EMT 3205: MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Prerequisites: EMT 3105 Circuit & Networking Theory II

Course Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to understand the fundamental concepts, principles and
procedures used in analysis and selection of instrumentation systems, understand the specification and
design of modern instrumentation and control systems and appreciate the various instrumentation
systems used in modern industry

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of this course, the learner should be able to;
1. Explain the operating principles of various sensors and transducers
2. Determine the accuracy and tolerance of commonly encountered measuring systems
3. Use a variety of direct and indirect measuring equipment accurately and correctly
Course Outline
• Elements of a measurement system: Accuracy, precision, sensitivity of instrument
• Sources of error and Error analysis
• Transducers: Resistive, capacitive, inductive, optical, thermal etc. Analogue instrument, Digital
instruments
• Instrument transformers. Alternating Current/ Direct Current (AC/DC) bridges
• Calibration of instruments. Measurements of voltage, current, charge, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, phase angle, frequency, power and energy.
• Generalized performance of instrumentation systems and static characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics: Dynamic system models. Transducers for nonelectrical quantities, application
to measurement of primary variable: mechanical, thermal, acoustic.
• Remote sensing techniques and Signal conditioning
• Microprocessor application in instrumentation.
• Noise and interference reduction.
• Chart recorder: X-Y plotters, digital data recording, digital displays

Assessment
Cats – 10%
Assignments- 5%
Labs – 15%
Exam -70%
Core Textbook
Morris, Alan S. Measurement and Instrumentation: Theory and Application (2012.) London: Elsevier.

Reference Textbooks
1. Rathakrishnan, E. (2016). Instrumentation, measurements, and experiments in fluids. CRC Press.
2. Helfrick, Albert D. Modern Electronic instrumentation and Measurement Techniques. (1990.) New
Delhi: PHI Learning.
3. Placko, Dominique, Fundamentals of instrumentation and measurement :( 2007.) -. London: ISTE.
4. Kalsi, H.S, Electronic Instrumentation: 2nd Edition. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Education Private
Ltd.
5. Mukhopadhyay, S. C. (2010). Advances in biomedical sensing, measurements, instrumentation and
systems (Vol. 82). A. Lay-Ekuakille (Ed.). Springer.

Course Journals
1. Measurement Techniques, ISSN: [0543-1972]
2. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, ISSN: [0022-0434]
What is measurement and instrumentation?

Measurement- A method to obtain information regarding the physical values of the variable.
 Also regarded as a comparison between a standard and what we want to measure (the
measurand).
 Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in numerical values.
Instrumentation- Devices used in the measurement system

Basic requirements for a meaningful measurement

 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be commonly
accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable (verifiable).

Why measurement and instrumentation?

Control of Systems: In automated systems, measurements of process variables (e.g., flow,

temperature, or pressure) are fed to control systems that adjust operations accordingly to maintain
stability, efficiency, and safety. For example, in a chemical plant, measurements of temperature and
pressure allow for automatic control of reactions, ensuring they proceed safely and efficiently.

Process Efficiency and Optimization: Continuous measurement of key parameters allows for the
optimization of processes, improving efficiency and reducing waste. For instance, measuring fuel
consumption in engines helps optimize combustion efficiency, saving energy and reducing emissions.
Ensuring Safety: In many industries, such as oil and gas, aerospace, and nuclear power, measurement
and instrumentation are vital for ensuring safe operations. Sensors continuously monitor critical
variables, like pressure in pipelines or temperature in reactors, providing early warnings of dangerous
conditions. Proper measurement and monitoring help prevent accidents, equipment failures, and
potentially catastrophic events.

Quality Assurance and Control: Measurement is fundamental to maintaining consistent product

quality. Instrumentation helps monitor and control production processes to ensure products meet
specifications and quality standards. For example, in pharmaceuticals or food production, precise
control of temperature and pressure is needed to ensure product consistency, safety, and compliance
with regulatory standards.

Scientific Research and Innovation: In research, measurement and instrumentation allow scientists to
observe and quantify phenomena, validate hypotheses, and discover new principles. Many
groundbreaking advancements in technology and science, such as in physics, chemistry, and medicine,
are based on precise measurements and data collection. Instruments like spectrometers, oscilloscopes,
and particle detectors provide the necessary precision for new discoveries.
Terminologies
There are several key terminologies that help define and understand how the system functions. These
terminologies help in understanding the design, performance, and limitations of measurement systems
and are crucial for accurate data acquisition.

