CHAPTER

3
SECTION - A COLLINEAR VECTORS
KINDS OF VECTORS Two vectors are said to be collinear if their directed line
segments are parallel (disregards to their direction).
DEFINITIONS Collinear vectors are also called Parallel Vectors. If they
A vector is described as a quantity having both magnitude have the same direction they are named as like vectors
& direction. A vector is generally represented by a directed otherwise unlike vectors.
  
line segment, say AB . A is called the initial point & B is Symbolically, two non zero vectors a and b are collinear
 
 if and only if, a = K b , where K  R
called the terminal point. The magnitude of vector AB is

COPLANAR VECTORS
expressed by | AB |. A given number of vectors are called coplanar if their
The modulus, or magnitude, of a vector is the directed line segments are all parallel to the same plane.
positive number which is the measure of its length. The Note that "Two Parallel Vectors or Non Collinear Vectors
  Are Always Coplanar".
modulus of the vector a is sometimes denoted by | a |, and
sometimes by the corresponding symbol a in italics. The Remark
 Vectors as defined above are usually called free vectors,
vector which has the same modulus as a , but the opposite
 
since the value of such a vector depends only on its length
direction, is called the negative of a , and is denoted by – a . and direction and is independent of its position in space. A
  single free vector cannot therefore completely represent
Let the vectors a , b be represented by OA and
the effect of a localized vector quantity, such as a force
OB . Then the inclination of the vectors, or the angle acting on a rigid body. This effect depends on the line of
between them, is defined as that angle AOB which does action of the force; and it will be shown later that two free
not exceed . Thus if  denote this inclination, 0    . vectors are necessary for its specification.
When the inclination is /2. The vectors are said to be SECTION - B
perpendicular, when it is 0 or  they are parallel. ADDITION & SUBSTRACTION OF VECTORS

ZERO VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF

A vector of zero magnitude i.e. which has the same initial VECTORS

& terminal point, is called a Zero Vector. It is denoted by 0 . Triangle Law
The manner in which the
UNIT VECTOR vector quantities of mechanics
 and physics are compounded R
A vector of unit magnitude in direction of a is called unit

is expressed by the triangle
 a law of addition, which may be ab
vector along a and is denoted by â symbolically â =  . b
|a| stated as follows :
If three points O, P, R are
a

EQUAL VECTORS chosen so that OP = a and O P
  
Two vectors a & b are said to be equal if they have the PR = b then
same magnitude, direction & represent the same physical the vector OR is called the
  
quantity. This is denoted symbolically by a = b . (vector) sum or resultant of a

and b .
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3.2 Theory and Exercise Book

     
Denoting this resultant by c , we write c = a + b . subtraction of b from a is to be understood as the
borrowing the sign + from algebra, and using the term     
addition of – b to a . We denote this by a – b = a +
vector addition for the process by which the resultant 
   (– b ),
c is obtained from the component vectors a and b .
borrowing the – sign from algebra. Thus to subtract
The above definition is not an arbitrary mathematical   
the vector b from a , reverse the direction of b and
assumption. It is an expression of the way in which 

the vector quantities of physics and mechanics are add. a – b is represented by the (undrawn) diagonal
compounded.  
QP ; for a – b = QR  RP  QP . (from figure -1)
 
Parallelogram Law For the particular case in which b = a we have
    
If the sum of two vectors a = OP and b = OQ is a – a = 0.
the vector OR which is the diagonal of the All zero vectors are regarded as equal irrespective of
parallelogram of which OP and OQ are sides. direction. Indeed we may say that the direction of a
The triangle law of addition is identical with the zero vector is arbtirary. Vectors other than the zero

parallelogram law vector are called proper vectors. For any vectors a
 
Further since QR = OP = a it follows that and b we have the following inequality
   
  | a + b || a |+| b |
b + a = OQ + QR = OR ,
    (The triangle inequality), geometrically expressing the
showing that b + a = a + b = r (say). fact that in a triangle the sum of its two sides is greater
 than the third side if the vectors are not parallel. This
Q a R inequality is obviously valid for any number of vectors
       
  b  | a1  a 2  a 3  ........  a n || a1 |  | a 2 | ....... | a n |
b a b

O  P SOLVED EXAMPLE
a
(figure - 1) EXAMPLE 1
ABCDE is a pentagon. Prove that the resultant of the forces
Associative & Commutative Law AB, AE, BC, DC, ED and AC is 3 AC .

If we add another vector c = R S , obtaining the result
       SOLUTION

OS = r + c = ( a + b ) + c = c + ( a + b ). Let R be the resultant force.
 R = AB  AE  BC  DC  ED  AC
But a glance at fig. shows that this vector is also
     
OS  OP  PS = a + ( b + c ) = ( b + c ) + a , and  R = ( AB  BC)  ( AE  ED  DC)  AC
the argument obviously holds for any number of
vectors. Hence the commutative and associative laws D
hold for the addition of any number of vectors. The
sum is independent of the order and the grouping of E
C
the terms.
S
 A B
c
ab 
c

R = AC  AC  AC
 


 b = 3 AC . Hence proved.
a 
b Multiplication of Vector by Scalars
  
a If a is a vector & m is a scalar, then m a is a vector
O P  
 parallel to a whose modulus is | m | times that of a . This
– b is to be understood as the vector which has the  
 multiplication is called SCALAR MULTIPLICATION. If a & b
same length as b , but the opposite direction. The are vectors & m, n are scalars, then :

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 Vector 3 .3

   positive or negative. In the latter case R is outside the

m( a ) = ( a )m = m a
   segment AB. If the ratio lies between 0 and –1, R is
m(n a ) = n(m a ) = (mn) a
   outside AB and nearer to A. If the ratio lies between
(m +n) a = m a + n a –1 and –, R is outside AB and nearer to B.
   
m( a + b ) = m a + m b
A

Position Vector
With an assigned point O as origin, the position of any R

a
point P is specified uniquely by the vector OP , which 
r
is called the position vector of P relative to O. It is B
convenient to denote the position vectors of the points 
A, B, C, ...........Z by the corresponding small b
   
Clarendon symbols a , b , c , ......... z With this O
  
notation the vector AB is b – a . For  
       ab
OA  AB  OB  a  AB  b For the particular case in which m = n, r 
  2
 AB  b – a
SOLVED EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE 2
The side AD of the parallelogram ABCD is divided into n
equal parts and the first division point (point K) is joined to
the vertex B (Fig.). Find the parts into which the diagonal
AC is divided by the half-line BK.
A point with position vector r is often referred to as B C
the point r .

SECTION - C P b
COLLINEARITY OF THREE POINTS

SECTION FORMULA A K a D
  SOLUTION
If a & b are the position vectors of two points A &
   
B then the p.v. of a point which divides AB in the ratio Let DC  b, DA  a , and AP   AC . We express the
   
 na  mb vector AP in terms of the vectors a and b in two
m : n is given by : r = . Note p.v. of mid
mn ways :
     
ab (1) AP   AC =  ( b – a ) =  b –  a ; (2)
point of AB = .
2    1 
  AP  AK  KP = – a +  KB
Let A, B be the two points, and a , b their position n
vectors relative to the origin O. Then the position vector 1  1    1  
of the point R which divides AB in the ratio m : n, may = – a + ( a + b ) = a + b
n n n

  AR m ( KP =  KB , since APK ~ BPC).
be found in terms of a and b . For since   ,
RB n
  Since only one representation of a vector in terms of
it follows that n( r – a ) = m( b – r ) two noncollinear vectors is possible, we have :
 
 na  mb  1 1
hence r = .(m + n  0) = –  , whence  = . This means that
mn n n 1
This is the required expression for the position vector 1
of R. The reasoning holds good for the ratio m : n is AP = AC , and then, we see AP : PC = 1 : n.
n 1

