use the event viewer utility by going to Start >
Control panel > Administrative tools > Event viewer. In the event
viewer you will find the error or warning messages associated
with any faulty hardware or software.

6. Make notes: Troubleshooting is big learning option and we can

learn a lot when we face any kind of troubleshooting in our
computer. Make notes including the error messages and their
solutions, so that you have a record that how a certain problem
occurred and how did you solve it.

Data Recovery Tips

Accidental loss or deletion of the critical data of your organization
can cause big problems for you and for your company. If you are
a system administrator or a hardware technician and responsible
for your company’s data, it is your duty to equip yourself with the
great system restore and data recovery utilities and if you are
empty handed and you encounter such problems, there can be
big financial loss for your company in case of completely removal
of data and wastage of precious time. Following are the few tips
for recovering the lost data.
1. Use some good data recovery utilities such as File recovery,
Recovery My Files, R-tt and a free utility Handy Recovery.

2. If you are responsible for the data and system

administrations, use backup tapes
drives and regularly take backups of your server’s data.
3. Use UPS and diesel generators if power failure occurs
regularly in your area because sudden shutdown can crash
your server and other systems.

4. Make a clean humid and dust free environment for your

server room.

Diagnostics with Beep Codes

Following are the beep messages associated with the IBP bios.
1 short beep specifies a normal post
2 short beeps tells about POST errors that can be find on screen.
Continuous beeps indicates power supply and other cards errors.
One long and short beep indicates system board problems
3 long beeps defines keyboard errors
No system beep tells about power supply errors.

Computer Safety Tips

Computer security is the most important thing and it cannot be
compromised. Every computer, which is connected to internet, is
at risk from viruses and hackers’ attacks if there are no antivirus
software and firewall installed. A computer can be protected with
secure passwords, antivirus software, encryption methods,
defragmentation, updating operating system regularly, scanning
email attachments and controlling internet activities. The major
threats to a computer are internet scams, phishing, internet fraud,
web worms, virus hoaxes, spyware, Trojan horses, hackers’
attacks, p2p files sharing and internet fraud.

Following are some of the major computer security tips and you
can protect your computer from known online and offline threats
with these tips.
Online Security Tips
1. Install an up-to-dated antivirus program such as Norton
Antivirus, McAfee, Trend Micro, Panda Antivirus and PcCillin etc.
2. Install and configure good firewall software on your computer
because if you are behind a firewall then it would not be easy for
the hackers to access your computer.
3. Clear out the cookies from your web browsers regularly.

4. Install up-to-dated software to block the attacks of spyware,

adware and popup ads.
5. Do not download and install a software program from an
unreliable web source.
6. Do not open any suspicious emails, especially the emails,
which have attachments and come from the unknown source.
7. Avoid participating in any peer to peer network and file sharing
place like Torrent, Kazaa, Gnutella, and Morpheus. Most of the
file sharing places on web and peer to peer networks are the
source of Trojans horses, viruses, web worms, adware and
spyware.
8. Don’t befool by the emails that tell you that you have won the
prize of million dollars or won the lottery of million dollars.
Similarly don’t trust in the emails that come from the fake banks’
sites or fake paypal site that ask you to change your personal
information by going through their websites.
9. With the passage of time vulnerabilities are discovered in the
software that you use so keep them updated at least once in a
month with the security patches.
10. Set your browsers with the optimize safety level.
Offline Security Tips
1. Regularly take backup of your important data on CDs, Flash
drive or other
medium.
2. Don’t leave your computer unattended.

3. Don’t ignore the error messages and noises that come from
your computer.
4. Try to put your computer in a humid free environment.
Controlling the humidity
near your computer is important because more the humidity
the more static charges with build up near your PC.

5. Use strong passwords with the combinations of

alphanumeric. By using the above mentioned tips you can safe
your computer from the major online and offline security threats
CAREERS IN THE COMPUTER INDUSTRY
With billions of dollars in annual revenue, the computer industry is
one of the larger world-wide industries. This emphasis on
computers has created thousands of new-high tech jobs, even in
non computer–related companies. Job opportunities in the
computer industry generally fall into these areas.

 General business and government organizations.

 Computer equipment industry.
 Computer software industry.
 Computer service and repair industry.
 Computer sales.
 Computer education and training industry.
 Computer consulting industry.

The following jobs discuss the function of each of these areas, as

well as career opportunities and specific jobs available. In the
fast-paced world of technology, job titles are not standardized.
Some companies are reducing their number of job titles or
combining job titles into one position such as programmer/analyst.
Other companies create a new job title each time they hire
someone.

Computer Careers in General Business and Government

Organizations
Business and government offices of all sizes use computers.
Without computers, very few could operate in today’s economy.
Nearly every organization uses computers for basic document
preparation. Employees of all types, from office workers to the
shop foreman, use business software such as word processing to
prepare daily documents. Other employees in the organization
use computers for specialized activities such as management of
company finances.

Most organizations have networks to help ensure smooth

communications among employees, vendors and customers.
Larger businesses use computers to answer and route telephone
calls, process orders, update inventory, and manage accounts
receivable, accounts payable, billing, and payroll activities. Some
firms use computers to order raw materials automatically, control
manufacturing, and ship finished goods.

Government offices use the computers and the web to provide the
public with a means to access their facilities. For example people
in the United States use computers to file taxes, apply for permits
and licenses, pay parking tickets, buy stamps, report crimes,
apply for financial aid, and renew vehicle registrations and driver’s
licenses.

To manage their computers and operations, businesses and

government offices have a variety of computer related job
opportunities. Most medium and large businesses and
governmental agencies have an information technology (IT)
department that employs people in computer related jobs.
Employees in the IT department are responsible for keeping all
the computer operations and network in business and
government running smoothly. They also determine when and if
the company requires new hardware or software. A later section
in this chapter discusses the specific jobs in an IT department.

The Computer Equipment Industry

The computer equipment industry consists of manufacturers and
distributors of computers and computer related hardware such as
disk and tape drives, monitors and printers and communications
and networking devices. In addition, the companies that make
end user equipment, thousands of companies build components
that most users never see. These companies manufacture chips,
mother boards, power supplies, and the hundreds of other parts
used inside the computer

Careers in this industry involve the design, manufacture, and the

production of computer equipment. Jobs include designing and
fabricating computer chips, testing internal components,
assembling computers, and packing computers and peripherals.
In larger companies several levels exist for each job, including
management careers.

Computer equipment manufactures include such companies as

AMD , apple computer, Cisco systems, dell computer, gateway ,
Hewlett-Packard , IBM , Intel, Logitech , Lucent technologies,
Motorola ,nosier , QUALCOMM, sun Microsystems, and 3Com.
Many of these firms are huge organizations with thousands of
employees worldwide. IBM, for example, is one of the larger
computer companies with more than 315,000 employees and
annual sales of more than $81 billion.

The computer equipment industry also is well known for the many
start up companies that appear each year. These new companies
take advantage of rapid changes in equipment technology, such
as wireless communications, networking, multi media, and fiber
optics, to create new products and new job opportunities. Often
these companies offer stock options to influence college
graduates to join their firms instead of the larger, more
established companies.

The Computer Software Industry

The computer software industry consists of companies that
develop, manufacture, and support a wide range of software,
some software companies specialize in a particular type of
software such as business software or utility programs. Other
software company’s especially larger firms as Microsoft produce
and sell a variety of programs.
Crier opportunities in the software industry involve designing and
programming all kinds of software , including operating systems
and utility programs, business, graphics, multimedia, home,
personal , educational, and entertainment software; network
software ,; software development tools; and internet and web
page authoring software.

Job titles for careers related to the development of software

include project developer, programmer, software engineer, and
computer scientist. Some work with application software; others
work with system software. A project developer analyzes
software requirements, designs software solutions, and
oversees the software development process. A programmer
writes and tests computer programs. A software engineer
designs and develops software. A computer scientist
researches, invents, and develops innovative solutions to
complex software requirements or problems.

The software industry is huge, with annual sales exceeding $200

billion. Leading software companies include adobe systems ,
BMC software , Broderbund, computer associates , IBM ,intuit ,
macromedia , Microsoft , network associates, novel , oracle, real
networks , red hat , Sybase , and Symantec . The largest
software company, Microsoft, has nearly 55,000 employees and
annual sale of more than $32 billion.

Computer Careers in the Service and Repair Industry

The computer service and repair industry provides preventive
maintenance, component installation, and repair services to
customers. Typical job titles for workers in this field include
service technician, computer repair person, repair technician, and
computer technician.