1. Measurand: The physical quantity or property being measured (e.g., temperature, pressure, force).

2. Sensor: A device that converts a physical quantity (measurand) into a measurable electrical signal.
For example, a thermocouple converts temperature into a voltage.

3. Transducer- a device that converts one form of energy to another i.e. microphone, loudspeaker,
antenna, thermometer. An Electronic Transducer- has an input or output that is electrical in nature
e.g. voltage, current.

4. Actuator- An electronic transducer that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

5. Signal Conditioning: The process of modifying a sensor signal to be suitable for processing. This can
include amplification, filtering, or converting the signal to a different format (e.g., from analog to
digital).
Elements of a Measurement system
Example 1: With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and transforms it
into resistance signal, element B transforms the resistance signal into a current signal, element C
transforms the current signal into a display of a movement of a pointer across a scale. Which of these
elements is (a) the sensor, (b) the signal processor, (c) the data presentation?
Example 1: With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal and transforms it
into resistance signal, element B transforms the resistance signal into a current signal, element C
transforms the current signal into a display of a movement of a pointer across a scale. Which of these
elements is (a) the sensor, (b) the signal processor, (c) the data presentation?

Solution
Types of measurements

Direct vs. Indirect Measurements:

Direct Measurement: The quantity is measured directly using a measuring instrument. For example,
measuring length using a ruler or measuring temperature with a thermometer.
Indirect Measurement: The quantity is determined by calculating based on other directly measured
quantities. For example, calculating the speed of a car using distance and time measurements (Speed
= Distance/Time).

Static vs. Dynamic Measurements:

Static Measurement: This type of measurement is taken when the measurand (the quantity being
measured) is steady or constant over time. For example, measuring the weight of an object that is not
moving.
Dynamic Measurement: This involves measuring quantities that change over time. For instance,
measuring the speed of a moving car or tracking temperature fluctuations throughout the day.
Generalized measuring system

Stage 1: A detection-transducer or sensor-transducer stage

Stage 2: A signal conditioning stage i.e. filters, bridges,
Stage 3: Terminating or read-out recording stage i.e. printers, plotters, oscilloscopes
Types of Instruments Used in Measurements
Active Instruments: The quantity being measured Passive Instruments: the instrument output is
simply modulates (adapts to) the magnitude of entirely produced by the quantity being
some external power source. measured.

Fig: Float-type tank level indicator

Fig: Pressure-Measuring device
 The change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm and the output signal  The pressure of the fluid is translated into a
consists of a proportion of the external voltage movement of a pointer against scale
source applied across the two ends of the  The energy expanded in moving the pointer is
potentiometer derived from the change in pressure
 The energy in the o/p signal comes from the measured: there are no other energy inputs
external power source: the primary transducer to the system.
float system is merely modulating the value of
the voltage from this external power source.
 NB: the difference between the active and passive instruments is the level of the measurement
resolution that can be obtained.
Types of Instruments Used in Measurements
Analogue instrument: gives an output that varies Digital Instrument: has an output that varies in
continuously as the quantity being measured; e.g. discrete steps and only have a finite number of
deflection type of pressure gauge. values e.g. revolution counter.

Fig: A thermocouple provides an analog signal

for processing Fig: speed probe
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Application involving measurement of quantity that are either constant or varies slowly with time is
known as static.
Accuracy: The degree to which the measured value matches the true or accepted value. It is often
expressed as a percentage of the full-scale range.

Example: If a pressure gauge of range 0 -10 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of 1.0% f.s. (1% of full-scale
reading), then the maximum error to be expected in any reading is 0.1 bar. This means that when the
instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the possible error is 10% of this value.

Precision: The degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions give the same
results. It describes instruments degree of freedom from random errors.
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Repeatability : describes the closeness of output Reproducibility: describes the closeness of

readings when the same input is applied output readings for the same input when there
repetitively over a short period of time, with the are changes in the method of measurement,
same measurement conditions, same instrument observer, measuring instrument, location,
and observer, same location and same conditions conditions of use and time of measurement
of use maintained throughout

Fig: Reproducibility (different analysis methods produces

Fig: Repeatable data almost equal R sqrd factor

Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This spread is referred to
as repeatability if the measurement conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the
measurement conditions vary. The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in measurements 15
from
an instrument is an alternative way of expressing its precision
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
Tolerance: - the acceptable deviation or variation from a specified value or dimension. It defines the
allowable limits within which a process or product must operate or be measured.
Span: The difference between the upper and lower limits of the range of a measurement instrument.

Range: The minimum and maximum values of the measurand that a measurement system can
accurately measure.