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3.4 Theory and Exercise Book

SECTION - D/ E      

P is r  OP  OA  AP = a + t b ...(1)
COPLANAR, NON - COPLANAR VECTOR AND
SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS To find a vector equation of the straight line passing
through the points A and B, whose position vectors
   
LINEAR COMBINATION are a and b , we observe that AB = b – a ; so that
A vectors r is said to be a linear combination of vectors 
   straight lines is one through the point A parallel to b –
a1 , a2 ..... , an if there exist scalar m1....m2....mn.    
   a . Its vector equation is therefore r = a + t( b – a )
such that r = m1a1 + m2 a2 + .....+ mnan .  
or r = (1 – t) a + t b ....(2)
LINEARLY INDEPENDENT The three points A, B, P are collinear; and if the linear
   equation (2) connecting their position vectors is written
A system of non-zero vector a1 , a2 ..... , an is said to  
be linearly independent if (1 – t) a + t b – r = 0,
    This is the necessary and sufficient condition that three
m1a1 + m2 a2 + .....+ mnan = 0
points should be collinear.
 m1 = m2 = .... = mn = 0
It can be easily verified that
i. A pair of non - collinear vectors is linearly SOLVED EXAMPLE
independent.
Proof : EXAMPLE 3
 
Let a1 and a 2 are non-collinear vectors such that If ABCD is a parallelogram and L, M are the mid points of
   the sides AB and BC respectively, show that DL, AC meet
m1a1  m 2 a 2  O
at point of trisection and similarly DM and AC.
Let m1, m2  0
SOLUTION
 m2   
 a1   m a2 Let AB  a , AD  b in the parallelogram ABCD. Then
1
 
 a1 and a 2 are collinear, which contradicts the given  a
AL 
fact. 2
Hence m1, m2 = 0  let DL, DM meet AC in P and Q respectively
ii. A triad of non-coplanar vector is linearly
    
independent. AP   AC  (a  b)  AC  AB  BC  ...(1)

Linearly Dependent
  
A set of vectors a1 , a 2 ,..., a n is said to be linearly
dependent if there exist scalars m1, m2,.., mn, not all
   
zero, such that m1a1 + m 2 a 2 + mn a n  0
It can be easily verified that
i. A pair of collinear vectors is linearly dependent.
 
ii. A traid of coplanar vectors is linearly dependent. Also AP  AD  DP  b  DL  b  (DA  AL )
 
VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE   a
i.e. AP  b     b   ...(2)
Parametric vector equation of a line passing through 2 
 
two point A( a ) & B( b ) is given by,,  
    Equating the coefficients of a, b in (1) and (2),
r = a + t( b – a ) where t is a parameter. If the line
  1
passes through the point A( a ) & is parallel to the vector we get  = ,=1–  =
2 3
  
b then its equation is, r = a + t b 1
 AP  AC i.e. P is a point of trisection of AC.
If P is a point on this straight line the vector AP is 3
  2
parallel to b , and is therefore equal to t b , where t is Similarly, we can prove AQ  AC
3
some real number positive for points on one side of A,
and negative for points on the other, varying from point

to point. Thus, if a is the position vector of A, that of

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 Vector 3 .5

Bisector of the angle between two straight These two lines intersect at the point for which s = t =
lines: 1  
1 
To find the equation of the bisector of the angle , that is the point ( a + b + c ). From the
4 4
between the straight lines OA and OB, parallel to the
symmetry of this result the theorem follows.
unit vectors â and b̂ respectively, take the point O as Non-parametric equation of straight line
origin and let P be any point on the bisector. Then, Consider the straight line through A in the direction of
if PN is drawn parallel to AO cutting OB in N, the the unit vector ê . For any point r on this line, the vector
angles OPN and NOP are equal, and ON = NP. But  
r – a is parallel to ê , so that
these are parallel to b̂ and â respectively, so that 
( r – a ) × ê = 0 ....(i)
ON = t b̂ and NP = t â , where t is some real number.. is one form of the equation of the line. The
The position vector of P is therefore 
perpendicular distance from a point P( p ) to the line
  
r = t( â + b̂ ). This is the required equation of the has magnitude AP sin , which is | ( p – a ) × ê |. It is
bisector, the value of t varying as P moves along the thus the magnitude of the vector obtained by
line. The bisector OP' of the supplementary angle 
B'OA is the bisector of the angle between straight substituting p for r in the first member of equation
(i). The position vector of N, the foot of the
lines whose directions are those of â and – b̂ ; and its   
perpendiuclar, is a + ê . ( p – a ) ê . The vector
equation is therefore r = t( â – b̂ ).       
  ˆ
PN  PA  AN  a  p  e.(p  a)eˆ .
If a and b are not unit vectors, the equations of the
 
a b
 EXAMPLE 5
above bisectors are r = t  a  b  .
  
Line L1 is parallel to vector   3 î  2 ĵ  4k̂ and passes
B
through a point A(7, 6, 2) and line L2 is parallel to a vector

N   2 î  ĵ  3k̂ and passes through a point B(5, 3, 4). Now

–b

P a line L3 parallel to a vector r  2 î  2 ĵ  k̂ intersects the

O

A
P’ –a lines L1 and L2 at points C and D respectively, Find | CD | .
’
–b
B’

SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4 
r1 = 7iˆ  6ˆj  2kˆ +  (  3 ˆi  2 ˆj  4kˆ )
The lines joining the vertices of tetrahedron to the centroids

of the opposite faces are concurrent. r2 = 5iˆ  3ˆj  4kˆ   (2iˆ  ˆj  3k)
ˆ
SOLUTION

Let ABCD be the tetrahedron. Take D as origin of  CD  (3   2   2) ˆi  ( 2     3) ˆj
position vectors. Then the line joining D to the centroid
    ( 4   3   2)kˆ 
of the face ABC is r = s( a + b + c ).
Also the centroid of the face DAC is the point  
r  (2iˆ  2ˆj  k)
ˆ to CD 
1  
( a + c ); and 3  2  2 2    3 4   3  2
3   
  2 2 1
 ac
The line joining this to B is r = t b + (1 – t)   = 2 and  = 1
3

D
 CD  6 î  6 ĵ  3k̂

  
b a  | CD |  9

c
EXAMPLE 6
B
A The in-circle of the triangle ABC touches its sides at D, E,
F. If O is the centre of the incircle and BO meets DE at G,
use vector method to prove that AG is perpendicular to
C
BG.
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3.6 Theory and Exercise Book

 c c
SOLUTION AG = ( t̂ + k̂ ) – c t̂ = ( k̂ + t̂ )
Let B be taken as the initial point, Let the position 2 2
c
vector of C and A be ak̂ and c t̂ respectively where which is perpendicular to BG i.e. ( t̂ + k̂ ).
2
k̂ and t̂ are unit vectors. With normal notations of
SECTION - F
ABC, the position vector of D is (s – b) k̂ and
SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
that k̂ and t̂ are unit vectors. With normal notations of SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS
ABC, the position vector of D is (s – b) k̂ and that of
Definition
(s  c )ct̂  ( s  a)ak̂  
E is . The scalar product of two vectors a and b , whose
b
directions are inclined at an angle , is the real number
The equation of BO is r = 1 ( î + k̂ ) and that of DE is    
an cos , and is written a . b = ab cos  = b . a
 (s  c )ct̂  (s  a)ak̂ 
r = (s – b) k̂ + 2   (s  b) k̂ 
 b  The order of the factors may be reversed without
These lines intersect at G, where altering the value of the product. Further, b cos  is
 
 ˆ ˆ  the resolute of b in the direction of a , and a cos  is
ˆ  (s  b)kˆ    (s  c)ct  (s  a)ak  (s  b)kˆ 
1 (tˆ  k) 2
b  
  the resolute of a in the direction of b , positive or
negative according as  is acute or obtuse. Hence the
A (ct̂ ) scalar product of two vectors is the product of the
modulus of either vector and the resolute of the other
s–a s–a in its direction.
 