A computer technician installs, maintains, and repairs hardware;

installs, up grades, and configures software; and troubleshoots
hardware problems. Being a computer technician is a challenging
job for people who like to troubleshoot and solve problems and
have a strong background in electronics.
In the early days of computers, computer technicians often made
repairs at the site of the computer equipment. Today, however,
computer technicians first replace a malfunctioning component
such as a hard disk, and then take faulty part back for repair at an
office or special repair facility. Many computer equipment
manufacturers include diagnostic software with their computer
equipment that assists computer technicians in identifying
problems. Some computers even use a modem to call a computer
automatically at a repair technician’s office and leave a message
that a malfunction has been detected. Today’s technology also
allows computer technicians to diagnose and repair software
problems from a remote location. That is, the technician accesses
the user’s hard disk from a different location.

Computer Careers in Sales

Computer sales representatives must have a general
understanding of computers and a specific knowledge of the
product they are selling. Strong people skills are, important,
including a strong listening ability and good oral communications
skills. Computer sales representatives generally determine a
buyers needs and match it to convert it to the correct hardware
and software, thus, they also need a good understanding of the
products available, and they need to know how to explain
computers without using jargon.

Some sales representatives work directly for computer equipment

and software manufactures such as apple computer, Dell,
Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and palm. Others work for resellers,
including retailers that sell personal computer products, such as
best buy, circuit city, comp USA, and OfficeMax. Computer sales
representative for retail store often is a suitable entry level for
students majoring in computers. Computer manufacturers,
software vendors, and retail stores usually pay sales
representatives based on the amount of product they sell. More
experienced corporate sales representatives can be among an
organization’s more highly paid employees.

The Computer Education and Training Industry

The increased sophistication and complexity of today’s computer
products have opened extensive opportunities in computer related
education and training. Schools, colleges, universities, and private
companies all need qualified educators. In fact, the high demand
has led to shortage of qualified instructors increasingly move into
careers in private industry with the promise of higher pay. This
shortage probably will not end in the near future because the
supply of educators with Ph.D. degrees is not keeping pace with
the demand.
Corporate trainers teach employees how to use software, design
and develop systems, program, and perform other computer
related activities. Many companies have their own training
departments. Corporations usually do not require as much
educational background from trainers as educational institutions
do from instructors.

Consulting in the Computer Industry

After building experience in one or more computer related areas,
some people decide to become computer consultants. A
computer consultant is a professional who draws upon his or her
expertise in a specialized area of computers, including service
and advice. Many companies hire a computer consultant to fill in
for an employee no an extended leave of absence. Large
enterprises often hire teams of consultants to offer advice on
technology related concerns.

Computer consultants not only must have strong technical skills in

their specialized area, but also they must have the people skills
necessary to communicate their suggestions effectively to their
clients. Qualified consultants are in high demand for tasks such
as computer selection, communications, network design and
installation, and web development.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN SOCIETY

Finance
Many people and companies use computers to help manage their
finances. Some use finance software to balance checkbooks, pay
bills, track personal income and expenses, manage investments,
and evaluate financial plans. This software usually includes a
variety of online services. For example, computer users can track
investments, compare insurance rates from leading insurance
companies, and do online banking. With online banking, users
access account balances, pay bills, and copy monthly
transactions from the bank’s computer right into their computers.
Many financial institutions’ Web sites also offer online banking.
When using a Web site instead of finance software on your
computer, all your account information is stored on the bank’s
computer. The advantage is you can access your financial
records from anywhere in the world. Web-based financial
institutions often allow you to transfer cash from a credit card,
debit card, or checking account to another person’s credit card or
bank account. Some people use this service for monetary gifts.
Companies use it for rebates and refunds.
Investors often use online investing to buy and sell stocks and
bonds-without using a broker. With online investing, the
transaction fee for each trade usually is much less than when
trading through a broker.

Government
A government provides society with direction by making and
administering policies. Many people associate government with
executive, judicial, and legislative offices. The United States
government also includes areas such as law enforcement,
employment, military, national security, taxes, and state and local
agencies. To provide citizens with up-to-date information, most
government offices have Web sites. A recent survey estimated
that about 62 percent of people in the United States access
government Web sites. They file taxes, apply for permits and
licenses, pay parking tickets, buy stamps, report crimes, apply for
financial aid, and renew vehicle registrations and driver’s licenses.
Employees of government agencies use computers as part of
their daily routine. North American 911 call centers use computers
to dispatch calls for fire, police, and medical assistance. Law
enforcement officers have online access to the FBI’s National
Crime Information Center (NCIC) in police cars that have
computers and fingerprint scanners. The NCIC contains more
than 39 million criminal records, including names, fingerprints,
parole/probation records, mug shots, and other information.