Fig: Span curve

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Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
Linearity: The degree to which the output signal of a measurement system is directly proportional to
the input measurand across the entire range. Deviation from linearity results in measurement errors.

Non-linearity is the maximum deviation of any of the output readings marked X from this straight line

17
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Sensitivity of Measurement: is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when the
quantity being measured changes by a given amount
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = of the straight line
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Zero drift (bias) - the effect where
the zero reading of an instrument is
modified by a change in ambient
conditions
-This causes a constant error that
exists over the full range of
measurement of the instrument
- Zero drift is normally removable by
calibration
Sensitivity to Disturbance: All calibrations and specifications
of an instrument are only valid under controlled conditions like Sensitivity drift (scale factor drift) -
temperature and pressure usually defined in the instrument the amount by which an instruments
specification. sensitivity of measurement varies as
- As variations occur certain static instrument characteristics ambient conditions change.
change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change
- Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main
ways: zero drift and sensitivity drift 18
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then the typical
modification of the output characteristic is shown

Figure: Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift; (c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift

Example
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a It is then used in an environment at a temperature of
temperature of 200C and has the following deflection/load 300C and the following deflection/load characteristic
characteristic. is measured.

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per degree change in ambient temperature 19
Static Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

Threshold: a specific value or limit that, when Resolution: The smallest change in the measurand
crossed, triggers a particular action, condition, or that the system can detect.
state change.
- This minimum level of input is known as the - It is influenced by how finely its output scale is
threshold of the instrument divided into subdivisions

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 ERRORS

Errors in Measurement
 No Measurement is Exact
 Every Measurement Contains Errors
 The “True” Value of a Measurement is Never Known
 The “Exact” Error Present is Always Unknown

Causes of Errors (human-related causes)

 Carelessness: a lack of attention or diligence while performing tasks e.g. Incorrect setup
 Poor Judgement: making decisions or choices based on insufficient knowledge or without
proper reasoning e.g. Overlooking small variations in repeated measurements
 Incompetence: the lack of sufficient knowledge, skill, or experience to correctly perform a
task.

Classification of errors in measurement systems

 those that arise during the measurement process

 those that arise due to later corruption of the measurement signal by induced noise during
transfer of the signal from the point of measurement to some other point
Errors arising during the measurement process

1. Systematic/Cumulative
 Are errors in the output readings of a measurement system that are consistently on one side
of the correct reading, i.e. either all the errors are positive or they are all negative
 Occur each time a measurement is made
 These Errors can be eliminated by making corrections to your measurements
Sources are:
 Disturbance during measurement and
 the effect of environmental changes (modifying inputs)
2. Random Error

 Are perturbations of the measurement either side of the true value caused by random and
unpredictable effects

 Random errors have different magnitude during subsequent measurements of the same quantity.

 For well behaved systems, random errors in a measurement cause a cluster of observed values.

 We will assume that random errors are normally distributed.

 This is reasonable for large sample sizes and truly random errors
 Hysteresis Error / Reversibility Error
Hysteresis error is used for the difference in outputs
given from the same value of quantity being measured
according to whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a continuously
decreasing change
Example
You might obtain a different value from a thermometer
used to measure the same temperature of a liquid if:
• it is reached by the liquid warming up to the
measured temperature
• it is reached by liquid cooling down to the measured
temperature
Exercise
 Non-Linearity Error
Non-linearity error is used for the error that occurs as a result of assuming a linear relationship
between the input and output over the working range:
 a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to give a straight line

 Linearity error is usually expressed as a percentage error of full range or full scale output
 Insertion Error

Case Scenario:

 Insertion of a cold in a hot liquid to measure its temperature causes change in the temperature of
the liquid. The liquid cools and the thermometer ends up measuring a lower temperature than the
one existing before the thermometer was introduced.

 The act of attempting to make the measurement has modified the temperature being measured. This
effect is called loading and the consequence as an insertion error
 Assignment 1
In groups of five:

Discuss in detail the following methods of reducing systematic errors citing their merits,
demerits and usability:
1. Careful instrument design
2. Method of opposing inputs
3. High-gain feedback
4. Calibration
5. Manual correction of output reading
6. Intelligent instruments

Due October 22, 2024 by 1600Hrs in printed form

 What is a Transducer?