If two vectors a , b are perpendicular, cos  = 0, and
c Eb
their scalar product is zero. Hence the condition of
O G perpendicularity of two proper vectors is expressed
 
s–b s–c by a . b = 0
If the vectors have the same direction, cos  = 1, and
 
B(0, 0) s – b D s – c C (ak̂ ) a . b = ab. If their directions are opposite, cos  = –1,
a
 
and a . b = –ab. The scalar product of any two unit
Equating the coefficients of t̂ and k̂ , we get vectors is equal to the cosine of the angle between
c (s  c)  2 their directions. When the factors are equal vectors
 1 =  
b their scalar product a . a is called the square of a,
 
(s  a)a  ( s  b)b and is written a2. Thus a2 = a . a = a2, the square of
and 1 = s – b +  2.
b a vector being thus equal to the square of its modulus.
s(a  b)  (a2  b2 ) The square of any unit vector is unity. In particular,
or 1 = s – b +
( s  c )c 2 2 2
î = ĵ = k̂ = 1,
(a  b)(s  a  b) but since these vectors are mutually perpendicular
1 = s – b + 1
(s  c)c
î . ĵ = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . î = 0.
 a  b c
 l  1  c  = s – b  1 =
  2 Distributive Law
c It is easy to show that the distributive law of
Hence position vector of G is ( t̂ + k̂ ) multiplication holds for scalar products; that is,
2
      
a . (b + c ) = a . b + a . c .

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 Vector 3 .7

  makes with the +ve directions OX, OY & OZ are

The resolute of b + c in the direction of a is the sum
  called Direction Angles & their cosines are called the
of the resolutes of b and c in the same direction.
Consequently on multiplying each of these resolutes Direction Cosines
 a a a
by a , we have the required result. Fig. is drawn for
cos   1 , cos   2 , cos   3 .
the case in which all the resolutes are positive; but the a a a
argument holds also when one or more of them are Note that, cos2  + cos2  + cos2  = 1
negative.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
B
c EXAMPLE 7
C  

Given a  3 î  2 ĵ  4k̂ ; b  2 ( î  k̂ ) and c  4 î  2 ĵ  3k̂ .
b
For what values of '' the equation,
  
xa  yb  zc   ( x î  yĵ  zk̂ ) has a non trivial solution.
O M a N A SOLUTION
Equating the components,
3x + 2y + 4z =  x ;
Repeated application of this result showns that the 2x+2z=y
scalar product of two sums of vectors may be & 4 x + 2 y+ 3 z =  z
expanded as in ordinary algebra. 3 2 4
Thus for non trivial solution 2  2 =0
    4 2 3
( a + b + ........). ( l + m +..........)
       (Use : C1  C1 – C2)  ( + 1)2 ( – 8) = 0
= a . l + a . m + ........ + b . l + b . m + .......   = – 1 or 8
In particular,
   
( a + b )2 = a2 + 2 a . b + b2, EXAMPLE 8
while Prove cosine formula c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C in triangle
    ABC.
( a + b ). ( a – b ) = a2 – b2.
From the distributive law we may deduce a very useful SOLUTION
formula for the scalar product of two vectors in terms
 A
of their rectangular components. For,if a = (a1, a2, a3)

and b = (b1, b2, b3), then c b
 
a . b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ ). (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ ) B
C
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 a
  
since the vectors î , ĵ , k̂ are mutually perpendicular.. a +b+c = 0
  
Thus the scalar product of two vectors is equal to the If a , b , c are the vectors BC, CA, AB we have
sum of the product of their corresponding rectangular   
– c = a + b . On 'squaring' both sides of this equation
components. we find c2 = a2 + b2 + 2a . b = a2 + b2 –2ab cos C,
 
In particular, the square of a vector is equal to the Since the inclination of a and b is  – C.
sum of squares of its rectangular components. Also
since the above scalar product is ab cos  , the EXAMPLE 9
inclination of the vectors is given by   
Show that, if a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors, and
a1b1  a2b2  a3b3       
p . a = p . b = p . c = 0, then p is the zero vector..
cos  =
(a12  a22  a32 ) (b12  b22  b32 ) SOLUTION
  
Since p is perpendicular to both a and b it is normal
Direction Cosines     
to the plane of a and b . Then, since p . c = 0, c
  
Let a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ then angles which this vector must lie in the plane of a and b . But this is contrary

to the data. Hence p must be zero.
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3.8 Theory and Exercise Book

SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 10
     
Show that the perpendiculars from the vertices of a triangle We have AB = b – a , AC = c – a and CB = b – c .
to the opposite sides are concurrent.   
Hence if BD is perpendicular to CA, b . ( c – a ) = 0,
SOLUTION    
i.e. b . c = a . b
A(a)
And similarly, if DA is perpendicular to BC,
      
h) a . ( b – c ) = 0 i.e. a . b = c . a
H(
     
Thus a . b = b . c = c . a ,
B(b) C(c)   
whence c . ( a – b ) = 0,
   
Let a , b , c be the position vectors of A, B, C and h showing that DC is perpendiuclar to BA.
that of the intersection, H, of the perpendiculars from Further, the sum of the squares on BD and CA is
B and C. then    
    b2 + ( c – a )2 = b2 + c2 + a2 – 2 a . c ,
( h – b ). ( a – c ) = 0,  BH  CA  and, in virtue of (i), this is the same as in the other two
   
( h – c ). ( b – a ) = 0.  CH  AB  cases.
   
Addition of these shows that ( h – a ). ( a – c ) = 0, Remark
so that AH is perpendicular to BC, and the theorem is    
1. a . b  a b cos  (0    ). note that if  is
proved.
   
EXAMPLE 11 acute then a .b  0 & if  is obtuse then a .b  0
Show that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a    2     
2. a.a  a  a2 , a.b  b.a (commutative)
triangle are concurrent.
      
SOLUTION 3. a .(b  c )  a . b  a . c (distributive)
A(a)      
4. a . b  0  a  b (a  0 b  0)

D 5. î . î = ĵ . ĵ = k̂ . k̂ = 1 ; î . ĵ = ĵ . k̂ = k̂ . î = 0
E
 
K(k)   a.b
6. Projection of a on b = 
b
B(b) C(c)  
7. The angle  between a & b is given by
Let K be the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors
 
of AB and AC. a.b
cos  =   0 
    a b
 a b   
DK . BA  0 ,  k   . ( a – b ) = 0, 
 2   
8. If a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ & b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂
   
 a c    then a . b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
 k   . ( c – a ) = 0.
 2   
a  a12  a22  a32 , b  b12  b 22  b32
 
EK. AC  0    
9. Maximum value of a . b  a b
 
   
Addition of these shows that  k 
c b
 .( c – b ) = 0,    
 2  10. Minimum values of a . b   a b

so that K is also on the perpendicular bisector of BC. 11 Any vector a can be written as ,
   
a  (a . î ) î  (a . ĵ ) ĵ  (a . k̂ ) k̂ .
EXAMPLE 12 12. A vector in the direction of the bisector of the
In a tetrahedron, if two pairs of opposite edges are  
angle between the two vectors a & b is
perpendicular, the third pair are also perpendicular to each  
other; and the sum of the squares of two opposite edges is a b
   . Hence bisector of the angle between
the same for each pair. a b

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99, 8003899588
 Vector 3 .9

   
the two vectors a & b is  ( â + b̂ ), where   of | u | and | u  2 î | where î is the unit vector angle x-axis

