SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND HEALTH

SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF BASIC SCIENCES

Lecturer’s name: Mr D. Tembo

• Bachelor of science in physics
• Master of science in particle and
nuclear physics
• Nuclear physicist/Particle
physicist
 CHAPTER 1

UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

In physics, we measure physical quantiies to describe changes that take
place in the world around us. All measurements involve comparison with
a basic, arbitrary chosen and internationally accepted refference
standard called unit.
1.1 UNITS FOR MEASUREMENTS
The laws of physics are expressed in terms of physical quantities.
A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured and
expressed in form of laws. In order to measure a physical quanty
its its value is compared with the refference standard of the same
kind.

1.2 MAGNITUDE
This is the number of times a refference standard is present in the
physical quantity.

1.3 FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

These are physical quantities which are independent of any other
quantity. The unity of a physical quantity which is independent of
any other quantity is callled a fundamental unit. In mechanics, we
take units of mass, lenth and time as fundamental units.

1.4 DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

these are physical quantites which are derived from other physical
quantities. Eg area(𝑚2 ), presure(Pa), density(kg/𝑚3 ) and speed.
Their units are reffered to us derived units, eg consider respective
units of force and presure, where
Newton: 1N = Kgm/𝑠 2
Pascal : 1Pa = Kg/𝑚𝑠 2

1.5 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI)

Quantity Unit name Unit symbol
Length Meter m
Time Second s
Mass Kilogram Kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
 Amount of Mole Mol
substance
Luminous intensity candela Cd

1.6 PREFIXES
In order to conviniently hand ver small or very big numbers in
physics we make use of prefixes, where we employ the so called
scientific notation where poers of 10 are used. Study and know the
following prefixes by heart.
1.6.1 very big numbers
Factor Prefix Symbol
1024 yotta- Y
1021 zeta- Z
1018 exa- E
1015 peta- P
1012 tera- T
109 giga- G
106 mega- M
103 Kilo K
102 hecta H
101 deca- Da

1.6.2 very small numbers

Factor Prefix Symbol
10 −24 yocto- Y
10 −21 zepto- Z
10 −18 atto - A
10 −15 Femto- F
10 −12 pico- P
10 −9 nano- n
10 −6 micro- 𝜇
10 −3 milli - m
10 −2 cent- C
10 −1 deci- D
Remark: know these prefixes by heart.
For example
We can write a certain magnitude of force as :
2.23 x 106 N = 2.23 mega newtons = 2.23 MN
Or a certain time as:
2.23 x 10−9 s = 2.23 nano seconds = 2.23 ns

1.7 CONVERSION OF UNITS

In physics, we are sometimes expected to converts units from one
system to another or within the measurement system. We convert
units using the chain-link conversion where we multiply a
conversion factor that equals unity.

Its is important to know the following conversion factors by heart.

➢ 1 mile = 1609 meters
➢ 1 year = 3.1537 x 107 seconds
➢ 1 kilometer = 1000 meters
➢ 1 meter = 39.37 inches
➢ 1 meter = 3.281 feet
➢ 1 tonne = 1000 kilograms
➢ 1 yard = 36 inches

for example, if we are asked to convert 15 inches to centimeters.

We can play around the conversion factor given in (iv) above or if
you already know the direct conversion factor between inches and
centimeters:
(1 in = 2.54 cm ) then,
Using the chain-link conversion we get
2.54
15 in = (15 in)( ) = 38.1cm
1 𝑖𝑛
Here we placed inche in the denomenator so that it cancells with
one on the numerator. The choice of which one to be put as
numerator or denomenator depends on the unit you what to
cancel.

1.8 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

This is the analysis of the relationships between fundamental
physical quantities which are purely mechanical in nature, i.e.
mass, length and time.
 These quantities are denoted by respectively [M], [L] and [T]. note
that these letters only specify the unity and has nothing to do with
the magnitude.
1.8.1 dimesional equation
This is an equation which shows the units of a physical quantity in
terms of the fundamental units. The dimensional formulae of some
physical quantities are listed below and it is important to master
them or know how to derive them as demostrated below

➢ Area = (length)(length) = [L] X [L] = [𝐿2 ]

➢ Volume = (legnth)(length)(length) = [L] X [L] X [L] = [𝐿3 ]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 [𝑀]
➢ Density = = = [𝑀𝐿−3 ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 [𝐿3 ]
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [𝐿]
➢ Speed = = = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 [𝑇]
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
➢ Acceleration = = = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 [𝑇]
➢ Force = mass x acceleration = [M] X [𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
➢ Pressure = = = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ]
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 [𝐿2 ]
➢ Work = force x distance = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] X [L] = [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
work done [𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
➢ Power = = = 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 −3
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

