Tunneling:

Introduction about tunnels, functions,

advantages and disadvantages of tunnels
compared to open cuts, Criteria for
selection of size and shape of tunnels,
consideration in tunneling, geological
investigation, tunnel alignment, tunnel
shafts, pilot tunnels. Advantages of twin
tunnels and pilot tunnels, portals and
adits.
• TUNNELS
▸ It is an underground or underwater passageway, dug
through the surrounding soil/earth/rock.
▸ They could be used for carrying freights and passengers,
water, sewage, etc.
▸ A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail
traffic, or for a canal.
▸ Secret tunnels are built for military purposes
▸ Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow
wildlife to cross human- made barriers safely.
Open Cut
Open to sky passage excavated through huge soil mass of
obstacle in required directions to connect two roads or
railways
• TUNNEL FUNCTIONS
Tunnels are broadly used for three functions.
(A) Mining Tunnels used for extraction of minerals.
(B)Transportation tunnels used for Road or Railway Traffic.
(C) Utility tunnels used for Carrying
• Water for Power generation, Irrigation or Civic & Industrial
use.
• Carrying Sewage & Waste water, Carrying Utilities like
Power & Communication
¤ Bridge
• Over-ground construction to cross over obstacles without
disturbing the natural way below it
REASONS TO BUILD A TUNNEL :-
• When the lane encounters an obstacle such as a mountain
to avoid bypassing the obstacle.
• Built sometimes to overcome a water obstacle as a
replacement for building a bridge above it.
• Built to connect between military posts so the movement
between them will not be visible for the enemy.
• Sometimes built for infrastructure like electricity cables,
water, communication and sewerage to avoid damage and
disruption above ground.
vi) If tunnels are provided with easy gradients, the cost of
hauling is decreased.
(vii) The safety of tunnel construction has considerably
increased by the improved modern methods of construction
and construction equipment.
(viii) There is freedom from snow and iceberg hazards.
(ix) There is overall reduction in cost because of shortening
the distance.
(x) Tunnels avoid interference with surface and air rights.
(xi) Maintenance cost of tunnels is much less than that for
the bridges.
(2) Disadvantages of tunnels:
Following are the disadvantages of tunnelling:
• (i) The initial cost of construction of a tunnel is high as
compared to an open cut.
• (ii) It is necessary to have skilled labour and technical
supervision of high order for the construction of a tunnel.
• (ii) It takes long time for the successful completion of a
tunnel under normal conditions.
• (iv) The construction of tunnel requires specialized and
sophisticated equipment.
Alignment of Tunnels :-
• The selection of route of tunnel will naturally depend on the
of topography of the area through which tunnel is passing
and also on the convenient points of its entrance and exit.
• However, the following two important considerations also
sometimes may lead to the alteration of the proposed
tunnel alignment:
(1) In some cases, it will be very difficult to secure right of way
for carrying the tunnel through privately owned properties.
The tunnel alignment in such situations is altered to some
other route having the minimum trouble of securing the right
of way for passing the tunnel.
(2) The tunnel alignment having unfavourable geological
conditions is abandoned in preference to one having the most
favourable geological conditions.
Thus, the selection of site of tunnel should be made
by keeping in mind the following two facts:(1)
Alignment restraints:
• Underground area is a heterogenous mass and in addition,
problems like water table, meeting high temperature
zones, position of fractured rocks, etc. are to be tackled.
• A thorough detailed inspection and evaluation of the
existing alignment restraints of underground space should
therefore be made and
(2) Environmental considerations: The site of tunnel
should be selected in such a way that the least difficulty is
experienced for various environmental factors such as
disposal of exhaust gas, groundwater, muck, etc.it should be
correlated with the tunnelling technology to be adopted for
the project.
• SURFACE ALIGNMENT
• The centre line of the tunnel is set out on the surface
accurately, from end to end. If there is a single peak in the
middle, from which both ends are visible, the method of
'balancing-in' is adopted repeatedly to fix the intermediate
prints until the entire length is covered.
• The exact length of the tunnel is obtained by direct
measurement such as the 'base line' for triangulation, or
buy indirect methods such as traversing and triangulation.
Criteria for selection of size & shape of
Tunnel
1) Ground strata
2) Traffic density
3) Tunnel length
4) Purpose of construction
5) Water table level
6) Availability of machinery
7) Availability of technical staff and labours
Geological investigations are very essential in
selection of tunnel site
A) Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment)
B) Selection of Excavation Method
C) Selection of Design for the Tunnel
D) Assessment of Cost and Stability
E) Assessment of Environmental hazards
(A) Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment):
• There might be available many alternate alignments that could
connect two points through a tunnel.
• However, the final choice would be greatly dependent on the
geological constitution along and around different
alternatives.
(B) Selection of Excavation Method:
• Tunnelling is a complicated process in any situation and
involves huge costs which would multiply manifolds if proper
planning is not exercised before starting the actual excavation.
• And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the
type of rocks to be excavated.
• Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only
when the nature of the rocks and the ground all along the
alignment is fully known.
(B) Selection of Excavation Method:
• This is one of the most important aim and object of
geological investigations.
(C) Selection of Design for the Tunnel
• Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped, horse-shoe
shaped or rectangular or combination of one or more of
these outlines, is more often dictated by the geology of the
alignment than by any other single factor.
• Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks, either, D-shape or
horse-shoe shape may be conveniently adopted but these
shapes would be practically unsuitable in soft ground or
even in weak rocks with unequal lateral pressure. In those
cases circular outline may be the first choice.
(D) Assessment of Cost and Stability :-
• These aspects of the tunnelling projects are also closely
interlinked with the first three considerations.
• Since geological investigations will determine the line of
actual excavation, the method of excavation and the
dimensions of excavation as also the supporting system
(lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost of the
project would depend on the geological details.
• Similarly tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even
when left unsupported may be regarded as stable.
• However, those passing through difficult grounds, although
these might have been massively strengthened by secondary
support system, might still collapse or bulge at places or even
completely fail, if geological situation is not perceived
properly.
(E) Assessment of Environmental Hazards :-
• The process of tunnelling, whether through rocks or
through soft ground, and for whatsoever purpose, involves
disturbing the environment of an area in more than one
way.
• The tunnelling methods might involve vibrations induced
through blasting or ground cutting and drilling, producing
abnormal quantities of dust and last but not the least,
interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.
• A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area,
especially where tunnel alignment happens to be close to
the populated zones, would enable the engineer for
planning and implementing plans aimed at minimizing the
environmental hazards in a successful manner
Geological details for a tunnel project are obtained in
two stages
• These stages are-preliminary surveys, conducted well before
the actual planning of the project
• Detailed surveys which are conducted almost
simultaneously with planning and concurent exploration
which are undertaken during the construction .
A. Preliminary Surveys:
• These are conducted by the routine geological, geophysical
and geochemical methods. In modern practice and for
major tunnelling projects such fast techniques as aerial
photography and seismic surveying are commonly adopted
in combination with the routine surface methods.
Following geological characters are broadly established for
the entire area in which the tunnel project is to be located as
a result of preliminary surveys:
a) The general topography of the area marking the highest
and the lowest points, occurrence of valleys, depressions,
bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions and
cold climates, the snow-line.
b) The lithology of the area, meaning thereby, the
composition, attitude and thickness of rock formations which
constitute the area.
e) The hydrological conditions in the area, such as depth of
water table, possibility of occurrence of major and minor
aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and the likely
hydrostatic heads along different possible routes or
alignments.
d) The structural condition of the rock, that is, extent and
attitude of major structural features such as folding, faulting,
unconformities, jointing and shearing planes, if developed.
Existence of buried valleys is also established during the
preliminary surveys
e) In addition, such surveys would also reveal occurrence of
reserves of rocks that could be beneficially used for
construction programmes (lining etc.) in the tunnel project.
B. Detailed Surveys:
Once the general run of the tunnel has been decided,
planning for its construction begins. Such plans require fairly
accurate data about the rocks or the ground to be excavated
for passing through. Such data are obtained by:
B. Detailed Surveys:
a) Bore-hole drilling, along proposed alignments and up to
desired depths; the number of bore-holes may run into
dozens, scores or even hundreds, depending upon the length
of the tunnel; rock samples obtained from bore holes are
analysed for their mechanical and geochemical properties in
the laboratories;
b) Drilling exploratory shafts and adits, which allow direct
approach to the desired tunnel for visual inspection in
addition to the usual advantages of drilling;
c) Driving pilot tunnels, which are essentially exploratory in
nature but could better be used as a main route if found
suitable by subsequent enlargement.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION FOR TUNNELS
(1) Lithology
(2) Geological Structures
(3) Ground Water Conditions

(1) Lithology :-
Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are
greatly influenced by mineralogical composition, textures and
structures of the rocks.
The competent rock (which are strong, hard and massive) will
lead to safe but slow tunnelling and the incompetent rock
(which are loose or soft or fractured), though amenable for
easy tunnelling, will be unstable and hence require lining
(A) Hard and Crystalline Rocks :-
• These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting
methods and also by tunnel boring method.
• The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are very often
self supporting so that these could be left unlined and next
round of blasting in the new face created is undertaken,
ensuring better advance rate.
• Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites,
syenites, gabbros, basalts and all the related igneous rocks,
sandstones, limestones, dolomites, quartzites and the like
from sedimentary group and marbles, gneisses, quartzites
and slates from the metamorphic groups
(B) Soft Rocks :-
• Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower
than those in hard rocks.
• Hence, temporary and permanent lining becomes necessary
that would involve extra cost and additional time.
• This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted
sandstones, chalk and porous varieties of limestones and
dolomities, slates and phyllites with high degree of cleavage
and also decomposed varieties of igneous rocks.
(2) Geological Structures Dip and Strike
• These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the
attitude (disposition in space) of the rocks and hence
influence the design of excavation (tunnel) to a great extent.
(A) Horizontal Strata :-
(A) Horizontal Strata :-
• When encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of
long tunnels, horizontally layered rocks might be considered
quite favourable.
• In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very
thick, and the tunnel diameter not very large, the situation
is especially favourable because the layers would then over
bridge flat excavations by acting as natural beams
• But when The layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be
depended upon as beams; in such cases, either the roof has
to be modified to an arch type or has to be protected by
giving a lining
(B) Moderately Inclined Strata :-
(B) Moderately Inclined Strata :-
• Rock layers that are dipping at angles up to 45° may be said
as moderately inclined.
• The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction,
at right angles to the dip direction or inclined to both dip
and strike directions.
• It offer a uniformly distributed load on the excavation.
• The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural
arch transferring the load on to sides comes into maximum
play.
• Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self- supporting in
such cases. It is a favorable condition from this aspect.
(C) Steeply Inclined Strata :-
(C) Steeply Inclined Strata :-
• In rock formations dipping at angles above 45°, quite
complicated situations would arise when the tunnel axis is
parallel to dip or parallel to strike or inclined to both dip
and strike directions.
• In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel axis is
parallel to dip direction, the formations stand along the
sides and on the roof of the tunnel as massive girders.
• An apparently favorable condition provided all the
formations are inherently sound and strong.
(C) GROUND WATER CONDITIONS :-
• In the tunnels that open under the groundwater level, the
groundwater moves into the tunnel. It works like a tunnel
drainage gallery. The permeability of the rocks,
discontinuities and karstic cavities (limestones) around the
excavation are important. Decrease in strength due to
formation of void water pressure.

¤ TUNNEL SHAFT :-
• The vertical wells or passage constructed along the
alignment of tunnel are known as shafts.
• It is extended from the ground surface to the roof of the
tunnel
• They are provided at regular intervals
Shafts of tunnels are classified as :-
(a)Vertical shafts or inclined shafts
• Mostly vertical shafts are constructed, due to less cost and
can be easily constructed.
• But for small length inclined shafts may be used.

(b) Temporary shafts and permanent shafts

• If shafts are filled after construction of tunnel than such
shafts are known as temporary shafts.
• temporary shafts are made for specific purpose.
• while those shafts which are kept open even after the
construction of tunnel are termed as permanent shafts.
• Permanent shafts act as ventilation for tunnel
• Necessities of providing tunnel shaft-
1) To provide opening for removal of muck.
2) To speed up the construction work of the tunnel by
starting excavation at several points at the same time.
3) To provide passageway for pumping out the water from the
tunnel.
4) To provide natural ventilation during construction of the
tunnel.
Classification of shaft :-
(a) Inclined shaft - they are used when depth is small
(b) Vertical shaft - easier and cheaper to excavate
(c) Temporary shaft - filled after construction
(d) Permanent shaft - left open after construction
According to shape :-
1)Circular shaft :- Suitable when lined with steel linear plates
or concrete
2) shaft over centre line
3) side shafts
Pilot Tunnels-
* Pilot tunnels serves as the access tunnels to the main
tunnels.
* The cross section of a pilot tunnel is usually 240 cm or a
little bigger and are driven parallel to the main tunnel.
* The pilot tunnel is first driven to the full length of the
tunnel and is connected to the center line of the main tunnel
at many points.
Pilot Tunnels-
• From these points, the work of the main tunnel may be
started and also they make is easy to take out the muck.
Uses of the pilot tunnels may be summarized in the following
points:
• It helps in providing proper ventilation to the main tunnel.
• It helps in removing the muck from the main tunnel quickly.
• It helps in providing proper lighting in the main tunnel.
• Pilot tunnels also offers a path to reach to the main tunnel
so that you can access it to go for the further construction.
• Pilot tunnels are constructed generally parallel to the main
tunnel, and when in connects to the main tunnel path, we
get two faces/two directions to excavate our main tunnel.