R+. Bisector of the exterior angle between a & 
 then | u | has the value equal to a  b where a, b  N,
b is  ( â – b̂ ),   R+. find the value (a + b)3 + (a – b)3.
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 13
 
In a  ABC if 'O' is the circumcentre, H is the orthocentre Let u  x î  3 x ĵ ; | u |  2x, x  0
and R is the radius of the circle circumscribing the triangle
ABC, then prove that ;    2
now | u | u  2 î = u  î
   
1. OH  OA  OB  OC
2
 2| x | ( x  2 )2  3 x 2 = [(x – 1)2 + 3x2]

2. OH  9 R2 – (a2 + b2 + c2) 2
 2|x| 4 x 2  4 x  4 = 4x – 2x + 1
2
  4|x| x 2  x  1 = 4x – 2x + 1
3. AH  2 R |cos A|
square
 16x2(x2 – x + 1) = 16x4 + 4x2 + 1 – 16x3 – 4x + 8x2
SOLUTION
 16x2 = 12x2 + 1 – 4x
   
  4x2 + 4x – 1 = 0
1. position vector of G are  OG
3
 4  16  16 44 2  1 2
      x= = =
 OH  3 OG       8 8 2
  (1  2 )
A( ) or
2

R  2x = 2 –1
H
2
G or – ( 2 + 1)  rejected
O(Origin)
R 1 
Hence | u | = 2 – 1 = 2 – 1
 R 
B() C(  )  a = 2; b = 1
 (a + b)3 + (a – b)3 = 27 + 1 = 28
  
= OA  OB OC
EXAMPLE 15
2
    Prove using vectors that the distance of the circumcenter
2. OH = (      )2  3R 2  2R2 [ cos 2 A ]
1 2
of the  ABC from the centroid is R2  (a  b 2  c 2 )
= 3 R2 + 2 R2 [3 – 2 ( sin2 A] 9
where R is the circumradius.
 a2 b2 c 2 
= 9 R – 4 R  2 
2 2 SOLUTION
 4R 4R 2
4 R 2  2
 1    2
= 2
9 R – (a + b + c ) 2 2 2 circumcenter is 'O' OG  
9
  1   2 2 2    
3. AH = position vector of H – position vector of =        2.  2.  2 .  
9 
       
A =        

A( )
2
  
AH = (   )2  2 R2 + 2 R2 cos 2A = 4R2cos2 A

O G
EXAMPLE 14  
 B() C(  )
Let u be a vector on rectangular coordinate system with

sloping angle 60º. Suppose that | u  î | is geometric mean

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3.10 Theory and Exercise Book

1 EXAMPLE 17
= [3R2 + 2R2(cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C]
9 Given three points on the xy plane on O(0, 0), A(1, 0) and
B(–1, 0). Point P is moving on the plane satisfying the
1  
= [3R2 + 2R2(3 – 2  sin2 A )]  
9   
condition PA .PB + 3 OA .OB = 0. If the maximum and 
 2 2 2 
1 9R2  4R 2  a  b  c  minimum values of PA PB are M and m respectively
=  then find the value of M2 + m2.
9   4R
2
4R 2
4R2 
SOLUTION
Let P be (x, y). PA = (1 – x) î – y ĵ ;
EXAMPLE 16
The length of the edge of the regular tetrahedron D – ABC PB = (–1 –x) î – y ĵ
is 'a'. Point E and F are taken on the edges AD and BD  

respectively such that E divides DA and F divides BD in
   
PA .PB  ((x  1)iˆ  yj).((x
ˆ ˆ  (x 2  1)  y 2
 1)iˆ  yj)

the ratio 2 : 1 each. Then find the area of triangle CEF.  

also 3 OA . OB = 3 î . (  î )  3
SOLUTION    
We have Hence   
PA .PB  3 OA .OB  0 
          x – 1 + y – 3 = 0 = 0  x + y2 = 4
2 2
...(1) 2
|a|  |b| | c | |ba|  |bc |  |c a|  a
which gives the locus of P i.e. P move on a circle with
centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 
and a b  b c  c a  AB AC  CA CB  BA BC  2 2
3 now PA = (x – 1)2 + y2 ; PB = (x + 1)2 + y2
 a2  a 2 2
(EF)2   | EF | =  PA PB = (x2 + y2 – 2x + 1)(x2 + y2 + 2x + 1)
3 3

D (origin)
= (5 – 2x)(5 + 2x) [using x2 + y2 = 4]
2 2
E
M F  PA PB = 25 – 4x2
A
 C
 subject to x2 + y2 = 4
a c
y P(x,y)
B

b

  7a  5a B A x
| CF | = | CE | = , | CM | = (–1,0) O (1,0)
3 6
where M is the middle point of EF.  2  2
 
PA PB  25  16  9 ; (when x = 2 or –2)
1 min.
Area (DCEF) = | EF | | CM |
2
and | PA |2| PB |2  25  0  25 ( when x  0)
1 a 5a 2 max .
= . . 5a =
2 3 6 12 3 3  | PA | | PB |  5. hence M = 5 and m = 3
 M2 + m2 = 34 Ans.
SECTION - G
VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS

Definition
 
The vector product of two vectors a and b , whose
directions are inclined at an angle , is the vector whose
modulus is ab sin , and whose direction is

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99, 8003899588
 Vector 3 .1

 
perpendicular to both a and b , being positive relative
   a1 a2 a3
  
to a rotation from a to b . we write it a  b a × b = b1 b2 b3 ...(3)
ˆi ˆj kˆ
= ab sin  n̂ where n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to
 
the plane of a , b having the same direction as the This vector has modulus ab sin . Hence, on squaring
translation of a right-handed screw due to a rotation both members of the above equation and dividing by
   
from a to b . From this it follows that b × a has the a2b2, we find for the sine of the angle between two
   
opposite direction to a × b , but the same length, so vectors a and b .
    sin2  =
that a × b = – b × a .
Consider the parallelogram OAPB whose sides OA, (a2b3  a3b2 )2  (a3b1  a1b3 )2  (a1b2  a2b1)2
  .
OB have the lengths and directions of a and b (a12  a22  a23 )(b12  b22  b32 )
respectively. The area of the figure is ab sin , and the

vector area OAPB, whose boundary is described in If l, m, n and l', m', n' are the direction cosines of a
  
this sense, is represented by ab sin  n̂ = a × b . The and b respectively, this is equivalent to
vector area OBPA is of course represented by b × a. sin2 = (mn' – m'n)2 + (nl' – n'l)2 + (lm' – l'm)2.
For two parallel vectors sin  is zero and their vector   
   It is worth noticing that if b = c + n a , where n is any
product vanishes.[ a × b = 0 represent a is parallel
 real number, then
to b ] In particular, r × r = 0 is true for all vectors. If,       
    a × b = a × (c + na) = a × c .
however, a and b are perpendicular,, a × b is a vector    
whose modulus is ab, and whose direction is such that Conversely, if a × b = a × c it does not follow that
       
a, b, a  b form a right-handed system of mutually b = c , but that b differs from c by some vector
  
perpendicular vectors. If a , b are both unit vectors parallel to a , which may or may not be zero.
 
the modulus of a × b is the sine of their angle of
Remark
inclination. For the particular unit vectors, î , ĵ , k̂  

1. If a & b are two vectors &  is the angle between
we have î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0 ,    
them then a × b = | a || b | sin  n̂ , where n̂ is the unit
while    
î × ĵ = k̂ = – ĵ × î , vector perpendicular to both a & b such that a , b

ĵ × k̂ = î = – k̂ × ĵ , & n̂ forms a right handed screw system.

k̂ × î = ĵ = – î × k̂ .
Vector area
These relations will be constantly employed.
Consider the type of vector quantity whose magnitude
If either factor is multiplied by a number, their product
is an area. Such a quantity is associated with each
is multiplied by that number. For
    plane figure, the magnitude being the area of the figure,
(m a ) × b = mab sin  n̂ = a × (m b ).
and the direction that of the normal to the plane of the
figure. This vector area therefore specifies both the
Distributive Law area and the orientation of the plane figure. But as the
We shall now show that the distributive law holds for direction might be either of two opposite directions
vector products also ; along the normal, some convention is necessary. The
      
i.e. a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c . ...(1) area clearly has no sign in itself, and can be regarded
with the usual notation, as positive or negative only with reference to the
  direction in which the boundary of the figure is
a × b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ ) × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ ) described, or the side of the plane from which it is
= (a2b3 – a3b2) î + (a3b1 – a1b3) ĵ + (a1b2 – a2b1) k̂ ...(2) viewed.
Consider the area of the figure bounded by the closed
By virtue of the relation proved in the preceding Art.
curve LMN, which is regarded being traced out in the
We may write this in the determinant form
direction of the arrows, the normal vector PP' , bears
to this direction of rotation the same relation as the
translation to the direction of rotation of a right-handed
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3.2 Theory and Exercise Book

screw. The area LMN is regarded as positive relative  

  |ab|
to the direction of PP' . 12. If  is the angle between a & b then sin  =  
| a|| b |
With this convention, vector area may be represented
by a vector normal to the plane of the figure, in the   
13. If a , b & c are the pv's of 3 points A, B & C then
direction relative to which it is positive, and with the vector area of triangle
modulus equal to the measure of the area. The sum of
  1   1  
1  
two vector areas represented by a and b is defined ABC = | AB  AC | = |BC  BA |= |CA  CB|
  2 2 2
to be the vector area represented by a + b
1      
ABC =
2
 
a  b  b  c  c  a . The points A, B & C
P'
     
are collinear if a × b + b × c + c × a = 0
N
14. Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are
M   1  
L d1 & d2 is given by | d1  d2 |
2
P  
15. Lagrange's Identity : for any two vectors a & b ;
     
2. Geometrically | a × b | = area of the parallelogram     a .a a .b
  ( a × b )2 = | a |2 | b |2 =    
whose two adjacent sides are represented by a & b . a .b b .b
    Test of Coplanarity
3. a × b = 0  a & b are parallel (collinear)    
    Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d
( a  0, b  0) i.e. a = K b , where K is a scalar..
respectively are coplanar if and only if there exist
    scalars x, y, z, w not all zero simultaneously such that
4. a × b  b × a (not commutative)     
xa  yb  zc  wd  0 where, x + y + z + w = 0.
     
5. (m a ) × b = a x(m b ) = m( a × b ) where m is a
scalar.
SOLVED EXAMPLE
      
6. a × ( b + c ) = ( a × b ) + ( a × c ) (distributive) EXAMPLE 18
 û and v̂ are two non-collinear unit vectors such that
7. î × î = ĵ × ĵ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
û  v̂ ˆ
uˆ v
 û  v̂ = 1. Prove | û × v̂ | = .
8. î × ĵ = k̂ , ĵ × k̂ = î , k̂ × î = ĵ 2 2

  SOLUTION
9. If a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ & b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ 2
û  v̂ û  v̂
Given that  û  v̂ = 1   û  v̂ 1
ˆi ˆj kˆ 2 2
    
then a × b = a1 a2 a3 u2  v2  2u.v
b1 b2 b3  |u ˆ |2| ˆ
v |2 sin2   1
4
  2  2 cos 
10. Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a & b is  + sin2  = 1
4
 
ab   2
n̂ = ±    cos2 = cos2    = n ±  =
|ab| 2 2 3
2  uˆ  vˆ
11. A vector of magnitude 'r' & perpendicular to the plane  | û × v̂ | = sin = sin = 2
.
3 3
 
  r (a  b )
of a & b is ±  
|ab| EXAMPLE 19
Let Am be the minimum area of the triangle whose vertices
are A(–1, 1, 2); B(1, 2, 3) and C(t, 1, 1) where t is a real

number. Compute the value of 1338 3 A min  . 
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SOLUTION SECTION - H
1         SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
A= | a × b | and | a × b |2 = a 2 b 2 – ( a 2 . b 2)2
2 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT
   
a = (t – 1) î – ĵ – 2 k̂ ; b = 2 î + ĵ + k̂ Scalar triple product, a . ( b × c ). Since the cross
   
| a |2 = (t – 1)2 + 1 + 4;| b |2 = 4 + 1 + 1 = 6 product b × c is itself a vector, we may have a third
   
A(–1, 1, 2) vector a , the scalar product a . ( b × c ), which is a
number. Such products of three vectors are of frequent
 occurrence, and we shall find it useful to examine their
b properties. Consider the parallelopied whose
concurrent edges OA, OB, OC have the lengths and
  
(1,2,3)B a C(t,1,1) directions of the vectors a , b , c respectively. Then
 
  the vector b × c , which we may denote by n , is
a . b = 2(t – 1) – 1 – 2 = 2t – 5
  perpendicular to the face OBDC, and its modulus n is
| a × b |2 = 6[t2 – 2t + 6] – (4t2 + 25 – 20t)
  the measure of the area of that face. If  is the angle

| a × b |2 = 2t2 + 8t + 11 which is minimum at t = –2 between the directions of n and a , the triple product
 2   
ab  8  16  11  3 a . ( b × c ) = an cos  = ± V, ...(1)
min
  where V is the measure of the volume of the
  | a  b |min 3 parallelepiped. The triple product is positive if  is acute,
 | a × b |min = 3  = Amin =   
2 2 that is if a , b , c form a right-handed system of
vectors.
Hence 1338 3 . 3 = 669 × 3 = 2007
  The same reasoning shows that each of the products
2      
SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES b . ( c × a ) and c . ( a × b ) has the same value ± V,
  
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then obviously being positive if the system a , b , c is right handed,
the shortest distance between them is zero. Lines   
negative if left-haded. The cyclic order a , b , c is
which do not intersect & are also not parallel are called maintained in each of these. If, however that order is
skew lines. For Skew lines the direction of the changed, the sign of the product is changed; for
shortest distance would be perpendicular to both the    
lines. The magnitude of the shortest distance vector b × c = –c × b.
Thus
      
would be equal to that of the projection of AB along ± V = a . ( b × c ) = ( b × c ). a
  
 = – ( c × b ). a
the direction of the line of shortest distance, LM is
 
parallel to p  q b×c
   A
i.e. LM = |Projection of AB on LM | = |Projection of
a
      
   AB.(p  q) (b  a).(p  q)
AB on p  q | =      B
|pq| |pq|
O C
  b
1. The two lines directed along p & q will intersect
only if shortest distance = 0 Thus the value of the product depends on the cyclic
      order of the factors, but is indpendent of the position
i.e.( b – a ).( p × q ) = 0 i.e. ( b – a ) lies in the plane
      of the dot and cross. It is usual to denote the above
containing p & q .  [( b – a ) p q ] = 0.      
product by [ a b c ] or [ a , b , c ], which indicate the
     