1.8.2 Principle of homogeneity of dimensions

States that we can multiply or divide physical quantities with same or
different diemsional formulae at our convienc, however, no such rule
applies to addition and subtraction, where only the like physical
quantities can be added or subtracted. In an equation, the dimensions of
all the terms on both sides of equation must be the same. That is, the
equation must be dimensionally homogeneous.
1.8.3 applications of dimesional analysis
➢ To find the units of a physical quantity
➢ To find the dimensions of a physical constant or coeffiennt
➢ To check the accuracy of a given equaton.
➢ To derive the correct relationships between physical
quantities
➢ To convert a physical quantity ffrom one system to another
1.8.4 limitations of dimension analysis
➢ Dimension does not depend on the magnitude
➢ The numerical constants having no dimensions cannot be
deduced by method of dimension analysis
➢ The method is applicable only if the relation is of product type. It
fails in the case of exponential and trigonometric relations
➢ This method is not suitable if the physical quantity depends on
more than three other quantities
➢ It is difficulty to guess the parameters on which the physical
quantity depens

Example 1.1
Use dimension analysis to check the correctness of the equations
i. V = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
ii. 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑠

Example 1.2
A particle moves with a constant speed 𝜐 in the circular orbit of radius r.
Given that the acceleration 𝛼 of the particle depends on the velocity of
the particle 𝜐 and the orbital radius r, use dimension analysis to derive
an equation that relates 𝛼, 𝜐 and r.
1.9 significant figures
significant figures in the measured values of physical quantity tells
the number of digits in which we have confidence. The larger the
number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, the
greater the accuracy of a measurement. The reverse is also true.
➢ All non-zero digits are significant
➢ A zero becomes significant if it appears between two non-
zero digits
➢ Trailing zeros or the zeros placed to the right of the number
are significant
Example: 4.330 has four significant figures
343.000 has six significant figures
➢ Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left of the number
are never significant.
Example: 0.543 has three significant figures
0.06 has one significant figure

1.10 Rounding off

➢ If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceeding
digit is left unchanged.
Example: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8, again x = 3.94 is
rounded off to 3.9
➢ If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the proceeding
digit is raised by one.
Example: x = 6.87 is rounded off to be 6.9, again x = 12.78
is rounded off to be 12.8
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than
zero, then the preceeding digit is raised by one.
Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4, again x = 6.758
is rounded off to 6.7
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the
preceding digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
Example: x = 3.250 becomes 3.2 om rounding off, again
12.650 becomes 12.6 on rounding off.
➢ If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the
preceding digit is raised by one, if it is odd.
Example: x = 3.750 becomes 3.8 on rounding off, again x =
16.150 becomes 16.2 on rounding off.

1.11 significant figures in calculations

The following rules should two rules should be followed to obtain the
proper number of significant figures in any calculations.
➢ The result of an addition or subtraction in the number having
different precissions should be reported to the same number
of decimal places as one with the least number of decimal
places.
➢ The answer to multiplication or divission is rounded off to the
same number of significant figures as is possesed by the least
precise term used in the calculation.
1.12 Accuracy and errors in measurements
 For all measuring instruments, there is a limit up to which
measurements can be taken accurately. This is called least count of
the measurements. For example, it is 0.1cm for an ordinary meter
scale, it is 0.01cm for a vernier calipers and 0.001cm for an ordinary
micrometer screw gauge. When we take measurements using
various types of errors may creep into the observation.

1.12.1 types of errors

a) constant error
if error un a series of observations taken with an instrument
are same, the error is said to be a constant error
b) systematic errors
errors which come to existence by the virtue of certain definite
rule are called systematic errors. These errors are due to
known causes. This type of error can be eliminated detecting
the source of error and the rule governing the error. The
systematic errors can be classified into four main groups and
these are instrumental errors, personal errors, error due to
imperfection and error due to external causes.
c) Random or accidental error
errors which occur in a random manner and cannot be
associated a systematic cause are called random errors.
These are due to irregular causes.
d) Gross errors
gross errors are due to carelessness on the part of the
observer. No correction can be applied for them. Gross errors
arise because of neglecting the source of error, reading the
instrument incorrectly and improper recording of the reading.