Advantages of Pilot Tunnel
• It serves as an exploratory tunnel and gives information
about the strata likely to be encountered.
• It provides access for ground treatment.
• Time required for mucking in large tunnels is reduced when
pilot tunnels are used.
• Pilot tunnels also improve the drainage & ventilation.
• Speed of work of main tunnel is increased due to pilot
tunnel.
¤ Portal :-
• Portal is the actual doorway or main entrance of the tunnel
• It indicates intersection point between underground
opening and ground surface
Functions/Requirements of portal
1.Strong enough to take the superimposed load
2. Portal should be attractive
3.To avoid damage due to landslide, at the face of the portal
retaining wall and wing wall should be provided
4.Proper drains should be provided to collect and drain-off
the water
Types of Tunnel Portals:
1. Cut-and-Cover Portal
• Used when the tunnel is constructed using the cut-and-
cover method.
• The portal is created where the excavated trench transitions
into the underground structure.
• Types of Tunnel Portals:
2. Rock Tunnel Portal
• Common in mountainous areas or tunnels through hard
rock.
• Designed to stabilize the opening and manage potential
rockfall.
3. Soft Ground Tunnel Portal
• Used in loose or unstable soil conditions.
• May require extensive reinforcement, such as retaining
walls, steel ribs, or concrete linings.
4. Urban Tunnel Portal
• Designed to minimize environmental impact and disruption
in densely populated areas.
• Often incorporates noise barriers and landscaping.
• Advantages of Portals in Tunnel Engineering
1. Ease of Access for Construction and Maintenance:
• Portals provide direct access for construction equipment,
workers, and materials during tunnel excavation.
• After construction, they serve as maintenance access
points.
2. Ventilation and Lighting:
• Portals allow natural ventilation and daylight to enter the
tunnel, especially at the ends.
• This can reduce the need for extensive artificial lighting
and ventilation near the entrances.
3. Drainage Control:
• Properly designed portals help manage surface water and
prevent water ingress into the tunnel. This ensures the
structural integrity and safety of the tunnel.
4. Aesthetic and Environmental Integration:
• Portals can be designed to blend seamlessly with the
surrounding landscape, minimizing environmental and
visual impact.
• They may include landscaping, noise barriers, or
architectural enhancements to reduce the disruption
caused by tunnel construction.
5. Structural Stability:
• The portal area often requires reinforcement to ensure the
stability of the tunnel opening, particularly in loose or weak
ground conditions.
6. Safety Features:
• Portals provide clear escape routes in case of emergencies
within the tunnel.
• They can be equipped with monitoring systems, signage,
and fire safety features.
7. Facilitation of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM):
• Portals are starting or launching points for TBMs. Properly
prepared portals make it easier to mobilize and retrieve
TBMs.
Adits :-
• Short transverse tunnel connecting two parallel tunnels or
tunnel which provides access to a side hill tunnel.
• An adit is a short, horizontal or near- horizontal
passageway that connects the surface to a tunnel or
underground excavation. Adits are used in tunneling and
mining for a variety of purposes, including:
• Access: Adits provide access to the main shaft or
underground workings
• Ventilation: Adits can be used to ventilate underground
spaces
• Drainage: Adits can be used to remove water from
underground spaces
• Mineral extraction: Adits can be used to extract minerals at
the lowest convenient level.
• Adits
• Mineral vein exploration: Adits can be used to explore for
mineral veins
Advantages of Adit-
1.Drivage is easy.
2.Less time is required in drivage.
3.Cost of drivage is less.
Disadvantages of Adit-
1.Ventilation problem is more.
2.Transportation is difficult.
3.Supporting is difficult.
• Twin tunnels refer to two parallel tunnels, typically used
for separate directions of traffic or dedicated purposes
(e.g., road and rail). They are commonly adopted for large-
scale infrastructure projects, particularly when dealing with
high traffic volumes or specific operational needs.
Advantages of Twin Tunnels
1. Improved Traffic Management
2. Enhanced Safety
3. Flexibility in Design
4. Reduced Cross-Sectional Area
5. Better Ventilation
6. Reduced Construction Risks
7. Minimized Noise and Vibration
8. Adaptability to Future Expansion
Advantages of Twin Tunnels
9. Seismic Resilience:
10. Aesthetic and Environmental Benefits
Advantages of Shaft -
1.Ventilation resistance is less.
2.Suitable for Higher depth.
3.Shortest roadway from surface to ore.
Disadvantages of Shaft -
1.Drivage is Complicated.
2.Time loss is more in Drivage
3.Drivage Cost is high.