2. If two lines are given by r1  a1  Kb & r2  a2  Kb three factors and their cyclic order. Then
       
 [ a b c ] = – [ a c b ]. ....(2)
b  (a2  a1)
i.e. they are parallel then, d =  If the three vectors are coplanar their scalar triple
|b|
  
product is zero. For b × c is then perpendicular to a ,
and their scalar product vanishes. Thus the vanishing
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        
of [ a b c ] is the condition that the vectors should be         
a .(b  c )  (a  b). c OR [ a b c ] = [ b c a ] = [ c a b ]
coplanar. If two of the vectors are parallel this condition            
is satisfied. In particular, if two of them are equal the 4. a . ( b × c ) = – a . ( c × b ) i.e. [ a b c ] = – [ a c b ]
  
product is zero. 5. If a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ ; b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ & c
There is a very simple and convenient expression for
   a1 a2 a3
the product [ a b c ] in terms of rectangular   
components of the vectors. = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂ then [ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c 2 c 3
With the usual notation we have
  In general, if
b × c = (b2c3 – b3c2, b3c1 – b1c3 . b1 c2 – b2c1), 
       
and a = a  a1l  a2m  a3n ; b  b1 l  b2m  b3n
      
a . ( b × c ) = a1(b2c3 – b3c2) + a2(b3c1 – b1c3) + & c  c1 l  c 2m  c 3n

a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3 
a3(b1c2 – b2c1) = b1 b2 b3 ...(3)       
then [ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3 [ l m n ] ; where  ; m
c1 c 2 c 3 c1 c 2 c 3
This is the well known expression for the volume of a 
& n are non coplanar vectors.
parallelopiped with one corner at the origin. More      
 6. a , b , c are coplanar  [ a b c ] = 0.
generally, if in terms of three non-coplanar vectors  ,
      7. Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal
m , n we write a = a1  + a2 m + a3 n .      
or parallel is 0 i.e. [ a b c ] = 0, [ a b c ] < 0 for left
and so on, it is easily shown that
handed system.
a1 a2 a3      
      8. [K a b c ] = K[ a b c ]
[ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3 [  m n ].          
c1 c 2 c 3 9. [( a + b ) c d ] = [ a c d ] + [ b c d ]
           
10. [ a – b b – c c – a ] = 0 & [ a + b b + c c + a ]
The product [ î ĵ k̂ ], of three rectangular unit vectors,
  
= 2 [ a b c ].
is obviously equal to unity.
Lastly, since the distributive law holds for both scalar
Tetrahedron
and vector products, it holds for the scalar triple
With one vertex O as origin, let the other vertices
          
product. For instance [ a , b + d , c + e ] = [ a b c ] + A, B, C be the points a , b , c respectively. Then the
        
[ a b e ] + [ a d c ] + [ a d e ], 1  
vector area of OBC is × c , and the volume of
the cyclic order of the factors being preserved in each 2 b
term. the tetrahedron in

Remark 1  1   1   
V=| a .( a × c )| = |[ a b c ]|.
   3 2 6
1. The scalar triple product of three vectors a . b & c is Suppose we required the length p of the common
      perpendicular to the two edges AB, OC. The directions
defined as : (a  b).c  | a || b || c | sin  cos  where    

of these lines are those of the vectors b – a and c ,

is the angle between a & b &  is the angle between  
while a , c are two points, one on each line. If  is
          
a × b & c . It is also defined as [ a b c ], spelled as
[b  a,c,a  c]
box product. their angle of inclination, p = .
AB.OC.sin 
2. Scalar triple product geometrically represents the
volume of the parallelopiped whose three coterminous
     
edges are represented by a , b & c i.e. V = [ a b c ]
3. In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross
can be interchanged i.e.

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 Vector 3 .5

SOLUTION
A  1 
V  [a b c ] ;
6
    
  a  b  c  ab  bc 
 
ac
a G ; G1  ; G2  ; G3 
3 3 3 3

c   
O C  c  a  b
G1 G  ; G2 G  G3 G 
 3 3 3
b
B O
  
The numerator of this expression reduces to [ a b c ].
G3
1
Hence the relation V = AB . OC . |p|. sin 
6 G1 G2
The volume of a tetrahedron whose vertices are the A C
   
points a , b , c , d is the modulus of
1      
[ a – d , b – d , c – d ]. The position vector of the
6
centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv's of its angular
B
    1  
vertices are a , b , c & d are given by ( a + b +
4 Hence V' = volume of tetrahedron GG1 G2 G3
 
c + d ). 1      1 1    V
Note : This is also the point of concurrency of the V' = GG1 GG2 GG3  = 6 . 27 [ a b c ] = 27
6  
lines joining the vertices to the centroids of the opposite
faces and is also called the centre of the tetrahedron.
In case the tetrahedron is regular it is equidistant from SECTION - I
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT
the vertices and the four faces of the tetrahedron.
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT
EXAMPLE 20   
Consider next the cross product of a and b × c , viz.
If a1î  a2 ĵ  a3k̂, b1î  b2 ĵ  b3k̂, c1î  c 2 ĵ  c 3k̂ are three    
P = a × ( b × c ).
mutually perpendicular unit vectors, prove that   
This is a vector perpendicular to both a and b × c .
a1î  b1 ĵ  c1k̂, a2 î  b2 ĵ  c 2k̂, a3 î  b3 ĵ  c 3k̂ are also    
But b × c is normal to the plane of b and c , so that
mutually perpendicular unit vectors. 
SOLUTION P must lie in this plane. It is therefore expressible in
    
Let the three given unit vectors be â , b̂ and ĉ . Since terms of b and c in the form P =  b + m c .

they are mutually perpendicular â . ( b̂ × ĉ ) = 1 To find the actual expression for P consider unit

a1 b1 c1 vectors ĵ and k̂ , the first parallel to b and the second
a1 a2 a3  
 b1 b2 b3 =1  a2 b2 c 2 =1 perpendicular to it in the plane b , c . Then we may
c1 c 2 c 3 a3 b3 c 3  
put b = b1 ĵ , c = c2 ĵ + c3 k̂ .
 a1î  b1 ĵ  c1k̂, a2 î  b2 ĵ  c 2k̂, a3 î  b3 ĵ  c 3k̂ are
In terms of ĵ , k̂ and the other unit vector î of the
mutually perpendicular. 
right-handed system, the remaining vector a may be
  
EXAMPLE 21 written a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ . Then b × c = bc3 î ,
If V be the volume of a tetrahedron & V' be the volume of and the triple product
the tetrahedron formed by the centroids then find the ratio   
a × ( b × c ) = a3b1c3 ĵ – a2b1c3 k̂ = (a2c2 + a3c3) b1 ĵ
of V & V'
     
– a2b1(c2 ĵ + c3 k̂ ) = ( a . c ) b – ( a . b ) c ...(1)

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3.6 Theory and Exercise Book

 SOLUTION
This is the required expression for P in terms of
   
 A vector coplanar with a & b and orthogonal to c is
b and c .
Similarly the triple product parallel to the triple product,
              
(b × c ) × a = –a × (b × c ) (a × b ) × c = (a .c )b – (b .c )a
      Hence
= (a . b )c – (a . c )b . ...(2)

It will be noticed that the expansions (1) and (2) are v = [(–3( î – 2 ĵ + k̂ ) + 3( î + ĵ – 2 k̂ )]
both written down by the same rule. Each scalar
= 9( ĵ – k̂ )
product involves the factor outside the bracket; and
the first is the scalar product of the extremes. 
Projection of v along î – ĵ + k̂ is
In a vector triple product the position of the brackets

cannot be changed without altering the value of the v . ( î  ĵ  k̂ )
   =6 3
product. For ( a × b ) × c is a vector expressible in | î  ĵ  k̂ |
    
terms of a and b ; a × ( b × c ) is one expressible in 9( ĵ – k̂ ).( î – ĵ + k̂ ) = 18 (–1, –1) = 18
 
terms of b and c . The products in general therefore
  = –1 Ans. : 9(– ĵ + k̂ )
represent different vectors.
If a vector r is resolved into two others in the plane of
   EXAMPLE 23
a and r , one parallel to a and the other perpendicular
  ABCD is a tetrahedron with A(–5, 22, 5); B(1, 2, 3);
a.r    
to it, the former is  2 a , and therefore the latter C(4, 3, 2); D(–1, 2, –3). Find AB  (BC  BD) . What can
a
          
a.r (a.a)r  (a.r)a a  (r  a) you say about the values of ( AB  BC)  BD and
 =  = 
a2 a2 a2   
   ( AB  BD)  BC . Calculate the volume of the tetrahedron
Geometrical Interpretation of a  (b  c )
ABCD and the vector area of the triangle AEF where the
  