Transducer- a device that converts one form of energy to another i.e. microphone, loudspeaker,
antenna, thermometer
Electronic Transducer- has an input or output that is electrical in nature e.g. voltage, current

Sensor- an electronic transducer that converts physical quantity into an electrical signal
- It takes information about the variable being measured and transforms it into a more suitable
form to be measured

Fig: Principle of Sensor/ Transducer

T𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐫 = 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 element
+
secondary element(signal conditioning circuit)

Fig: Measurement as a sensor

Fig: Measurement as a
Transducer
Sensors
 Types of Sensors

Sensor (e.g., thermometer)

 a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
 acquires information from the “real world”
Actuator (e.g., heater)
 a device that generates a signal or stimulus
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values

Typical Electronic Sensor System

 Primary Transducers/ Sensors

 Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology

– thermocouple: temperature difference

– compass (magnetic): direction

 Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
– chemical sensors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
 Example Primary Transducers

• Light Sensor
– photoconductor
• light  R

• photodiode
light  I
 Primary Transducers/ Sensors
 Membrane pressure sensor
 Resistive (pressure   R)
 Capacitive (pressure  C)

Fig: Types of Piezoresisitve pressure sensors against different zero points (absolute
relative to vacuum, relative to ambient pressure, and differential to another pressure)
 Primary Transducers/ Sensors
In piezoresisitve pressure sensors, the measuring element is a silicon-based Wheatstone-Bridge. It
extends minimally under pressure changing the electrical resistance in this way. This effect is
commonly referred to as piezoresisitve effect.

How does a piezoresisitve pressure sensor work?

 Pressure to be measured is sensed by the silicon chip via a membrane and incompressible silicone
oil.
 The chip is supplied with power via an insulating glass feedthrough and bonding wires.
 The pressure signal output is in mV.
 The pressure signal is then temperature compensated and amplified to a corresponding V or mA
output signal.
 Displacement Measurements
Strain Gauges
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize displacement • Are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched or strained.
sensors • They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0–50 µm, and are
• Examples typically used as part of other transducers i.e. diaphragm pressure sensors that
• diameter of part under stress (direct) convert pressure changes into small displacements of the diaphragm
• movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
• Primary Transducer Types • R/R = L/L – A/A + /
• Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages) • A =  (D/2)2, for circular wire
• Inductive Sensors
• Capacitive Sensors • Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to change in
• Piezoelectric Sensors length L
D/D = - L/L
• Secondary Transducers • Thus R/R = (1+2) L/L + /
• Wheatstone Bridge
• Amplifiers • Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials. It shows
input–output relationship of a strain gauge G= the change in
resistance (R) for a given value of strain (S)

 As strain is applied to the gauge, the shape of

the cross-section of the resistance wire
distorts, changing the cross-sectional area.
 As the resistance of the wire per unit length
is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, there is a consequential
change in resistance. 39
 Magnetic Sensors
• Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of inductance,
reluctance and eddy currents to indicate the value of the
measured quantity, which is usually some form of displacement

Inductive sensors
 translate movement into a change in the mutual inductance
between magnetically coupled parts.

• A high-frequency magnetic field is generated by coil L in the

oscillation circuit.
• When a target approaches the magnetic field, an induction current
(eddy current) flows in the target due to electromagnetic induction.
• As the target approaches the sensor, the induction current flow
increases, which causes the load on the oscillation circuit to
increase.
• Then, oscillation attenuates or stops.
• The sensor detects this change in the oscillation status with the
amplitude detecting circuit, and outputs a detection signal.
40
 Magnetic Sensors
variable reluctance sensors Eddy current sensors
 commonly used to measure rotational velocities  consist of a probe containing a coil, that is excited at a high
 A coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather than on an iron frequency, which is typically 1MHz.
core as in variable inductance sensors.  This is used to measure the displacement of the probe relative
to a moving metal target.
Fig. 3.4 below shows a typical instrument in which a ferromagnetic
gearwheel is placed next to the sensor.

 Because of the high frequency of excitation, eddy currents are

 As the tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves towards and away induced only in the surface of the target, and the current
from the pick-up unit, the changing magnetic flux in the pick-up magnitude reduces to almost zero a short distance inside the
coil causes a voltage to be induced in the coil whose magnitude is target. This allows the sensor to work with very thin targets,
proportional to the rate of change of flux. such as the steel diaphragm of a pressure sensor.
 Thus, the output is a sequence of positive and negative pulses  The eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this
whose frequency is proportional to the rotational velocity of the change can be translated into a d.c. voltage output that is
gearwheel proportional to the distance between the probe and the target.
Measurement resolution of (as high as) 0.1 µm can be achieved.

41
Example MEMS Transducers
• MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
• miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
• Microaccelerometer
• cantilever beam
• suspended mass

Electrodes

• Rotation Ring
structure

• gyroscope

• Pressure Diaphragm (Upper electrode)

Lower electrode 5-10mm

ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason