Piet, a truck driver, is transporting an abnormally heavy load on a busy city motorway.

He hears a strange noise coming from the engine and

immediately radios the vehicle control centre at the central depot to report the incident. This kind of call is all in a day’s work for Simpiwe, the
radio controller, who advises Piet to continue on to his final destination, only 20 km away. Simpiwe thinks that the problem can be dealt with
quickly and easily when the truck returns to the depot. As a result, he does not alert the mechanics to the pending situation.

There is a compounding problem though. Piet failed to mention to Simpiwe that the red indicator had suddenly flashed on the dashboard. So,
after a few splutters, the truck grinds to a halt on the motorway at a tricky intersection, and because the articulated truck is so large, it blocks all
four access routes. It does not take long for the traffic to back up in all directions, frustrating commuters eager to get home.

Simpiwe errs by not giving Piet appropriate advice, but Piet is equally wrong for not having mentioned the important detail of the indicator light.

It is easy for this kind of miscommunication to happen. Had Piet told Simpiwe the whole story, the situation may not have escalated into a full-
scale catastrophe that affected far more people than was necessary.
1. INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 1, you learnt how language evolved into a complex system of communication, primarily out of the human need for greater social,
physical and intellectual contact. In this chapter, you will look more closely at communication and will find out what makes effective
communication the lifeblood of the business world. You will start by doing a short assessment to establish how good your own communication
skills are. You will then look at elements common to all forms of communication. You will then examine the differences between different
modes of communication – formal and informal communication and verbal and non-verbal communication. Before looking at the key features of
business communication, you will identify the differences between general and business communication to establish why the latter form of
communication is so essential. You will find out about the importance of the you-viewpoint and will conclude the chapter by addressing some of
the barriers to communication, using the seven Cs of communication to eliminate them.

1.1 How good are your communication skills?

Before you tackle the rest of this chapter, ask yourself the important questions: “How good am I at communicating?” and “Does communication
come naturally to me or do I think I can improve my skills?”
If you are to succeed in life, and particularly in your career, it is important to be able to communicate effectively with the people you engage
with. It is well recognised that poor communication in the business environment can lead to increased inefficiency, reduced productivity and
decreased morale. Conversely, good communication skills can help you to relate more positively to people you work with and may enable you to
get the job of your dreams. In addition, your productivity, as well as that of the organisation in which you work, will increase.

Take a communication quiz

Work in pairs to answer the following questions relating to workplace communication skills.
1.Say how the attitudes reflected in each statement below impact negatively on the efficient flow of communication within an
organisation.
2.Then identify what should be done in each scenario to improve the flow of communication within an organisation.

General statements
a)You feel that the best way to learn is to be thrown in at the deep end. As a result, when you don’t understand something,
particularly in a work situation, rather than asking for clarity, you try and work it out for yourself.
b)You are sometimes surprised when people don’t understand what you say. As far as you are concerned, the problem does
not lie with you, but with them. They simply don’t listen properly.
c)You don’t pay much attention to people’s feelings. You feel it is better to say exactly what you think.
d)You hate talking over the telephone. You think the most efficient way to communicate with someone is via email.
e)When you write a letter or report, you simply cast a cursory eye over it before pushing the send button.
f)You think text messaging is the way to go. You use it for all your business correspondence, regardless of who it is with, and
what the message is about.
g)You think communication is overrated. As long as you do your job well and achieve your targets, that’s all that counts.
 h)We live in a global society in which the playing field is now level. As a result, you think it is no longer important to pay
attention to cultural differences between groups of people because we should all be in tune with one another.
3.Do any of the statements apply to you? If so, say what you can do to improve your own communication skills.

2. DEFINING COMMUNICATION
It is difficult to come up with a conclusive definition of communication because it is so deeply rooted in human behaviour. Nevertheless, most
communication theorists agree that communication is an interactive process involving verbal and non-verbal communication. In addition, they
agree that communication is essentially the exchange of information, ideas and feelings between two or more people.

Key concepts
communication: the act of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts and feelings from one person to another
verbal communication: the use of words, either spoken or written, to send a message or to communicate
non-verbal communication: communication that does not involve the use of words (such as facial expressions, postures and
gestures)

3. COMMON ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

The important elements that are common to most forms of communication are:
•A sender sends or encodes a message to a receiver.
•The message may be either verbal or non-verbal, or a combination of both.
•The message is sent through a communication channel with the aim of achieving some sort of effect. The channel is the medium through
which the sender sends the message to the receiver.
•The receiver decodes the message from the sender in an attempt to understand it.
•Communication takes place in a particular context or setting. The type of context (business, academic, casual, social or cultural) will have a
bearing on the message being sent.
•It is a two-way process. For effective communication to take place, the sender must receive adequate response or feedback from the
receiver. Feedback is the response from the receiver indicating how well the message has been understood.
 •Noise is the extent of disruption affecting the smooth flow of the message. Noise, which may be caused by either internal or external
factors, is explained in detail in Section 9.1 of this chapter.

Key concepts
sender: the person who initiates the process of communication (that is, sends a message)
encode: to transform thoughts and ideas into verbal and non-verbal signs
communication channel: the medium through which a message is sent
receiver: the person who receives a message (communication) from a sender
decode: to transform verbal and non-verbal signs back into messages (interpreting the message)
feedback: the response of a person or audience to a message that has been sent; feedback can be given verbally as well as non-
verbally
noise: anything internal or external to the message that disrupts the message, preventing it from being heard/interpreted

COMMUNICATION IN PRACTICE
1Imagine that you are holding a video-conference with a company director based in Kenya. You are discussing your company’s
growth opportunities within Africa.
Identify the following:
a)the sender
b)the receiver
c)the channel
d)the message
2Halfway through the video-conference, you experience a technical glitch and the computer screen goes dead.
a)Identify the noise in this situation.
b)How would the noise have affected the successful transmission of the message?

CASE IN POINT: COMMUNICATION IN A BUSINESS CONTEXT

Communication within a business context is a two-way process in which a sender creates and sends a message to a receiver
through a preferred channel (for instance, by means of verbal conversation, via email, or by non-verbal communication). The
purpose of the communication could be to reach a mutual understanding, to convey new information, to report back on information
gathered, to discuss a new idea or to communicate any other information. In a business setting, successful communication is vital
in fostering good relationships between managers and individual employees, groups and teams. It is important that everyone
understands what is being communicated and what they need to do with the information (message) being communicated. It is
therefore important for the sender of a message (for example, a manager) to choose the most appropriate channel (for example, a
face-to-face meeting) to convey the message as clearly as possible to the receiver (for example, a co-worker).

4. CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
The concept of culture is mentioned repeatedly throughout the book. But what exactly is culture? The question is simple, yet the answer is not
that straightforward. The term ‘culture’ has many nuances and, as such, it is not possible to come up with one definition that covers all these
aspects. Listed below are a number of possible definitions:
•Culture refers to a group or community who share common experiences that shape the way they understand the world.
•Culture refers to groups that people are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin.
•Culture includes groups people join or become part of as they interact with different people throughout their lives.

Raman & Sharma (2014) pinpoint the key elements of culture as being language, religion and beliefs, values and attitudes, politics, law and
social organisation.

4.1 Language
Language is essential to all forms of communication, whether written or spoken, verbal or non-verbal. Given the global nature of business
interactions, business dealings are no longer restricted to one town, city or country, but extend across national and language boundaries. As such,
you often have to deal with people who speak different languages and it is imperative that you learn how to do this effectively.

4.2 Religion and beliefs

Another important element of culture is religion. Religion is an organised system of cultural beliefs. Therefore, the two aspects (that is, culture
and religion) cannot be separated. As a result, religion can have a significant impact on the communication process.

4.3 Values and attitudes

The different values and attitudes that individuals have towards time management, decision making, achievement, work, change, and so on, are
also important aspects of culture. As Raman & Sharma (2014) state: “In order to communicate effectively without adversely affecting a person’s
sensitivities, it is important for people of different cultures to respect and appreciate one another’s values.”
In some cultures, little importance is attached to the personal space and privacy of an individual (see Section 10.3 on proxemics later in this
chapter). Similarly, in some African cultures, when striking up a conversion with someone, it is considered rude not to first ask the person a few
questions about their health and family before getting to the point of the conversation. However, people from Western cultures tend to launch
immediately into the nub of the conversation without first asking what they perceive to be unnecessary and sometimes inappropriate questions.
As discussed in Section 10.3 (chronemics) later in this chapter, some cultures do not place much importance on punctuality. For them, it
would be considered fashionable to arrive at a party late, or acceptable to dial into a teleconference five minutes later than the scheduled time.
Other cultures would regard this as being disrespectful.

4.4 Politics
Politics and culture are inextricably linked. As1 Freedman (1968) states: “A political culture is the product of both the collective history of a
political system and the life histories of the members of the system and thus it is rooted equally in public events and private experience.” The
political system of a nation relates to the power, ideologies, political risks, sovereignty and law of the country imposed by the government.

4.5 Social organisation

Social organisation is an important element of culture. It relates to social institutions, authority structures (a person or group of people who have
power), interest groups, and status systems, and so on. All these elements contribute to the culture of a nation.
Globalisation and information technology have changed the way in which governments, businesses, and organisations operate. As Raman &
Sharma (2014, p. 8) state: “People are no longer confined to the geographical walls of their own nations, but have become part of an
international network. As communication is the backbone of inter- and intra-organisational co-ordination, it is essential for the people to
comprehend the linguistic and cultural differences between organisations to get the desired results at the workplace.”
 In the global workplace, people of different cultures need to accept and respect one another. “Knowing these basic differences and shaping
our reactions accordingly are essential for overall successful communication.” (Raman & Sharma, 2014.)
Thus, it is evident that different cultural groups adhere to different patterns of behaviour, religions, languages, politics, values and norms. So
when you cross cultural boundaries, it is important that you be aware of and are sensitive to the prevalent practices and beliefs.
However, Raman & Sharma (2014) emphasise that when you do in fact cross these boundaries, you carry our own culture with you. They
state: “We must understand that our own cultural context cannot be used to judge the standards of another culture. It is imperative to give
importance to another culture and not to judge others’ behaviour according to our own cultural values.”

Tips on conducting international business

Successful cross-cultural business interaction is based on:
•a good understanding of the business negotiations and ethics of the country you are in
•an understanding of different business cultures
•an understanding of the different managerial values and behaviour.

5. HOW CONTEXT AFFECTS COMMUNICATION

A communication context2 can be defined as the environment in which a communication event takes place. Each type of communication event
takes place in a different context and this will have a direct bearing on the communication event itself. For instance, the communication context
of a lecturer tutoring university students on barriers to communication will be different to the communication context in which a rugby coach
justifies to the media why a star player was left out of the national team.
According to Beach (2014), each instance of communication is influenced by one or more of the following factors: the historical context, the
psychological context, the cultural context, as well as the social and physical contexts.

Key concept
communication context: the physical environment and the framework of related facts and events within which a communication
takes place

5.1 The historical context

The historical context relates to what the receivers expect of a particular instance of communication. For example, if the CEO always hands out
performance awards to staff members who have exceeded their annual targets at the year-end sales meeting, staff members will have certain
expectations of what will happen at this year’s meeting.

5.2 The psychological context

The psychological context refers to the mood and emotions of the receiver audience. The prevailing mood of the receivers will understandably
influence the way in which a particular message is received. For instance, the rumours on the company grapevine are that it will be retrenching
staff due to the downturn in the economy. When the CEO calls all staff members together to make a special announcement, the collective mood
will be one of defiance, anger, fear and dejection. When she announces that instead of letting staff go, the company will be freezing salaries for a
fixed period, the mood changes to one of relief as the belief is that this is the fairest strategy to protect as many staff members as possible.

5.3 The cultural context

The cultural context is one of the most important factors affecting communication. Culture relates to the beliefs and traditions of a particular
group of people. When making a presentation, either written or spoken, the sender needs to take into consideration the values and attitudes of the
receivers. So, for example, the way in which an AIDS activist presents material on teenage sexuality will be different when presented to a group
of religious leaders than it will be when presented to a group of teenagers faced with the scourge of AIDS. Refer to Chapter 3, Section 3.9, for
more information on culture.

5.4 The social context

The social context relates to the relationship between the sender and the receiver and is influenced by the social norms that come into play in that
particular relationship. The way in which a teenager expresses shock and surprise among a group of peers will, for example, be different to the
way in which she does it in front of her headmaster and teachers.

5.5 The physical context

The physical context relates to the place and time the communication event takes place. Other factors such as noise levels, lighting, ambiance
and the relationship between the senders and receivers will also influence the event. For instance, you would not expect people to raise their
voices and shake their fists at an intimate birthday dinner whereas you might expect this to happen at a pro-life rally.
6. COMMUNICATION CHANNELS IN BUSINESS
You will now move on to another important aspect of communication, the communication channel. As mentioned above, a communication
channel (the medium through which a message is sent) is one of the key elements of communication. In the business environment, it has a
particular application.3 As shown in Figure 2.1 below, business communication channels are categorised into three groups: formal, informal and
unofficial. (Refer also to Chapter 3, Section 7, for more information on formal and informal communication.)

Figure 2.1: Business communication channels

Table 2.1 below lists the important differences between these three channels.

Table 2.1: The differences between the three channels of communication – formal, informal and unofficial

Function of channel Examples

A formal communication channel: Business plans Customer satisfaction surveys Annual reports
•transmits information such as goals, policies and Employer’s manuals
procedures.
 •follows a chain of command (from the senior manager to
subordinates and then to the next level of staff).
•creates transparency.
•encourages motivation.
•can impede the free flow of information, particularly
surrounding personal matters.

An informal communication channel: Team work Training sessions Any informal activity that falls
•functions alongside the formal channel. outside of the usual chain of command
•does not follow the chain of command.
•may be disruptive, if not monitored adequately.

The unofficial communication channel: A darts game during the lunch break The smokers’ corner or
•is interpersonal. area where smokers meet during their smoke breaks Social
•is also called the “grapevine” along which gatherings
messages/rumours circulate.
•establishes a strong bond between peer groups.
•keeps employees informed.
•can lessen the impact of major shocks.
•reduces emotional outbursts and extreme reactions.
•can be divisive, if not monitored.
•can be moderated by means of healthy
employer/employee relationships.

Key concepts
formal communication: communication, either spoken or written, that is presented in a professional way, often according to a
strict structure or format
informal communication: the opposite of formal communication; a casual form of communication typically used in informal
settings among friends and family
 SELECTING APPROPRIATE COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
The financial year-end is approaching and due to the economic downturn, your company has not made its annual targets. As a
result, some employees are likely to be retrenched.
1.What channel of communication would be best to relay this information to members of staff – formal, informal and unofficial?
Explain why.
2.What is the advantage/disadvantage of the message being sent along the grapevine?

7. MODES OF COMMUNICATION

7.1 Formal and informal communication

Both formal and informal communication are used in the business world.4 Formal communication is when you write or speak in a professional
way and exchange information in a structured way. Informal communication is when you write or speak in a more relaxed manner, as you would
with our colleagues during a team-building exercise or during a lunch break.
Both forms of communication are important and complement one another. The important point is knowing which form best suits the
circumstances.

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE FORM OF COMMUNICATION

You plan to hand in your resignation.
1.Which form of communication (formal or informal) would be most suited to this purpose?
2Explain your reasons.

7.2 Verbal and non-verbal communication 5

Verbal communication relies on the use of sounds and language, both spoken or written. To be effective, verbal communication will not take
place in isolation, but will depend on other skills such as non-verbal communication and listening skills.
There are two categories of verbal communication: oral communication and written communication.
Oral communication

Oral communication occurs through the spoken word, word of mouth, dialogues and conversations. Oral communication is used in face-to-face
conversations, telephone conversations, public speeches, meetings, seminars, conferences, discussions and interviews. Oral communication has
the advantage of being immediate and of being able to add a personal touch to the communication. Oral communication can also be
supplemented with non-verbal forms of communication covered in Section 7.3.

Written communication

Written communication takes place through the use of the written word or signs. The written mode is best used for lengthy messages or
documents that need to be recorded for prosperity. Written communication is used in memos, emails, letters, faxes, notices, circulars, reports,
proposals, research papers, brochures, manuals and messages sent via social media networks. Unlike oral communication, written
communication lacks the personal touch that oral communication does and cannot be supplemented by non-verbal forms of communication.

Key concepts
oral communication: communication that is spoken
written communication: communication that is typed or written

7.3 Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is any communication that takes place without spoken words and written language. In other words, it includes all
unspoken and unwritten messages, both intentional and unintentional. It must be noted that with verbal communication, it is easier to lie and to
say the opposite of what you mean. However, with non-verbal communication, it becomes extremely difficult to mask what you are thinking.
Your body movements such as a sudden gesture that underlies a defensive attitude will almost certainly give you away.
Non-verbal communication complements verbal communication by providing clues and additional information. It reinforces what has been
said in words and conveys information about the speaker’s emotional state, often without them realising it.
Non-verbal communication includes the following:
•gestures, body language and facial expressions (kinesics).
•touch and forms of greeting (haptics). (See page 38.)
•the physical distance between people who are communicating (proxemics). (See page 40.)
 •vocal features (paralanguage). (See page 44.)
•eye contact.
•posture.

INTENTIONAL OR UNINTENTIONAL COMMUNICATION

Do you think you always have control over the communication you send out? Consider the following scenarios:
1.A manager congratulates an employee on a new promotion. In addition, to saying “Well deserved,” he has a huge smile on his
face and gives the employee a hearty handshake. Are the gestures (that is, the smile and the handshake) intentional and
unintentional?
2.A manager is about to explain to the board why her department did not make budget. She has prepared a professional-looking
PowerPoint presentation to explain her position to the board, but during her presentation, she constantly cracks her knuckles.
Which aspects of her communication are intentional and unintentional? What does the unintentional communication suggest
about her performance?

Yes, many of the messages you send out are intentional. They are messages, whether verbal or non-verbal, that you consciously
decide to send. You however don’t have control over the unintentional messages you send as you don’t consciously decide to emit
them.

Kinesics6

Kinesics refers to movements of the body that reinforce verbal communication by emphasising the words a person is saying. Such movements
include gestures, head and hand movements and whole-body movements.

Key concept
kinesics: the study of the role of body movements, such as winking and shrugging in communication 7

Communication theorists have identified the following five categories of body movements:
•Emblems. These are non-verbal cues that have verbal equivalents. Examples are the thumbs-up signal that means everything is okay or that
you are in agreement with something, or the victory sign that is made by holding the thumb and forefinger upright.
•Illustrators. These are gestures used to illustrate verbal messages. For example, when you want to indicate that something happens over
and over again, you make big, circular movements with your hands. When you want to identify something, you might point in the direction
of the object or when you want to indicate that a person is slightly crazy, you might make small, circular movements with your fingers
alongside the head.

•Affective displays. These are facial expressions or gestures that show our affective state or emotions.
•Regulators. These are the non-verbal signs or gestures that control the flow of speech in a conversation. Examples include nodding the head
to indicate agreement, short sounds such as “uh-huh,” “mm-mm,” indicating that the speaker should continue, expressions of interest or
boredom, or raising your hand when you want to interrupt someone giving a speech.

•Adaptors. These are changes in posture or other small movements that people may make unconsciously to satisfy a physical need. They
include scratching your head, biting your nails or adjusting your glasses. These movements often reflect what the conversation partner is
 thinking. For example, a slumped posture indicates boredom, crossed arms indicate that the person is defensive and is not open to what is
being said. Similarly, leaning forwards in a chair while listening implies that the person is interested in what is being said.

Haptics

Haptics is a form of non-verbal communication that relies on touch. Researchers first identified the importance of haptics when studying the
senses of infants. It was found that infants who did not possess a sense of touch did not fare as well as infants in whom other senses were
compromised or not fully developed.
Theorists have identified a spectrum of touch which ranges from positive to unintentional to inappropriate. The appropriateness of the touch
depends on the context and settings in which it takes place. The six different kinds are discussed on the following page:

Key concept
haptics: a non-verbal form of communication based on the sense of touch

Professional

In general, the kind of touch applied in medical and other caring professions is appropriate and unavoidable. For instance, touch is essential
when a doctor is undertaking a physical examination on someone, or performing a medical procedure.
Punishment

Touch is used in punishment and can be both negative and positive, depending on the circumstances under which it is used. Depending on the
degree of touch, severe forms of hitting and punching could be regarded as assault, whereas giving a child a light slap on the knuckles, when he
is playing with fire sends a strong, yet positive warning that that is not something he should be doing.
Greeting

Touching is commonly used in greeting rituals by different cultures across the world and can range from shaking hands to kissing one another on
the cheek to full-body hugs. For instance, in Britain, and to some extent in South Africa, it is usual for professionals and even friends and family
members to greet one another with a formal handshake. In other parts of the world, such as Europe and parts of Africa, people, both male and
female, greet one another, even people they do not know very well, with a quick kiss on the check. The French kiss entails kissing both cheeks,
whereas the Belgian kiss, which is also used in the Democratic Republic of Congo, involves three kisses in quick succession.

Guiding

Touch can be used to guide a person across the road or to orientate them in the right direction. The touch is normally applied lightly to the back
or the top of the arm.
Gaining attention

Touch is often used to get someone’s attention, say, for instance, when they are talking or distracted in some way. When you touch them, the
same time as saying their name, they are likely to turn towards you or to give you their attention.

Sympathy
When someone is upset or grieving, it is, in most instances, appropriate to touch the person to show sympathy. The degree of touch will depend
on how well you know the person and can range from a gentle touch on the arm or the shoulder to a full embrace.

Friendship

Touch is used by friends to demonstrate friendship. For instance, when together, friends might playfully and harmlessly bump into one another,
touch one another or give one another a supportive slap on the shoulder while conversing. This form of touch is spontaneous and the messages it
gives out are positive.
Sexual intimacy

Touch is used between intimate sexual partners to show love and affection. However, if applied with force or with the wrong intentions or
against the will of one of the partners, it becomes an act of domination and is inappropriate.
There are extreme cultural differences with regard to haptic customs. Some cultures are more open and vigorous in the forms of touch used
in greetings and other conduct. Other cultures are more guarded and distant. You need to be aware of these differences to ensure that you do not
inadvertently offend people.

Proxemics8

Proxemics is the study of space in interpersonal relationships. In business, space is often taken as an indication of power and authority. For
example, the CEO of the company will probably have a large, spacious office, whereas up to twenty other people might have to share the
equivalent amount of space in an open-office setting.

Key concept
proxemics: the study of how people use and structure space or spatial arrangements in work, personal relations and
communication

Most cultures have unspoken rules associated with the physical distance that is deemed appropriate to adopt when people are communicating. As
you grow up, you tend to mimic what you have learnt from your parents and carers and will copy what they do. As a result, these cultural norms
are passed on from one generation to the next.
However, different cultures tolerate different degrees of comfort/discomfort with regard to physical closeness during interaction. If you
encroach too much on a person’s territoriality, they may feel violated and uncomfortable. They might even misinterpret your intentions.
Theorists have identified four different space zones that relate to the four types of relationships that exist between people – intimate, personal,
social and public. As shown in Figure 2.2 below, space can be divided into four different zones:
•Intimate distance (touching to 45 cm)
•Personal distance (45 cm to 1.2 m)
•Social distance (1.2 m to 3.6 m)
•Public distance (3.7 m to 4.5 m)
Each zone has two extremes, a close zone and a far zone.

Figure 2.2: Proxemics and the four different space zones

The zone for intimate distance ranges from close contact through to touching to the far zone at 45 cm. In some societies, it is seen as
inappropriate to enter the extremes of these zones in public, and if you do so with a person with whom you do not have a close relationship, they
will be ill at ease. This zone is generally reserved for couples, family and friends, and, for example, parents and children. Other people may enter
this zone temporarily to embrace you, shake your hand or offer condolences.
The zone for personal distance extends from 45 cm at one extreme to 1.2 m at the other. It is generally an appropriate zone for relaxed and
comfortable communication between peers, close friends and colleagues. Within these parameters, it is possible to see one another’s facial
expressions, eye movements and body language. People can talk comfortably, without having to whisper.
The zone for social distance ranges from 1.2 m to 3.6 m and is deemed appropriate for impersonal business relationships, for when you have
to work closely with others or at social gatherings. Here, you would speak more loudly than in the personal zone and eye contact is essential to
facilitate effective feedback.
The zone for public distance extends from 3.7 m to 4.5 m, and is the zone most occupied by teachers, lecturers and public speakers. Here, the
more intimate forms of non-verbal communication such as eye contact and facial expressions would go unnoticed. Speakers would, for example,
employ more exaggerated movements, such as large movements of the arms and head. A speaker would also speak more loudly than in any of
the other zones.

Chronemics

Chronemics is the study of the role and use of time in communication, and in particular, the way in which people of different cultures perceive,
value and structure time and react to time-based communication. Chronemics also deals with aspects such as punctuality (how
important/unimportant it is) and willingness to wait.

Key concepts
chronemics: the study of the use of time in non-verbal communication
monochronic: adhering strictly to time
polychronic: being flexible with time

The use of time is often linked to status. For instance, while it might be considered acceptable for the big boss to interrupt a meeting to take a
cell phone call from her husband about dinner with overseas colleagues later that night, it would be highly inappropriate for the intern to
interrupt the same meeting to take a call about his next health assessment at a local gym.
 The way you relate to time sends out messages. For example, while it is customary for a bride to be fashionably late for her wedding, it
would be suicidal for a job applicant to arrive 15 minutes late for a job interview.
Different cultures also relate to time differently. In Germany, things run like clockwork and it would be rude for visiting colleagues to arrive
late for a meeting. However, in Latin America and parts of Africa, because people are often expected to arrive late, it is often not a cause of
concern if a meeting starts and runs very late.
By nature, cultures are considered to be:
•monochronic
•polychronic.

Monochronic cultures
Cultures that adhere to a monochronic time system adhere strictly to time. Events take place on time, according to identified time segments. In
other words, time is carefully managed. North Americans and Northern and Western Europeans are known to be monochronic.

Polychronic cultures
Cultures that adhere to a polychromic time system are comfortable doing several things at once, and are less rigid when it comes to setting and
sticking to time schedules. People from Latin America, parts of Africa and Asia are known to be polychromic.
In such cultures, priority is given to tradition and relationships rather than to tasks, which sets them apart from their monochronic
counterparts.9 Cohen notes that “Traditional societies have all the time in the world. The arbitrary divisions of the clock face have little saliency
in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons, the invariant pattern of rural life, community life, and the calendar of religious festivities”
(Cohen, 2004, p. 34).
Table 2.3 below lists the differences Cohen identified between people from monochronic and polychronic cultures.

Monochronic people Polychronic people

Do things on time Do many things at a time

Get agitated when plans do not run to schedule Do not worry if plans do not run according to schedule

Concentrate on one job at a time Can be easily distracted and are tolerant of interruptions
 Adhere strictly to time commitments such as deadlines and Prioritise tasks and objectives to be achieved, rather than
schedules adherence to deadlines

Are committed to the job/task at hand Are committed to people and human relationships

Adhere strictly to time-based plans Are flexible with time-based plans and change plans easily

Are accustomed to short-term relationships Aim to build enduring long-term relationships

Different perceptions of time and how to use it can cause friction in the intercultural business environment where both monochronic and
polychronic people are represented. In such instances, Burgoon, Stern & Dillman (1995) strongly advise following the old adage “When in
Rome, do as the Romans do.” Whether you come from a culture that watches the clock or from one that doesn’t, you must learn to be sensitive to
the cultural backgrounds of people and respect their views on time management. There will certainly be occasions when they have to do the
same for you.

Eye contact

Eye contact is an important feature of non-verbal behaviour. By not making or maintaining eye contact, a person reflects their degree of
disinterest. However, by making and maintaining eye contact, they show their level of interest. Both actions provide feedback to the speaker, one
negative, the other positive.
Eye contact helps with turn-taking. When people have finished speaking, they will look directly at the person who will be continuing,
signalling to them that it is now their turn. When they are not yet ready to relinquish their turn, they will not look directly at the other person or
people.
Eye contact also reflects the kind of relationship that exists between two people. If you like someone, you will look at the person in a positive
way, widening your eyes. If you dislike that person, you are more likely to avoid making eye contact with them and may narrow your eyes a bit.

Posture

A person’s posture reflects what they are feeling and thinking. An open posture indicates that a person is interested and receptive to what is
being said. A person who is open will look at you directly, will place the arms loosely at the side and will show willingness to interact in a
positive way. In contrast, a person who adopts a closed posture, by folding or crossing the arms, crossing the legs and not looking at you directly,
reflects a degree of defensiveness or aggression.

Para-language

Para-language refers to vocal features such as the tone, pitch, speed and volume of the voice that accompany speech. It also includes pauses and
hesitations between words. These features contribute to communication but are not part of language. These vocal signals indicate what the
speaker is feeling, without them realising it.

Key concept
para-language: components of communication such as pitch, volume, intonation, and so on, that may modify or influence
meaning, or convey emotion
 READING SIGNALS
It is easy to overlook the importance of the signals given out by non-verbal behaviour. However, a basic understanding of these
strategies will help you to improve interactions with people you work with. For instance, as a manager, it is important to be able to
read the signals to ascertain when your staff members are concerned about something or when they are feeling confident about the
work they are doing.

8. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

8.1 General communication versus business communication 10

Why is there a discrete subject called Business Communication when all you need do is communicate effectively? The answer is clear. Although
there are similarities between business communication and general interpersonal communication, the form you engage in outside of work, there
are some important differences as well. These relate to differences in audience, form and content, style and tone, purpose and etiquette and are
summarised in Table 2.2:

Table 2.2: Differences between general and business communication

Differences General communication Business communication

Audience The audience will be diverse, as will be the The audience will have a common understanding and
subjects discussed. common knowledge of a common subject.

Form and The form and content will not follow a strict The form and content will be more formal – it will follow a
content structure. prescribed structure or format and will use formal language.

Style and Less formal – informal language, even slang, More formal – formal language will be used; the tone will lack
tone may be used; the tone may be emotional. sentiment and emotion.
 Purpose The purpose may not always be clear. The purpose is clear and is central to the communication (for
example, giving a presentation, writing a speech).

Rules of Rules of etiquette are not strict, although some Strict rules of etiquette apply.
etiquette still apply.

8.2 External and internal communication 11

In addition to the four modes of communication discussed above (formal and informal communication and verbal and non-verbal
communication), business communication is further categorised into two additional categories: external and internal communication.

External communication

Any communication that takes place outside of the organisation (with government agencies, other organisations, clients and the general public)
is categorised as external communication. Examples include letters, reports, proposals, and visual media such as posters, advertisements, video
tapes or electronic media such as faxes, telegrams, emails. The communication may take place through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings,
panel discussions or presentations, exhibitions, and so on.
The primary aim of external communication is to keep outside organisations informed and updated about the company’s services and
products. The tone and style of such communication should be cordial and professional.

Internal communication

Any communication that takes place within the organisation (with branches, staff and employees) is called internal communication.
The primary function of internal communication is to keep employees informed about the daily operations of the business, as well as to
inform them about any new policies or decisions that are made. In other words, frequent internal communication helps to increase motivation as
staff is made aware of relevant news, business prospects, promotions, and so on. Effective internal communication can help to forge strong links
between staff members as they are made to feel that they are an integral part of the team.

Key concepts
external communication: communication that takes place outside an organisation, to outside organisations, clients, customers
and members of the public
internal communication: communication that takes place internally within an organisation between members of staff

9. THE YOU-VIEWPOINT 12

Adopting the you-viewpoint or you-attitude is a simple, yet effective strategy that can be used to optimum effect in all forms of communication,
especially in business communication.13 It simply entails adopting the second position (you) not the first position (I or we) when you write or
speak. In this way, you pay attention to the receiver’s perspective by considering the receiver’s knowledge, interests, attitudes and emotional
responses, instead of your own. By using this approach, you boost the receiver’s confidence by creating the impression that you are giving them
your full attention.

Key concept
the you-view point: giving precedence to the second position; the you form as opposed to the I or we forms; is a style of
communication that places the writer in the reader’s position, allowing the writer to see things from the reader’s perspective

10. BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 14

Communication is effective only if it has the desired effect, that is, is if the sender’s message is received and interpreted correctly by the
receiver. Effective communication is essential in every aspect of your daily lives, but none more so than in the business setting where
miscommunication can have disastrous consequences. Miscommunication can result in poor productivity, targets not being met, financial loss
for the business, as well as frustration and tension between members of staff.
In communication studies, the term barrier is regarded as anything that distorts the message or prevents it from being received in any way.
Communication barriers can be classified into different categories. These include:
•Noise
•Intrapersonal barriers
•Interpersonal barriers.

Each of these factors will be discussed in detail in the section that follows.
10.1 Noise
Noise is anything that prevents a message from reaching the receiver and from being interpreted correctly. In the context of communication
theory, it not only refers to external sounds but also to any other factors that can lead to a breakdown in communication. Noise can result from
both internal and external factors.

Physical noise

Physical noise is noise that takes place externally and includes things such as loud music that prevents you from listening to what someone is
saying or loud drilling at a construction site near your office that prevents you from hearing what is being said or from concentrating optimally.
Physical noise is sometimes also called channel noise and refers to disturbances within the channel or medium of the message.

Psychological noise

Psychological noise refers to any mental interference that prevents you from listening. For instance, if you are daydreaming about a holiday or
worrying about a sick child, you may not be able to concentrate properly during a meeting.

Physiological noise

Physiological noise is any physiological factor that interferes with effective communication. For instance, if you have a blinding headache, you
will not be able to concentrate on an important speech or presentation.
Semantic noise

Semantic noise occurs when the sender and the receiver do not share a common understanding of a particular word or expression. Unlike
channel noise which stems from disturbances in the channel or medium of the message, semantic noise is generated from within the message
itself. Examples include word ambiguity, misspelt words, incorrect grammar, punctuation errors, and differences between connotative and
denotative meanings of words or when you are unable to understand the restricted jargon used by some professions.

Key concepts
barrier: anything that prevents a message from being received
noise: anything that distorts a message, preventing it from being interpreted

10.2 Intrapersonal barriers

A barrier or boundary is the dividing line between what behaviour a person will tolerate before reacting. The inbuilt barriers that lead to
misunderstandings and miscommunication are called intrapersonal barriers: They care caused by the following factors:

Faulty assumptions
Faulty assumptions relate to those instances when you make wrong assumptions about the receiver based on erroneous face-value perceptions
that you may have about him or her. For instance, you assume that a work colleague is standoffish and aloof, but you do not realise that she is
painfully shy and is desperate to earn your respect.

Differences in perception

Different perceptions occur when two or more people perceive the same situation in different ways. For instance, the new personal assistant is
chatty and helpful and is always willing to do things for others. Your colleague thinks she has done wonders for the smooth running of the office
and for morale in general. You disagree because you find her a bit of an airhead. You are uncomfortable with her perpetual talkativeness and
believe that her helpfulness is contrived. In your view, she simply wants to be promoted as soon as possible and that the happy face she presents
is not genuine.

Stereotypes

Most people are probably guilty of stereotyping other people, whether they are willing to admit it or not. Stereotyping involves forming
premature, and often erroneous, opinions of people based on assumptions made about the larger group of people to which they belong.
Pennington (1986) identifies three characteristics of stereotypes:
•People are categorised on the basis of visible characteristics such as race, nationality, sex, dress and bodily appearance.
•All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics.
•Anybody who is seen to belong to a particular group will automatically have the same characteristics of the group.

Stereotypes are mostly negative and therefore serve as a barrier to communication. If, for example, you have been brought up to believe that men
are good at Maths and Science and women are not, when a woman is appointed as head of division in the engineering firm in which you work,
you may voice your reservations about the woman’s competence and may even cast aspersions on how she managed to be appointed to this
position in the first place. When the woman issues directives and makes decisions, you openly defy her by publicly questioning her skills and
abilities. After time, you realise that she has made insightful decisions, based on her knowledge and expertise, that have turned the division
around and you begin to shed your views about her.
To overcome stereotyping,15 Lampton (2014) recommends the following:
•Identifying the stereotypes that have marred your judgement, such as “All athletes are poor students” and “All wealthy people are selfish
and greedy.”
 •Looking for exceptions to those stereotypes. As Lampton states, “you will always find brilliant athletes and you’ll meet rich people who
support philanthropic causes.”
•Eliminating harmful words and phrases from your vocabulary, such as “every” and “That’s just like a …”
•Challenging stereotypes people express about others.
•Challenging categories people assign you to automatically. Lampton suggests stating something like this: “You’re mistaken in your opinion
of me. Let me tell you why …”

Mindset

The psychological phenomenon called mindset is when your reaction to something is influenced by your pre-determined mental attitude to an
issue. If you have an open mindset, you are likely to be open to suggestion. If you have a closed mindset, you will respond negatively to a
situation and will not be willing to embrace change. To change someone’s mindset can be tricky. It involves being tolerant, presenting facts,
figures and supportive reasons, and allowing them to come round to your point of view.

CHANGING YOUR MINDSET

Can you think of a situation in which a colleague was reluctant to try something new because his or her mindset was closed?
Explain what you did to change that person’s mindset?

Frame of reference

Frame of reference is allied to mindset and occurs when your attitude to an issue or event is influenced by past experiences, negative or positive.
For instance, if you come from a happy family where both your parents and all your siblings lived together harmoniously, you are more likely to
embrace the concept of marriage than someone whose father was an abusive philanderer.
In order for communication to take place successfully, the communicators need to share a common field of experience or frame of reference.
To illustrate this point, let’s take, for example, a running club. Although the club members come from different family, social and professional
backgrounds, they all share an interest in sport, health and in running, in particular, which is the common interest that brings them together. So
this shared interest is their frame of reference.
What happens when people don’t share common interests? Communication can still be successful if the communicators adjust their
intellectual backgrounds, language, knowledge, and social backgrounds to ensure greater common ground. However, the fact remains, the
greater the frame of reference, the more successful the communication is likely to be.
Conflicting backgrounds

When people in the audience come from divergent religious, cultural and social backgrounds or backgrounds that are different to your own, their
backgrounds are likely to conflict. A speaker who is unable to gain the audience’s ear by addressing familiar issues or by talking about topics
with which they can identify, will not be able to inspire or motivate the audience. In order to do this, you must gain the audience’s understanding
by finding out from the organisers what groups of people will be making up the audience (for instance, whether you will be speaking to company
executives or office workers). You also need to pitch your talk at the appropriate level of the audience. However, it is also important to make
sure that you neither talk down to the audience nor up to the audience, as both will be offensive.

Incorrect inferences

It is sometimes possible to read things into a situation or to incorrectly infer something from a situation that you thought existed, but does not.
For instance, your line manager and your office colleague always drive to work together in the same car. You infer incorrectly that they are in a
romantic relationship, when, in fact, they are in a car pool. Because they live in the same area, they simply want to reduce petrol costs by sharing
a car.

10.3 Interpersonal barriers

As stated previously, a boundary is a limit between what you will tolerate and what you will not. Interpersonal boundaries are the boundaries
that exist between people and help to define your personal identity, integrity, relationships, and security. These boundaries range from vague to
clear, stable to unstable, unconscious to intentional, compatible to conflictual, nurturing to toxic, imposed to negotiated, and flexible to rigid.

Limited vocabulary

Sometimes, you may be unable to find the correct words to express yourselves in a given situation. This can happen to both mother-tongue and
non-mother tongue speakers of English. The impression left on the audience is generally negative.

A mismatch between verbal and non-verbal communication

This is when there is a discrepancy between what a person is saying and what their body language is conveying. For instance, your manager
announces publicly that someone else has been promoted to the position you applied for. You congratulate your colleague by saying how pleased
you are for her. However, your face belies your true feelings – your forehead is wrinkled and you have tears in your eyes. Non-verbal messages
relay the true meaning of a situation more accurately than verbal messages so if your responses are to be regarded as authentic, your verbal and
non-verbal cues must be in sync.

Excessive emotion

Sometimes, emotions can heighten your reactions, causing you to become sharper and wittier. However, extreme emotions such as anger,
whether warranted or not, can create unnecessarily overcharged situations, which can result in the parties on both sides responding and behaving
inappropriately. In such circumstances, it is best to guard against reacting in the heat of the moment as you are likely to say or write something
that you will regret later. Try to remain professional and rational at all times. Put some distance between yourself and the situation and react only
when you are able to view it from a slightly different perspective.

Communication selectivity

People have a tendency to pay attention to issues that they are interested in or which affect them. They may ignore other issues that they find
boring or difficult. As a result, they will pay attention to selective bits of information, rather than to the entire message. This can lead to a
breakdown in the flow of information. Say, for instance, that your line manager sends out minutes of the previous strategy meeting. You skim
through the items in the minutes that affect you (that is, the marketing of the company’s new product) and ignore the rest. As a result, when your
manager asks you a question about the financing aspects of the product, you are unable to answer and communication breaks down.

Cultural variations

The issue of culture is of vital importance, especially when dealing in the global market place where commercial interactions continually cut
across national and international borders. Here it is essential to pay attention to laws, customs and business practices that are observed in the host
country. For instance, many countries and nationalities pay strict attention to time-keeping and being on time. So, for example, if a group of
South African delegates is visiting a company in Germany, it is essential that they arrive at meetings ahead of time so that the meeting can
commence punctually. It would, for example, be considered extremely rude, if they were to saunter into the meeting venue ten minutes late. To
strengthen the ties between international business partners and to prevent unnecessary communication obstacles, like the one described above, it
is essential that you find out about the laws, customs and business practices prevalent in the host country before visiting it.
Organisational barriers

Communication barriers not only exist between individuals, but also across organisations. There are a number of reasons for this:

Chinese whispers16
The flow of information in an organisation takes place in many directions – downwards, upwards, horizontally and diagonally, with the result
that information can be lost at each point of transfer. As Raman & Sharma (2014) state: “The more links there are in a communication chain, the
greater the changes of miscommunication.”
Consider the following example: A group of swimmers is competing in an open water swim in a dam. As is common with many open water
events, the standard distance is a mile, which equates to 1.6 km. However, due to the weather conditions and the choppiness of the water on the
day, the organisers decide to amend the route. Instead of having the competitors swim across the dam where they will encounter a head wind,
they decide to let them swim along with river bank where it is more sheltered. Word soon spreads among the competitors that the distance has
been shorted, when, in fact, only the route has changed, not the distance. Some competitors complain because they need to swim a mile to
quality for other events.
This is an example of how a message can become distorted if it travels through too many communication chains or transfer stations. In fact,
it is the same as the game Chinese Whispers which you probably used to play in primary school.
To ensure the smooth, unimpeded flow or transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, it is best that there be direct contact between
the two parties, so that the message cannot become diluted or distorted. The more points of contact or transfer stations that exist between the
sender and potential receivers, the greater the chances are of miscommunication.

Information overload
Technology has changed the pace with which business is conducted. On the positive side, it has streamlined operations. On the negative side
though, it has created a veritable information tsunami. Business people are constantly flooded with a steady stream of data that they are required
to sift through and processes. As a result, really pressing information can sometimes get lost among the many other trivial messages received.

How to cope with information overload

If you feel you are being swamped by emails, phone calls, or repetitive visits from colleagues, develop an efficient coping
mechanism, like the one suggested below:
Don’t get into the habit of checking your emails throughout the day, as this can distract you from the work you are currently doing.
Instead, allocate set times for reading and responding to emails, say at 9 am in the morning, once you have had a chance to settle
into the office, again at 12 pm before you go on lunch and finally, at 4 pm before you leave the office.

Filter your emails by flagging those that are important and which require immediate response, and those that are less important and
which can be responded to in your own time.

Return to the urgent emails and respond to them.

Make lists or notes (either manually or by means of a helpful app) of important tasks or errands you need to do. Work through this
list in an orderly fashion.

Be firm with colleagues who come into your office to chat, even if it is about work matters. Rather ask them to come back at a time
that suits you.

Be strict with yourself and don’t deviate from the system. If you deal with matters in an orderly fashion, the more efficient you will
become.

Lack of knowledge of a subject

If you are required to carry out a task, it is important that you have sufficient knowledge and expertise to complete it. Without sufficient
knowledge, you will not be able to execute the task properly and the communication process will be hampered. It is better to stick to tasks and
subjects that you are familiar with as this will enable you to give of your best. However, if you are required to do something that you are unsure
of, don’t be afraid to bring this weakness to the attention of people higher up so that you can receive the proper training and support.

Stressful working environments

A stressful environment is not the ideal place to work. A message can easily become distorted when the environment in which the message is
received is noisy or lacks privacy. Make sure that all meetings and phone calls take place away from the hustle and bustle of activity. This way,
you will not have to reschedule meetings or call the person back due to poor reception.

Unrealistic deadlines
Today many business operations are time-bound, which means that tasks and projects have to be completed within a certain deadline or time-
frame. While it is recognised that people work more efficiently under an optimal amount of pressure, too much pressure can impact negatively
on the quality of the product, as well as on the person’s health and well-being. To overcome this potentially serious communication hurdle, it is
best to warn your superiors or clients timeously if you think unrealistic deadlines are going to be detrimental to the quality of the product or task
at hand. This will enable you to negotiate realistic deadlines that will be to the benefit of everyone concerned.

11. THE SEVEN CS OF COMMUNICATION

In life, you spend most of your day communicating. In business, most interactions and transactions that take place involve some kind of
communication. So it goes without saying that the better you are able to communicate, the more credibility you will have with clients and the
more successful you will be.
To achieve maximum efficiency and effectiveness, all communication, whether spoken or written, should adhere to the following seven
criteria, called the seven Cs17 of communication:
•Clarity
•Conciseness
•Concreteness
•Correctness
•Coherence
•Completeness
 •Courteousness.

11.1 Clarity
When speaking or writing, make sure your message is short and clear. The receiver should be in no doubt about what you are saying. Look at the
email message in Example 1.

Example 1

It is not clear who Mandla is talking about as there may be more than one dark-haired apprentice in the department. It is also unclear whether
“she’s a machine” is intended in a positive light (that is, whether it means the apprentice is a very hard worker) or whether it is intended in a
negative light (whether it means she simply works without applying her mind to the task). The last sentence is equally vague and does not clarify
the purpose of the message at all. Now compare Example 1 with Example 2 to see how much clearer it is.

Example 2
This second message is much clearer, because it is clear who the writer is talking about, and what his request is.

11.2 Conciseness
Concise messages get to the point immediately, without wasting time (or words). They focus on the main points only and are generally easy to
read. Compare Examples 3 and 4.

Example 3
The email is too long and flowery, and the writer gets side-tracked by mentioning irrelevant facts. As you can see from Example 4, by
eliminating the wordiness and irrelevant facts, the message can be reduced by half and have more of an impact than Example 3.

Example 4
11.3 Concreteness
Concrete communication is easy to understand. Rather than being vague and unclear, its meaning is exact. The content is supported by relevant
facts and figures and the messages cannot be misinterpreted. Look at the advertisement in Example 5 and then compare it with the one in
Example 6.

Example 5
This advertisement is dull and lacks passion and emotion. It also lacks concrete details. Now look at the revised version in Example 6.

Example 6
The advertising copy in Example 6 contains concrete facts and vivid images that help the readers to visualise the product. The readers are able to
picture the machine in action.

11.4 Correctness
There is nothing more off-putting than reading error-ridden messages. When communicating professionally with people, make sure that the
message is correct and that it does not contain any errors. Check to ensure that your grammar and spelling are correct and that you have spelt the
person’s name and title correctly. Compare Examples 7 and 9.

Example 7
Example 7 contains spelling and typographical errors. A corrected version is contained in Example 8.

Example 8
Remember that the computer spell and grammar checks will not pick up all mistakes. It is always best to proofread your work carefully before
sending it out, or better still, ask someone else to check it for you.

11.5 Coherence
A coherent text is one that is logical, in which all the points are connected to the main topic and all points are relevant. Compare Examples 9 and
10.

Example 9

The two cities, Port Elizabeth and Grahamstown, are situated in the Eastern Cape. The British, who came to the country in the
1800s, were not accustomed to the heat and rough conditions. Sunstroke can affect people badly.

The paragraph consists of three seemingly discrete sentences that show no apparent link to one another. As a result, readers are required to read
between the lines to work out the meaning of the paragraph.
Example 10 is more coherent as the sentences are linked together semantically and grammatically.

Example 10

The British Settlers, who arrived in South Africa in the 1800s, founded the cities of Port Elizabeth and Grahamstown in the
present day Eastern Cape. The British were not accustomed to the heat and rough conditions. As a result, many of them
suffered from severe sunstroke.

11.6 Completeness
A complete message will contain everything that the reader or audience needs in terms of names, dates, times, places, and so on. The audience or
readers will not be required to find out any further information.

Example 11
This message is not complete because it does not include important information about what, when, where and who. Compare it with Example 12.

Example 12
11.7 Courteousness
All messages should be courteous and professional, with no hidden insults. Compare Example 13, which is an example of a message sent by a
financial advisor to a client, with the more courteous version in Example 14.

Example 13

The message is written in telegraphese and indicates that not much effort was put into writing it. It is curt, unclear and highly unprofessional.
The name of the addressee and addressor have not been included. Consider the revised version in Example 14.

Example 14
Tips on how to adhere to the seven Cs
Before sending out any letters, memos, emails or reports, use the following checklist

Is my Yes No
message/communication

Clear

Concise

Concrete

Correct
 Coherent

Complete

Courteous

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, you established that effective communication is essential, especially in the business environment where many of our daily
dealings and actions involve some form of communication. You established that if you are to succeed in business, it is important to master all
aspects of business communication and to overcome barriers that prevent effective communication, leading to miscommunication and
communication breakdowns.

SUMMARY
In this chapter, you learnt about communication which can be defined as the act of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts and feelings from
one person to another.
Before commencing the chapter, you worked in pairs to complete a short assessment to determine how good your own communication skills
are.
In this chapter you learnt about the following:
•the features common to all acts of communication acts, including the sender, receiver, the message, the channel/medium and the feedback
•the need to understand the extent to which culture affects communication
•the different modes of communication – formal and informal, oral and written, verbal and non-verbal and internal and external
communication
•the differences between general communication and business communication and why business communication is so important
•the ‘you-viewpoint’ in communication, which involves putting yourself in the reader’s position
•the intrapersonal, interpersonal and organisational barriers that prevent effective communication from taking place
•the seven Cs of communication which can be used to eliminate communication barriers to make communication effective and efficient.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Exercise 1: Identifying elements of communication
1.Identify the following elements in the scenario below:
a)the sender
b)the receiver
c)the message
d)the channel
e)the noise
f)the context
2.Is this an example of one-way or two-way communication? Explain your answer.

Exercise 2: Identifying non-verbal communication

1.Work in pairs. Act out the non-verbal communication you would use in the following situations:
 a)A mother reprimanding her child, saying “Andile, that was a naughty thing to do!”
b)You invite meeting delegates to file into a room, saying “Ladies and gentlemen, please come this way.”
c)You congratulate your colleagues, saying “Well done team. We have achieved excellent results this month.”
d)You caution one of your employees about arriving late saying, “I am disappointed in you Johan. That is the third time this week you
have arrived late.”
2.Explain why it is important for verbal and non-verbal communication to complement one another.
Exercise 3: Using the you-viewpoint
1.Rewrite the following paragraph using the ‘you-viewpoint’.
We would like to remind you that time has been set aside for your next hair appointment on:
Monday, 2 February 2020 at 10 am
We look forward to seeing you there!
We welcome all new clients.
We have a complimentary blow dry awaiting you.
2.Explain why it is preferable to use the ‘you-viewpoint’.
Exercise 4: Reading a case study on communication barriers
Read the following case study. Then answer the questions below:
CASE STUDY: OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Sister Magda Rasool is a nursing sister at a home for elderly people. She has 10 years’ nursing experience, but only started
working at this particular home a month ago.

She notices that one of the residents, 80-year old Mr John Tyiki, has become increasingly withdrawn. He has stopped eating and
sleeps for long periods during the day. For the rest of the day, he sits in a chair in the patient’s lounge staring out of the window. He
has also been declining his daily walk in the garden.

Sister Rasool thinks he could be depressed because his son recently moved to another town and is unable to visit him that often.
She decides to speak to the Matron about Mr Tyki’s condition.

She knocks on the door to the Matron’s office saying, “Are you busy Matron, may I come in?”
The matron replies, “Of course I’m busy. Did you think you’d find me filing my nails?”

Sister Rasool replies, “I’m sorry to disturb you Matron, I just ….”

To which Matron responds, “If you are sorry about disturbing me, why are you disturbing me?”

Sister Rasool backs out of the office saying, “I will speak to you another time then?”

1Explain the setting of the above scenario.

2Do you think Sister Rasool had a legitimate reason for disturbing the Matron? Explain your reasons?
3What barriers prevented Sister Rasool from continuing with the conversation with the Matron?
4Explain why this breakdown of communication was potentially damaging and harmful.
5In pairs, act out an alternative ending to the above scenario in which the interaction ends more favourably?

SELF-EVALUATION
Look at the following outcomes. For each one, indicate whether you achieved it, by indicating “yes” or “no”.

Numbe Outcomes Yes No

r

1. I understand what is meant by the term “communication”.

2. I can work in pairs to complete an assessment to determine my communication skills.

3. I can identify the elements common to all forms of communication.

4. I can differentiate between the different modes of communication – formal and informal communication, verbal
and non-verbal communication (including written and oral communication).
5. I understand the differences between general and business communication.

6. I can identify the directions in which business communication takes place (downward, upward, horizontally and
diagonally).

7. I understand the importance of the you-viewpoint in communication.

8. I understand the barriers to communication and how to overcome them.

9. I can use the seven Cs of communication to promote effective communication.

References and Endnotes

1International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, New York: Macmillen, 1968, Vol. 12, p. 218 (quoted in Jo Freedman, The Political Culture of the
Democratic and Republican Parties (1986).
2Types of Communication Contexts, By Justin Beach, eHow Contributor; http://www.ehow.com/info_8281374_types-communication-
contexts.html#ixzz32eubffv6
3Communication Channels, Tutorialspoint; Available on http://www.tutorialspoint.com/management_concepts/communication_channels.htm
4Formal and Informal Business Communication By Christina Callaway, eHow Contributor, updated March 13, 2014; Available
on http://www.ehow.com/about_6708973_formal-informal-business-communication.html
5What is Communication; ©Skills you Need; Available on http://www.skillsyouneed.com/general/what-is-communication.html
6Raman, M, Sharma, S, Collins G, Middleton Horn J, Luthuli, T, & Pather R. 2014. Communication for Engineers, Oxford University Press Southern
Africa.
7Five types of Kinetics; 17 February 2008; Available on http://amarit04.wordpress.com/2008/02/17/5-types-of-kinesics/
8Raman, M, Sharma, S, Collins G, Middleton Horn J, Luthuli, T, & Pather R. 2014. Communication for Engineers, Oxford University Press Southern
Africa.
9Cohen, R. (2004). Negotiating across cultures: International communication in an interdependent world (rev. ed.). Washington, DC: United States
Institute of Peace.
10Difference Between Communication and Business Communication, May 18th, 2011; Available on http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-
between-communication-and-vs-businesscommunication/
11Business Communication and its Types; RhizwhanAshraf.comFebruary 4, 2008; Available on http://www.rizwanashraf.com/2008/02/04/business-
communication-and-its-types/
12You, You, You by Joel P. Bowman, February 5, 2011: Available on SCS Matters LLC http://www.scs-matters.com/blog/?p=524
13You-attitude in Business Writing; SMU Communication 101; Available on http://smucomm101.wikifoundry.com/page/You-
attitude+in+business+writing+%28see+also+you+viewpoint%29
14Raman, M, Sharma, S, Collins G, Middleton Horn J, Luthuli, T, & Pather R. 2014. Communication for Engineers, Oxford University Press Southern
Africa.
15Bill Lampton, Ph.D., Helps You Finish in First Place. He has shared his expertise in communication, motivation, sales and customer service with a
diverse client list. He wrote a popular book:
The Complete Communicator: Change Your Communication, Change Your Life! Visit his Web site Call Dr. Bill Lampton at 770-534-3425 or 800-393-
0114. Email him: drbill@ChampionshipCommunication.com
16Barriers to Effective Communication; Available on http://www.buzzle.com/articles/barriers-to-effective-communication.html
17The 7 Cs of Communication; Available on http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newCS_85.htm