Consider the expression a  (b  c ) which itself is a quadrilateral ABDE and quadrilateral ABCF are
vector, since it is a cross product of two vectors parallelograms.
     
a & (b  c ) . Now a  (b  c) is a vector perpendicular SOLUTION
     
to the plane containing a & (b  c ) but b × c is a AB   6, 20, 2 
  
vector perpendicular to the plane b & c , therefore BC  3,1, 1
    
a × ( b × c ) is a vector lies in the plane of b & c 
 BD   2, 0, 6 
and perpendicular to a . Hence we can express
           
a × ( b × c ) in terms of b & c i.e. a × ( b × c ) AB  (BC  BD) = 0 ;
 
= x b + y c where x & y are scalars.    
( AB  BC)  BD = 0 ;
Note
            
1. a × ( b × c ) = ( a .c )b – ( a .b ) c ( AB  BD)  BC = 0 ;
        
2. ( a × b ) × c = (a .c )b – (b .c )a   
      Note that AB ; BC ; BD are mutually perpendicular..
3. ( a × b ) × c  a × (b ×c )
6 20 2
1    1 440
SOLVED EXAMPLE Volume = BA BC BD   3 1 1 
6   6 6
2 0 6
EXAMPLE 22
 220
Find a vector v which is coplanar with the vectors = cu. units
3
î + ĵ – 2 k̂ & î – 2 ĵ + k̂ and is orthogonal to the vector
Vector area of triangle AEF

–2 î + ĵ + k̂ . It is given that the projection of v along the
vector î – ĵ + k̂ is equal to 6 3 .

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 Vector 3 .7

   
1   1   r in terms of three other vectors a , b , c in the form
 AF  AE  BC  BD  3 î  10 ĵ  k̂
2 2      
 [r b c]a  [r c a]b  [r ab]c
SECTION - J r  , ...(4)
[ab c]
SCALAR PRODUCT OF 4 VECTORS
  
which is valid except when the denominator [ a b c ]
SCALAR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS
  
The products already considered are usually sufficient vanishes, that is except when a , b , c are coplanar..
for practical applications. But we occasionally meet
with products of four vectors of the following types.
    SOLVED EXAMPLE
Consider the scalar product of a × b and c × d .
This is a number easily expressible in terms of the EXAMPLE 24
scalar products of the individual vectors in a scalar      
triple product the dot and cross may be interchanged, Show that , (b  c )  (c  a)  [a b c ] c and deduce that
we may write       
            [a  b , b  c , c  a]  [a b c ]2 .
( a × b ). ( c × d ) = a . b × ( c × d )= a . (( b . d ) c
           SOLUTION
– ( b . c ) d )= ( a . c ) ( b . d ) – ( a . d ) ( b . c )         
Writing this result in the form of a determinant, we L.H.S. : (b  c )  u  (b . u) c  (c . u) b
      
    a.c
  a.d
 = [b c a] c  0 (u  c  a )
have ( a × b ). ( c × d ) = b.c 
b.d     
Hence (b  c )  (c  a)  [a b c ] c

SECTION - K
VECTOR PRODUCT OF 4 VECTORS
taking dot with a  b  
   
VECTOR PRODUCT OF FOUR VECTORS
 
 a  b  . b  c   c  a   a  b  . a b c  c ,
Consider next the vector product of a × b and       
    [a  b , b  c , c  a]  [a b c ]2
c × d . This is a vector at right angles to a × b , and
 
therefore coplanar with a and b . Similarly it is
 EXAMPLE 25

coplanar with c and d . It must therefore be parallel Show that
     
to the line of intersection of a plane parallel to a and a  ((q  c)  (p  b))
  
b with another parallel to c and d .          
    = b  ((p  c)  (q  a))  c  ((p  a)  (q  b))
To express the product in ( a × b ) × ( c × d ) in terms
  SOLUTION
of a and b , regard it as the vector triple product of consider
     
a , b and m , where m = c × d . Then            
   a  (q  c)  (p  b)  a  (u . b)p  (u . p)b 
       
(a × b) × (c × d) = (a × b) × m
     
      = (a  p). [q c b]  (a  b) . [q c b] ...(1)
= (a . m )b – (b . m )a
        similarly
= [a c d]b – [b c d]a ....(1)               

Similarly, regarding it as the vector product of n , c b  (p  c)  (q  a)   (b  q).[p c a]  (b  a).[p c q]
  
and d , where n = a × b , we may write it ...(2)
             
( a × b ) × ( c × d ) = n × ( c × d ) and c  (p  a)  (q  b)  c  u  v 
              
= ( n . d ) c – ( n . c ) d 
= (c . v ) u  (c . u) v  [c q b] (p  a)  [c p a]  ( q  b)
       
= [a b d]c – [a b c ]d ...(2) ...(3)
Equating these two expressions we have a relation Now (1) – (2) – (3) = 0
   
between the four vectors a , b , c , d viz.
               
[b c d]a – [a c d]b + [a b d]c – [a b c ]d = 0
...(3)

Writing r instead of d , we may express any vector

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3.8 Theory and Exercise Book

VECTOR EQUATIONS EXAMPLE 30

EXAMPLE 26     
    Solve the vector equation in x : x  x  a  b .
Solve the equation x × a = b , ( a . b = 0). SOLUTION
    
SOLUTION Taking dot with a x.a  b.a ....(1)
From the vector product of each member with a, and 
     Taking cross with a
obtain a 2 x – ( a . x ) a = a × b .       
The general solution, with  as parameter, is x  a  ( x  a)  a  b  a ....(2)
    2          
x = a + a × b /a . b  x  ( x . a ) a  (a . a ) z  b  a
        
EXAMPLE 27 (b  a(b.a)  b  a  x (1  a.a)
  
Solve the simultaneous equations p x + q y = a , x × y  1      
  
= b , ( a . b = 0).
 x
1  a.a

  b  (a.b)a  a  b 
SOLUTION EXAMPLE 31
Multiply the first vectorially by x , and substitute for 
Express a vector R as a linear combination of a vector
    
x × y from the second. A and another perpendicular to A and coplanar with R
      
x  a  px  x  qx  y and A .
   
x  a  qx  y SOLUTION
     
Then q b = x × a , which is of the same form as the A × ( A × R ) is a vector perpendicular to A and
  
equation in the preceding example. Thus x =  a + coplanar with A and R .
   Hence let,
q a × b / a 2.     
 R = A + A × (A × R) ...(1)
Substitution of this value in the first equation gives y .     
taking dot with A , R . A =  A . A
EXAMPLE 28  
    R.A
Solve x × a + ( x . b ) c = d ....(i)  =  
A.A
SOLUTION again taking cross with
     
Multiply scalarly by a . Then ( x . b )( a . c ) = a . d .      
 R × A = [ A × ( A × R )] × A
Substitute for x . b in (i) and obtain         
R × A = [( A . R ) A – ( A . A )R ] × A
            
x × a = d – ( a . d ) c / a . c = a × ( d × c )/ a . c .       1
        2 R × A = – ( A . A ) ( R × A ) = –  
x =  a + a × ( a × ( d × c )) / ( a . c ) a . A.A
 
  R. A   1   
EXAMPLE 29 Hence R =     A –   A × ( A × R )]

         A.A  A . A
If A  B  a , A . a  1 and A  B  b then prove that
   
 CONDITION OF INTERSECTION OF TWO
 a  b  a 
and B =

b  a  a | a |2 1  STRAIGHT LINES
A  
| a |2 | a |2
Let the equations of the given straight lines be
    
SOLUTION r = a + t b , r = a ' + s b ', so that they pass through
          
A  B  a taking dot with a a .B  | a |2 1 ...(1) the points a , a ' and are parallel to b , b ' respectively..
  