Health Care
Nearly every area of health care uses computers. Whether you
are visiting a family doctor for a checkup, having lab work or an
outpatient test, or being rushed in for emergency surgery, the
medical staff around you will be using computers for various
purposes:
 Hospitals and doctors use computers to maintain patient
records.
 Computers monitor patients’ vital signs in hospital rooms and
at home.
 Computers and computerized devices assist doctors,
nurses, and technicians with medical tests.
 Doctors use the Web and medical software to assist with
researching and diagnosing health conditions.
 Doctors use e-mail to correspond with patients.
 Pharmacists use computers to file insurance claims.
 Surgeons implant computerized devices such as
peacemakers that allow patients to live longer.
 Surgeons use computer-controlled devices to provide them
with greater precision during operations, such as for laser
eye surgery and robot-assisted heart surgery.

Many times, you leave a doctor’s office or hospital with a

diagnosis and a prescription in hand. On the way home, you stop
at the pharmacy to fill the prescription. For more information about
your diagnosis, you could read a medical dictionary or attend a
seminar. You might find it preferable to use the Web. Many Web
sites provide up-to-date medical, fitness, nutrition, or exercise
information.

These Web sites also maintain lists of doctors and dentists to help
you find the one that suits your needs. They have chat rooms, so
you can talk to others diagnosed with similar conditions. Some
Web sites even allow you to order prescriptions online.

Much of society today is fitness conscious. Diet and exercise are

a part of daily life. Doctors often recommend some type of
physical activity along with proper nutrition to maintain a healthy
lifestyle. Whether you exercise at the local health club or at home
in your basement, the equipment often has a computer built into it
to track your progress. These computers monitor physical
conditions, such as heart rate and pulse; to be sure you are
exercising within safe limits.

An exciting development in health care is telemedicine, which is a

form of long-distance health care. Through telemedicine, health-
care professionals in separate locations have live conferences on
the computer. For example, a doctor at one location can have a
conference with a doctor at another location to discuss a bone x-
ray. Live images of each doctor, along with the x-ray, are
displayed on each doctor’s computer.

Science
All braches of science, from Biology to astronomy to meteorology,
use computers to assist them with collecting, analyzing, and
modeling data. Scientists also use the internet to communicate
with colleagues around the world.

Breakthroughs in surgery, medicine, and treatments often result

from scientists’ use of computers. Tiny computers now imitate
functions of the central nervous system, retina of the eye, and
cochlea of the ear. A cochlea implant allows a deaf person to
listen. Electrodes implanted in the brain stop tremors associated
with Parkinson’s disease. Cameras small enough to swallow take
pictures inside your body to detect pulps, cancer and other
abnormalities.

The capability of the computer to recognize spoken words is a

result of scientific experimentation with neural network is a system
that attempts to imitate the behaviour of the human brain.
Scientists create neural networks by connecting thousands of
processors together much like the neurons in the brain are
connected.

Publishing
Publishing is the process of making works available to the public.
These works include books, magazines, and newspapers. Special
software assists publishers in designing pages that include text,
graphics, and photographs. Journalists carry notebook
computers, mobile devices, and digital cameras to capture and
record news as it occurs.

In addition to printing materials, many publishers make the

content of magazines and newspapers available online. Some
Web sites allow you to copy an entire book to your desktop
computer, handheld computer, or PDA. Handheld devices
specially designed for reading electronic books also are available.
Many magazine and newspaper publishers make the content of
their publications available online.
 Memory

The processor is the brain of the computer. All fundamental

computing takes place in the processor. Other components
contribute to the computation (by doing such things as moving
data in and out of the processor), but the processor is where the
fundamental action takes place.

Unlike a human brain, which combines memory with processing

power, a computer processor has very little memory. It must rely
on other components to hold data and programs and to save
results. The memory in a computer system is of two
fundamental types:

 Main memory:
o very closely connected to the processor.
o the contents are quickly and easily changed.
o holds the programs and data that the processor is
actively working with.
o interacts with the processor millions of times per
second.

 Secondary memory:
o connected to main memory through the bus and a
controller.
o the contents are easily changed, but this is very slow
compared to main memory.
o used for long-term storage of programs and data.
o The processor only occasionally interacts with
secondary memory.

Main memory is where programs and data are kept when the
processor is actively using them. When programs and data
become active, they are copied from secondary memory into
main memory where the processor can interact with them. A
copy remains in secondary memory. Main memory is intimately
connected to the processor, so moving instructions from the
program and data into and out of the processor is very fast.
Main memory is sometimes called RAM. RAM stands for
Random Access Memory. "Random" means that the memory
cells can be accessed in any order.

When people say that a computer has "128 megabytes of RAM"

they are talking about how big its main memory is. One
megabyte of memory is enough to hold approximately one
million characters of a word processing document. (There will
be more about bytes and megabytes later on in these notes.)
Nothing permanent is kept in main memory. Sometimes data
are placed in main memory for just a few seconds; only as long
as they are needed.

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is where programs and data are kept on a

long-term basis. Common secondary storage devices are the
hard disk and floppy disks.

 The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to

main memory.
 The hard disk is usually contained in the systems unit of a
computer.
 The hard disk is used for long-term storage of programs and
data.
 Data and programs on the hard disk are organized into files-
-named sections of the disk.

A hard disk might have a storage capacity of 40 gigabytes. This

is about 300 times the amount of storage in main memory
(assuming 128 megabytes of main memory.) However, a hard
disk is very slow compared to main memory. The reason for
having two types of storage is this contrast:

Primary memory Secondary memory

1. Fast 1. Slow
2. Expensive 2. Cheap
3. Low capacity 3. Large capacity
4. Connects directly to the 4. Not connected directly to
 processor the processor

Floppy disks are mostly used for transferring software between

computer systems and for casual backup of software. They
have low capacity, and are very, very slow compared to other
storage devices.

SYSTEM CARE:
One very important category of preventive maintenance is caring
for your system hardware. This includes maintaining the various
components that make up your PC, along with looking at overall
factors that affect the system as a whole. There are many aspects
to system care and maintenance that affect the system as a
whole, or every component in the system, as opposed to being
specific to a particular component. These factors are discussed
below:

ENVIRONMENTAL CARE FACTORS

The external environment affects your PC. They include:
a) Temperature: A critical factor in prolonging the life of your
PC hardware is the temperature of the components.
Components that run hot die young; those that stay cool last
a much longer time. One aspect of keeping components cool
is using cooling equipment and specific cooling procedures.
Another is providing a room environment that is appropriate
for the hardware. Generally speaking, good operating
temperature for a PC is about 60 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit
(15 to 24 or so Celsius).

b) Humidity: Much as the case is with temperature, computers

prefer moderate humidity. PCs are not as sensitive to
humidity issues as they are to temperature, but they are still
affected by it. You need to keep your computer dry. That
means keeping it away from places or things that can get it
wet, for example, don’t locate a PC near a window if it is
frequently opened, and be wary of beverages placed near
the PC that could spill on it and short it out.
 Humidity leads to corrosion and possible condensation risk,
which can damage equipment. It also makes cooling the PC
more difficult. Conversely, air that is too dry can cause
problems in two different ways. First, it increases the amount
of static electricity that is in the room, increasing the chances
of a discharge. Second, it can cause faster wear out of some
components that dry out over time. This includes some types
of capacitors, as well as rubber rollers on laser printers.

c) Dirty Environments: Computers operate best when they

are used in a clean environment, and when they are cleaned
regularly. Most offices and homes are clean enough that a
PC requires no special treatment other than regular cleaning
as part of routine preventive maintenance. One easy
preventive measure is to use an air cleaner in the room
where the PC is located.

d) Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): All electronic devices

give off electromagnetic emissions. This is radiation that is a
byproduct of electrical or magnetic activity. Unfortunately,
the emissions from one device can interfere with other
devices, causing potential problems. Interference can lead to
data loss, picture quality degradation on monitors, and other
problems with your PC, or problems with other devices such
as television sets and radios. These are generally
categorized as electromagnetic interference or EMI
problems. PCs can be affected by electromagnetic
interference from other devices, in two major ways:
i) One is direct effects through proximity with other
devices
ii) Electrical interference over the power lines.

There are several solutions that you can use to avoid or at

least reduce EMI if it is affecting your PCs:
i) Physical Isolation: Devices that emit electromagnetic
radiation should be kept a reasonable distance from
your PC, peripherals and media. This includes
 television sets, radios, lights, kitchen appliances, and
stereo speakers
ii) Use Dedicated Circuits: Many office buildings
especially, have separate power circuits that are
intended for use by PCs. Keeping your PC on a circuit
that is separate from the circuit running your refrigerator
and air conditioning unit means that there will be much
less interference passing to the computer from the
other devices
iii) Power Conditioning: The use of a line conditioner or
uninterruptible power supply can filter out interference
caused by other devices that share a line with your PC

COOLING AND VENTILATION CARE FACTORS:

As mentioned earlier, keeping your system cool is very important.
A cool system runs more reliably and lasts longer than one that
runs hot. Overheating of the internal components can lead to data
loss or even damage to your equipment. In recent years, as
processors in particular have gotten faster and hotter, the subject
of cooling has become more important than ever. Some of the
cooling and ventilation factors include:

a) Internal Air Flow

The "first line of defense" in cooling the overall system is the
fan that is used to provide overall air flow within the system
case. This is normally the fan located within the power
supply at the back of the case; some newer machines,
especially full-tower cases, employ more than one fan, to
provide more cooling. The flow of air also has an impact on
keeping the inside of the case clean.

Here are some tips that you can use to ensure that the flow
of air in your system is good, and to increase air flow in your
case:

i) Keep the Cover On: Running the system with the case
cover removed makes cooling worse. When you remove the
case, the air that the power supply fan is pushing out the
 back of the case is replaced by air drawn from the room
instead of being drawn across the components. As a result,
many components will sit in stagnant air and get little
cooling.

ii) Cover Exposed Expansion Slots and Holes: Any

unused expansion card slots, drive bays, I/O port holes, or
other crevices in the system case should be covered with
inserts, faceplates, or even tape, to ensure that air flow is not
being "short-circuited".

iii) Add Additional Fans: Some cases provide mounting

positions for installing additional fans, and there are also
fans that you can buy on cards that go into a standard ISA
expansion slot. A fan on an expansion card will improve air
flow within the case, but not between the case and the
outside world. An extra fan venting to the outside can
improve air flow and cooling.

iv) Use a Large System Case: Larger cases have more

room and therefore generally allow for better air flow and
cooling of components.

v) Arrange Your Internal Components Wisely: Devices

that generate a great deal of heat should be kept as far away
from each other as possible. If you install two hard disk
drives in adjacent 3.5" drive bays in a typical system, they
may end up with less than 1/4" separating them. This is
simply not going to provide for cooling as good as if you had
them several inches apart.

vi) Keep the Inside of the Case Clean: Good airflow in the
box doesn't help very much if none of the cool air can reach
the components because they are covered with a thick layer
of dust.

b) Component Cooling
There are several key components inside the PC that require
 specific attention when it comes to cooling:

i) The Power Supply: The fan in the back of the power

supply provides air flow for the entire system case, but it also
serves to ventilate and cool the power supply itself, which
contains many components that get quite hot.

ii) The Processor: Newer CPUs generate much more heat

than older ones did, and as a result a whole new class of
cooling devices--heat sinks and CPU fans--has come into
existence. Improving your processor's cooling method can
improve its reliability greatly and reduce many cooling-
induced problems such as program crashes and system
lockups.

iii) Hard Disk Drives: Some of the high-end hard disks that
run at high revolutions per minute (RPM) speeds can
generate a great deal of heat. It is not generally practical to
cool these directly, so the use of proper air flow through the
case is key especially when using multiple devices. It is also
essential to space them so that they are not near each other.

iv) The Motherboard: The components on the motherboard

do not usually require any active cooling devices such as
fans, although some of them, such as voltage regulators use
a heat sink for cooling. These should be kept away from
other heat-generating components. Also, the inside of the
box should be cleaned regularly, since dust accumulation
will act as an insulator and prevent proper cooling.

c) External Ventilation
In order for system cooling to be effective, it is mandatory
that there be good air flow not only within the system case
but also immediately outside it as well. If the PC is located
somewhere where it will not get adequate ventilation, it can
overheat no matter how many fans you have on the inside of
the box. The best environment for the computer is one with
regulated temperature settings, air conditioning, and active
 ventilation of the entire room. The most important part of this
is simply making sure that you provide space for the power
supply fan to blow, without blocking it off.