1.12.2 errors of measurements

The measured value of a quantity is always somewhat different from
its actual or true value. This difference in the true value is called the
error of measurements.
a) Absolute error.
Absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity
is the magnitude of the difference between the true value
and the measured value of the quantity.
Let a physical quantity be measured n times. Let the
measured values be 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3,…………… , 𝑎𝑛
 The arithmetic mean of these values is
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎𝑚 =
𝑛
Usually, 𝑎𝑚 is taken as the true value of the quantity. If the same is
unknown otherwise.
By defination, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity
are,
∆𝑎1 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎1
∆𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎2
∆𝑎3 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎3
……………
∆𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 − 𝑎𝑛
The absolute errors maybe positive in certain cases and negative
in certain other cases

b) Mean absolute error

It is arithmetic mean of the magitude of absolute errors in
all measurements of the quantity. It is represented by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆𝑎.
Thus
|∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2 | + |∆𝑎3 | + ⋯ + |∆𝑎𝑛 |
̅̅̅̅ =
∆𝑎
𝑛
Hence the final result of the measurement of the quantity
is likely to lie between (𝑎𝑚 ± ̅̅̅̅ ∆𝑎). This implies that any
measurement of the quantity is likely to lie between (𝑎𝑚 −
̅̅̅̅
∆𝑎) and (𝑎𝑚 + ̅̅̅̅ ∆𝑎).

c) Relative error or fractional error.

It is defined as the ratio of the ratio of the mean absolute
error to the true value
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 ̅̅̅̅
∆𝑎
Relative error = =
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑚

d) Percentage error
It is the relative error expressed as a percentage
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
̅̅̅̅
∆𝑎
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑎𝑚

1.12.3 combination of errors

 a) errors in a sum
the following rules are followed in combining errors to get the
maximum possible error
x=a+b
let ∆𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
∆𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏
∆𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 i.e sum
The maximum possile errror in x is ∆𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏).
The relative error is therefore given by
∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
=
𝑥 𝑎+𝑏
Percentage error is therefore given by
∆𝑥
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑥
∆𝑎+∆𝑏
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑎+𝑏

b) error in a difference of the quantities

the following rules are followed in combining errors to get
the maximum possible error
x=a-b
let ∆𝑎 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
∆𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏
∆𝑥 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 i.e difference of a
and b.
The maximum possible errror in x is ∆𝑥 = ±(∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏).
The relative error is therefore given by
∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 + ∆𝑏
=
𝑥 𝑎−𝑏
Percentage error is therefore given by
∆𝑥
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑥
 ∆𝑎+∆𝑏
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑎−𝑏

c) error in a product of quantities

suppose x = a Χ b = ab
the maximum possible error in x is given by
∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
= +
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏
Then
∆𝑥
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑥
∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
Percentage error = ( + ) x 100%
𝑎 𝑏
d) error in a division of quantities
𝑎
suppose =
𝑏
The maximum possible relative error in x is given by
∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
= +
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏
Then,
∆𝑥
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑥
∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
Percentage error = ( + ) x 100%
𝑎 𝑏

e) error in a quantity raised to some power.

𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑚
Suppose x =
𝑐𝑛
The maximum possible relative error in x is given by
∆𝑥 ∆𝑎 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑐
= 𝑙( )+𝑚( )+𝑛( )
𝑥 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Then
∆𝑥
Percentage error = 𝑥 100%
𝑥
∆𝑎 ∆𝑏 ∆𝑐
Percentage error = 𝑙 ( ) 𝑥100% + 𝑚 ( ) 𝑥 100 + 𝑛 ( ) 𝑥100%
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
1.13 Density and atomic mass
The fundamental property of any substance is it’s density, 𝜌. It is
defined as mss per unit volume.
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
For example, copper has a density of 8.93g/𝑐𝑚3 or 8.93 x
103 kg/𝑚3 . This means that piece of copper of volume 1𝑐𝑚3 has a
mass 8.93g or that a piece of copper volume 1𝑚3 has mass 8.93 x
103 kg.
The difference in densities is due in part to the difference in atomic
weights. For example, the atomic weight of lead is 207 (density =
11.3g/𝑐𝑚3 ) and that of allumium is 27. The ratio of the atomic
weight 207/27 = 7.67 is different from the ratio of the densities,
11.3/2.70 = 4.19. This is difference is due to the difference in
atomic spacing and atomic arrangements in their crystal
structures.
All ordinary matter consists of atoms while atoms are made up of
elctrons and a nucleaus (made up of the proton and neutron).
Practically all the mass of an atom is contained in the nucleus. The
nuclear masses are measured relative to the mass of the carbon-
12 isotope (6 protonss and 6 neutrons).
The mass of 12𝐶 is defined to be exactly 12 atomic mass unit (u),
where
1u = 1.6605402 x 10−27 kg
In these units, the proton and neutron have masses of 1u,
precisely.
𝑚𝑝 = 1.0073𝑢
𝑚𝑛 = 1.0087𝑢
The mass of the nucleaus of 27𝐴𝑙 is approximately 27u, for
example. In all cases the mass of the combined mass of the
protons and neutrons that make the nucleus. The difference is
responsible for fission and fussion processes.
One mole of an element contain an Avogadros number 𝑁𝐴 of
molecules of the substance. Avogadro,s number 𝑁𝐴 is defined so
that one mole of 12𝐶 atoms has mass of 12g, where
𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 𝑥 1023 molecules/ mole
 One mole of Al has a mass of 7g and one mole of Pb has a mass
of 207g. The number of atoms in each of these two species is the
Avogadros number.
Therefore, the mass per atom m is
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
m=
𝑁𝐴
for example, the mass of Al atom is
27𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝐴𝑙 = = 4.5 𝑥 1023 𝑔/atom
6.02 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Note that
1u = 𝑁𝐴 𝑔−1

Example 1.3
A solid cube of aluminium (desnisty 2.7 g/c𝑚3 ) has a vomulme of
0.2 c𝑚3 . How many atoms are contained in the cube ?
Solution
Given
𝜌𝐴𝑙 = 2.7 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 0.2 𝑐𝑚3
We need to find mass of the cube and the number of atoms.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
m = 𝜌𝑣
m = 2.77 g/c𝑚3 𝑥 0.2 𝑐𝑚3
m = 0.54g
since one mole of Al has mass of 27g it follows that
27g = 6.02 x 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
0.54g = n
6.02 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑥 0.54𝑔
n=
27𝑔
22
n = 1.2 x 10 atoms
1.14 order of magnitude calculation
Order of magnitude of a quantity is the power of 10 required to represent
the quantity. For determing this power, the value of the quantity has to be
rounded has to be rounded off. While rounding off, we ignore the last
digit which is less than 5. If the last or more than 5, the preceeding digit
is increased by 1. For example,
1. speed of light = 3 x 108 𝑚/𝑠 ≈ 108 m/s (as 3 < 5)
2. mass of an electron = 9.1 x 10−31 kg ≈ 10−30 𝑘𝑔 (as 9.1> 5)

example 1.4
estimate the number of atoms in 1c𝑚3 of a solid
solution
given that V = 1𝑐𝑚3
assumptions
1. The size of an atom diameter, d = 10−10 m
2. Atom are spherical in shape = volume
We determine the volume of an atom as follow;
4𝜋𝑟 3
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
3
In terms of diameter, d
𝜋𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ,used 𝑟 =
6 2

𝜋(10−10 𝑚)3
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
6
The number of atoms in 1c𝑚3 volume can now be found
𝑉
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
1𝑐𝑚3 𝑥 (1𝑚/100𝑐𝑚)3
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝜋 𝑥 10−30 𝑚3 /𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
6(10−6 𝑚3 )
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 =
𝜋 𝑥 10−30 𝑚3 /𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 ≈ 1024 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
This is closer to what one might get. A more accurate calculation
requires the knowledge of the density of the solid so that the mas
of the solid can be determined. In addition knowledge of mass of
one atom would also be needed.

Practice questions
1. 5.74g of a substance occupies a volume 1.2𝑐𝑚3 . Give the
density of the substance to correct significant figures.
[4.8g/c𝑐𝑚3 ]
2. The volume of a wallet is 8.560𝑐𝑚3 . convert this value to 𝑚3 .
[8.56 X 10−6 𝑚3 ]
3. The radius of an atom is 0.5Å. what is the total atomic volume in
𝑚3 of a mole of hydrogem atom? 1 angstron unit (Å) = 10−10 𝑚.
[3.151 x 10−7 𝑚3 ]
4. An american football field is 100yards long. How many inches
are 20 american football fields? [7.2 x 104 inches]
5. How many square millimeter blocks could sit in a square meter?
[1 X 106 𝑚2 ]
6. There is a cube shaped barrel whose interrior is 2 meters on
each side. How many mL of water could this barrel hold? [8 x
106 mL]
7. The strongest hurrricane wind ever measured 345 km/hr. how
fast is this in ft/s
8. A section of the land has an area of 1 square mile and contains
640 acres. How many square meters are there in one acre?
(1mi = 5280 ft; 1𝑚2 = 10.76𝑓𝑡 2 ) [4048𝑚2 ]
9. A laser light beamed at moon takes 2.56 seconds to return after
reflection from the moon. What is the radius of the lunar obit
around the earth ? [3.84 x 108 m𝑠 −1 ]
10. An stronomical unit (Au) is the average distance of the earth
from the sun, approximately 150,000,000 km. the speed of light
is about 3 x 108 𝑚/𝑠. Express the speed of light in terms of
astronomical units per minute. [0.12 AU/min]
11. If the unit of force is 100N, unit of lenth is 10m and unit of
time is 100s. what is the unit of mass in this system of units?
[105 ]
12. A person on a diet loses 2kg per week. Find the rate of mass
loss in milligrams every; day, hour, minute and second.
[285714.3mg/day, 11904.8mg/h, 198.4mg/min,3.3mg/s ]
13. Density is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of
iron is 7.87kg/𝑚3 , and the mass of an iron atom is
9.27x110−26 𝑘𝑔. If atoms are cubical and tightly packed
(a) What is the volume of an iron atom[1.178 x 10−26 𝑚3 ]
(b) What is the distance between the centers of two agjacent
atoms? [2.28 x 10−9 m]
14. How many grams of copper are required to make a hollow
spherical shell with an inner radius of 5.7o cm and an outer
radius of 5.75 cm? density of copper is 8.93g/c𝑚3 [185g]
15. Estimate how many rain drops fall on a 1 acre plot during a
1-in rainfall ? [2.5 x 109 ]
16. The diameter of wire is measured 0.236cm with the help of a
screw gauge. The least count of a screw gause is 0.001cm.
calculate the possible percentage error in the measurement ?
[0.4%]
17. The sides of a rectangle are (10.5±0.2) cm and (5.2±0.1)
cm. Calculate its perimeter with error limits.
[(31.4±0.6) cm]
18. If displacement of a body is s = (200±5) m and time taken by
it t = (20±0.2) s. [3.5%]
19. A physical quantity X is related to four measurable quantities
a, b, c and d as follows
5
𝑎2 𝑏3 (√𝑐)
X=
𝑑2
Given that the percentage errors in the measurements of the
quantities a, b, c, and d are 1%, 2%, 3% and 4%, respectively.
What is the percentage error in quantity X ? if the value of X
calculated on the basis of the above relation is 2.76312, to what
value should you round off the result? [23.5%, 2.76]
4
20. Compute the value of ∑𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 if 𝑥𝑖 = (2𝑖 + 1) [24]
21. If x = a + bt + 𝑐𝑡 2 , where x is in meters and t in seconds,
what is the unit of c ? [m/𝑠 2 ]
22. The volume of the of a liquid flowing out per second of a pipe
of length 𝑙 and radius r is written by a student as
𝜋 𝑝𝑟 4
V=
8 𝜂𝑙
Where p is the presure difference between the wto ends of the
pipe and 𝜂 is the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid. Prove that
the equation is dimensionally consistent.
23. A student recalls the relation for relativistic mass m in terms
of the rest mass 𝑚0 , veloty v of the particle but forgot to put the
𝑚
constant c ( the speed of light). He writes m = (1−𝑣 20)1/2.
Correct the equation by putting the missing ‘c’
𝑚0
[m = 2 1/2
]
𝑣
(1− 2 )
𝑐
 24. The velocity v of a particle varies with time t according to the
relation v = a𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐. Find the dimensions of a, b and c
[𝐿𝑇 −3 , 𝐿𝑇 −2 , 𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
25. The square of the speed of an objct ungergoing a uniform
acceleration a is sme function of a and the displacement s,
according to the expression given by 𝑣 2 = 𝑘𝑎𝑚 𝑠 𝑛 where k is a
dimensionless constant. Show by dimensional analysis that this
expression is satisfied only if m = n = 1.
26. The displacement x of a particle in a x-axis depends on the
acceleration and time t. Derive the relationship between x,a and
t. [𝑥 = 𝑘𝑎𝑡 2 ]
27. The frequency (v) of a stetched string may depend on the
length of the vibrating string 𝑙, the tension in the string F and
𝑘 𝐹
the mass per unit length m. show that v = √ is dimensionally
𝑙 𝑚
correct, where k is a dimensionless constant.

Refferences
1. Bueche, F.J. and Hecht, E.(2021). Schaum’s outline of college
physics. 11th edn. New york: McGraw Hill.
2. Mulenga muma, (2021). Lecture notes. The copperbelt university.

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