A  B  b taking cross with If they intersect, their common plane must be parallel
   
          2     to each of the vectors b , b ', a – a ', whose scalar
     
a a.B A  a. A B  a  b | a | 1 A  B  a  b
triple product is therefore zero. Hence the required
...(2)    
   condition is [ b , b ', a – a '] = 0
Solving (2) and A  B  a simultaneously we get the
desired result.

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 Vector 3 .9

THE COMMON PERPENDICULAR TO TWO SECTION -L

MIXED PROBLEMS
SKEW LINES
Let the equation of the two straight lines be LINEAR COMBINATIONS
    
    Given a finite set of vectors a, b, c,......... . then the
r = a + tb ; r = a ' + sb '    
 
Then the vector n = b × b ' is perpendicular to both vector r  xa  yb  zc  .......... is called a linear
  
lines, and therefore parallel to their common combination of vectors a, b, c,......... . for any x, y, z
  ........  R. We have the following results :
perpendicular P'P. If A, A' are the points a , a '  
respectively, the length p of this common perpendiuclar 1. If a, b are non zero., non-collinear vectors and
   
is equal to the length of the projection of A'A on n . xa  yb  x' a  y' b  x = x' ; y = y'
    
n.(a  a') 1    2. Fundamental Theorem : Let a, b be non zero,
Hence p =  [ b , b ', a – a '] 
n n non collinear vectors. Then any vector r coplanar
The equation of the plane containing the first line and  
with a, b can be expressed uniquely as a linear
the common perpendicular to the two lines is  
    combination of a, b i.e. There exist some unique
[ r – a ', b ', b × b '] = 0. The point P' is that in which   
the second line meets this plane. Similarly the equation x, y  R such that xa  yb  r .

of the plane containing the second line and the common 3. If a, b, c are non-zero, non-coplanar vectors then :
   
perpendicular is [ r – a ', b ', b × b '] = 0. These two      
xa  yb  zc  x' a  y' b  z' c  x=x' , y=y' , z=z'
planes determine the line P'P.   
4. Fundamental Theorem In Space : Let a, b, c
A
P
be non-zero, non-coplanar vectors in space. Then

any vector r , can be uniquely expressed as a
b   
linear combination of a, b, c i.e. There exist some
b'    
P' unique x, y, z  R such that xa  yb  zc  r .
A'   
5. If x1, x 2 ,......... ...xn are n non zero vectors, & k1,
EXAMPLE 32 k 2 ,........... k n are n scalars & if the linear
   
Find the shortest distance between the straight lines through combination k1x1  k 2 x2  ..........knxn  0 and
the points A(6, 2, 2) and A'(–4, 0, –1) in the direction k1 = 0, k2 = 0.............kn = 0 then we say that
(1, –2, 2) and (3, –2, –2) respectively. Also find the feet, P   
and P', of the common perpendicular. vectors x1x 2 .......... xn are Linearly Independent
Vectors.
SOLUTION   
  6. If x1x 2 ..........xn are not Linearly Independent
In this case b × b ' = 4(2, 2, 1), and the unit vector in
then they are said to be Linearly Dependent
this direction is (2, 2, 1)/3. The shortest distance is the    
projection of A'A on this direction, so that vectors. i.e. if k1x1  k 2 x2  ..........knxn  0 & if
p = (10, 2, 3). (2, 2, 1)/3 = 27/3 = 9. The pair of skew   
there exists at least one kr  0 then x1,x2,..........,xn
lines is therefore right-handed. The equation of the are said to be Linearly Dependent.
plane APP' is 2x – y – 2z = 6; and the second line Note 1
meets this in the point P' (–1, –2, –3). Shown similarly If kr  0 ;
that P is the point (5, 4, 0). Also show that the moment      
about either line, of a unit vector localized in the other, k1x1  k2 x2  k3x3  ..........  kr xr  .........  kn xn  0
     
is 36/ 17 . – k r x r  k1 x1  k 2 x 2  ...  k r 1 .x r 1  k r 1 .x r 1  ....  k n x n
1  1  1  1  1 
– kr x  k1 x1  k 2 x2  .........  kr 1 . xr 1  ..........  kn xn
kr r kr kr kr kr
     
x r  c1x 1  c 2 x 2  .......... ..  c r 1x r 1  c 1x r 1  .......... ....  c n x n

i.e. x r is expressed as a linear combination of vectors.
    
x1 , x 2 .......... ..x r 1, x r 1.......... .... x n

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3.10 Theory and Exercise Book

       + 3m + 2n = 0,
Hence x r with x1, x 2 .......... ..x r 1, x r 1.......... .... x n
2  + 2m + 2n = 0,
forms a linearly dependent set of vectors. 5  + m + 3n = 0
Note 2 or,  + m + n + 2m + n = 0  2( + m + n) = 0,
 
1. If a = 3 î + 2 ĵ + 5 k̂ then a is expressed as a ( + m + n) + 4 + 2n = 0
 or, 2m + n = 0, 4 + 2n = 0 from (ii) or,
Linear Combination of vectors î , ĵ , k̂ . Also, a ,
1 1
= n, m = n which satisfy (ii)
î , ĵ , k̂ form a linearly dependent set of vectors. 2 2
In general, every set of four vectors is a linearly Hence the condition of collinearly (i) and (ii) are
dependent system. satisfied. Hence the given points are collinear.
2. î , ĵ , k̂ are Linearly Independent set of vectors.
For K1i + K2j + K3k = 0  K1 = 0 = K2 = K3. EXAMPLE 34
          
3. Two vectors a & b are linearly dependent Examine if i  3 j  2k, 2 i  4 j  k and 3 i  2 j  k are
    linearly independent or dependent.
 a is parallel to b i.e. a  b  0
  SOLUTION
 linear dependence of a & b . Conversely if
If the vectors are linearly dependent,
 
a  b  0 , then the vectors are linearly   
   
 
 i  3 j  2k + m 2 i  4 j  k + n 3 i  2 j  k  0
 
 
independent. Where , m, n are scalars not all zero.
  
4. If three vectors a, b, c are linearly dependent, then   + 2m + 3n = 0 ...(i),
   –3 – 4m + 2n = 0 ...(ii),
they are coplanar i.e. [ a, b, c ] = 0,
2 – m – n = 0 ...(iii)
  
conversely, if [ a, b, c ]  0, then the vectors are from (i) and (ii)
linearly independent.  m n
 = = = k say
16 11 2
SOLVED EXAMPLE
  = 16k, m = –11k, n = 2k
These , m, n do not satisfy (iii) and hence the given
EXAMPLE 33 system is linearly independent.
Show that the points whose position vectors are
        
a  2b  5c, 3a  2b  c, 2a  2b  3c are collinear..
SOLUTION
Let the given points be A, B, C and O be the point of
reference.
     
Then OA  a  2b  5c, OB  3a  2b  c
  
and OC  2a  2b  3c
Let us assume that l, m, n be three scalar quantities,
such that  OA  mOB  nOC ...(i)
where  + m + n = 0 ...(ii)
Now
         
 (a  2b  5c)  m(3a  2b  c)  n(2a  2b  3c)  0
  
= 0a  0b  0c .
  
Comparing the coefficients of a, b, c on both sides,
we get

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