POWER CARE FACTORS

Many issues with PCs are ultimately related to power problems.
Providing a good, reliable power source to your PC is one
essential aspect of system care. In fact, the quality of the power
used to run your PC is so important.

Power Problem Protection:

Power problems include line noise, surges, brownouts and
blackouts. When power problems strike, they can cause
permanent damage--either to your equipment or your data. The
only effective way to deal with power problems is to prevent them
from happening in the first place. Here are some steps you can
take to greatly reduce the chances of power problems with your
PC:

i) Use Power Protection Devices: There are many different

types of devices on the market that can be used to protect against
power problems; these include surge suppressors, line
conditioners and uninterruptible power supplies (UPSes). Some
are much better than others, and accordingly, cost much more.
You need to decide how much protection you need based on
what you can afford and what you are willing to risk, along with
what the power system is like where you live. But whatever you
decide, you need to do something. Just plugging the PC into the
wall socket is asking for trouble.

ii) Check Protection Devices Regularly: At least once a year,

you should inspect your power protection devices to make sure
that they are functioning properly. Most good ones will have a
signaling light to tell you when they are protecting your equipment
properly, but it is only of use if you look at it on occasion!

iii) Don't Cut Corners With Power: Due to being either lazy or,
uh, "excessively fiscally conservative", some people like to do
things like snipping off the grounding plug on their PC's power
cable so they can make use of a 2-pronged extension cord. Again
here, you are asking for trouble if you do this sort of thing, and it
isn't just your computer you are risking.

iv) Use Dedicated Circuits, If Possible: Putting the computer on

its own power circuit, so it isn't sharing the power with your air
conditioner, space heater, and vacuum cleaner, greatly improves
the power quality and insulates the PC from power sags when
these devices are turned on. It also reduces electromagnetic
interference from these devices that might be carried over the
power line.

v) Turn off Power during a Blackout: If you lose power, when

the power comes back on the signal can initially be inconsistent,
which can make things more difficult for your power supply. I have
also seen false starts, where the power comes on and then goes
right off again, during storms. If you have a blackout, turn off your
equipment so you can control when it comes back on, not the
electrical company. Turn the PC back on once you feel the power
has returned and is stabilized.

vi) Turn Off and Disconnect the Power Cord during an

Electrical Storm: This is a simple precaution that protects your
system from possible problems during a thunderstorm (it isn't as
important if you are using a UPS, of course.)

Leave the System On or Turn it Off? (Thermal Stress vs.

Wearout)

The basic question is: you have a PC on your desk at the office.
You use it all day. When you go home for the night, should you
turn off the PC or leave it running? This is not a simple question to
answer because there are so many different factors involved in
the decision in most cases. And the decision also depends on the
type of PC: a high-end server is more likely to be left on 24 hours
a day than a PC used twice a week at home:
Convenience: For many people who run multiple applications at a
time, having to reboot the PC every morning is a pain in the rear
end. It can take me a good 10 minutes in the morning to boot my
machine and get my working environment set up the way I like it.
Also, I like to run maintenance tasks during the day while I am at
work. I will concede that not turning off the PC because you don't
want to restart all your applications may be laziness on my part,
but it is a significant reason why many people leave their
machines on overnight.

Power Consumption: Leaving your PC running when you are not

using it wastes electricity. That's a fact, so I won't sugar-coat it.
On the other hand, it doesn't waste that much electricity, if you
leave the monitor off (which you should be doing anyway). You
can also use power management to reduce the amount of
electricity used during idle periods.

Thermal Stress: After your PC has been off for many hours the
components will be at room temperature. When the PC is turned
on, the components will heat up, sometimes to much higher
temperatures than 70 degrees F, causing them to expand. Then
when you turn off the PC they cool down again, and contract. This
cycle of heating and cooling causes thermal stress in the
components that make up the PC, and is a leading cause of
system failure (this is also what normally causes light bulbs to fail,
which is why they usually pop when you turn them on, and not out
of the blue). Leaving the PC on all the time greatly reduces
thermal stress, which can lead to increased life for the system.
Strange as it may seem, most components last longer if you leave
then running 24 hours a day for years than if you leave them off
for 22 hours a day and on for only 2 (but this isn't true of all
components.)

Wearout: The opposite factor to thermal stress is wearout. While

leaving the PC on all the time reduces thermal stress and hence
prolongs system life, it also causes components to wear out more
quickly. This is more of a factor for some components than
others--especially monitors.
Cooling: It is important to remember that some office buildings run
with automated thermostats that turn off the air conditioning at
night; if it's 95 during the day and 80 at night, the PC will be quite
warm in the morning when the power comes on. In this case you
may be risking the system overheating by leaving it running at
night.

Risk of Power Interruption: Leaving your PC on for long periods of

time exposes it to the potential risk of power spikes and surges,
brownouts, blackouts and other problems. If you are using a
good-quality UPS then this is not really a factor, although
remember that unless your UPS supports power-down signaling
to shut down the machine, a one-hour blackout will result in about
the same abrupt shut-off of your machine, just a few minutes later
than it would without a UPS. If you are not using a UPS, and you
are in an area prone to power problems, leaving the machine on
all the time may be unwise (you should be using a good power
conditioning device if this is the case, anyway).

Power Management: Pros and Cons

The idea behind power management is a good one: to reduce the

power use of systems when someone walks away from their PC
or stops using it after a period of time, by sending the hardware
into a "sleep mode" of sorts. Several components include support
for power management features, including motherboards (via
BIOS settings), processors, hard disks and monitors. Power
management can save you a reasonable amount of money if your
system is left on a lot.

Unfortunately, power management also causes a lot of problems,

many of them significant enough that I often recommend that
people disable the feature, especially when putting together a
new system. If you post to USEnet looking for assistance with a
PC that is crashing or hanging, often one of the first things people
will recommend that you do is disable power management.
The reason is that too many hardware and software components
are not fully compatible with power management, and they do not
deal gracefully with the hardware suddenly "disappearing" when
the system decides to put the system into reduced-power mode,
or with having to wait for a hardware device to get back up to
speed. Power management is getting better in this respect, but it
is still, in my opinion, "not ready for prime time".

Another problem with power management is that it sometimes is

"penny wise, pound foolish". Hard disks are subject to reduced life
due to the effects of thermal stress, when they are allowed to spin
up and spin down repeatedly. This is one reason that I leave my
PC on all the time; my hard disks probably spin up and down only
a couple dozen times per year. Some systems have power
management settings that spin down the hard disk after 5 minutes
of inactivity. These systems are putting their disks through
thousands of thermal expansions and contractions per year!
When you consider how incredibly little power a hard disk uses in
steady state, and the fact that a lot of power is drawn when the
disk is spinning up, I believe that in the long run you are better off
not letting your disk spin down to save power this way.

Where does power management make sense? It can make sense

with your monitor, but again, set a reasonable idle time-out:
having your monitor turn itself off after 2 minutes of inactivity is
probably increasing your chances of problems. You need to
experiment with your system and see what works for you. If you
are having strange problems with your system though, you should
try turning off all the power management first, to see if it goes
away. Often, it will.

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD)

Electrostatic discharge or ESD is caused by the buildup of

electrical charge on one surface that is suddenly transferred to
another surface when it is touched. This discharge is actually
typically several thousand volts! It just has very little current,
which is why it doesn't kill you, unlike those high-tension lines with
several thousands volts.

While ESD won't kill you, it can certainly kill your computer
components. Especially sensitive to ESD are integrated circuits:
processors, memory, cache chips, and expansion cards. You can
deal with ESD in two basic ways: reducing its buildup, and
draining it away so it cannot cause any damage.

One way to reduce the buildup of ESD is to increase the relative

humidity of the room where the computer is located. Static builds
up more readily in dry environments than in moist ones; this is
why you get zapped much more often in the winter time in
northern climates than in the summer. Another way to reduce
static is to avoid doing the well-known things that cause it:
wearing socks on carpeted floors, etc.

Draining static is usually a simple matter of touching something

that is grounded, such as the metal of your case when it is
plugged in. This will drain off any static buildup in your body that
might cause damage to your components. Protection from ESD is
important enough when working on your PC that I have this
warning about it in the general warnings section of the site. Under
normal working conditions it generally isn't much of a concern,
since any static zapping you give your PC will normally be drained
to ground through the case. However, I have seen PCs reset
themselves if subjected to a very strong shock while they are
running, so better safe than sorry.