FMDS0300

FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet
HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
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Table of Contents
1.0 SCOPE......................................................................... 3 1.1 Changes ..................................................................... 3 1.2 Superseded Information ...................................................... 3 2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS............................................... 3 2.1 Protection .................................................................. 3 2.1.1 Hydraulics of Water Supplies for Automatic Sprinkler Systems ............ 3 2.1.2 Hydraulics of Automatic Sprinkler Systems .............................. 17 3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................. 40 3.1 Bernoullis Theorem and Applications ....................................... 40 3.2 Hazen-Williams Formula ..................................................... 45 3.3 Pressure Loss at Fittings .................................................. 46 3.4 Discharge from Nozzles ..................................................... 46 3.5 Discharge Coefficient ...................................................... 46 3.6 Theoretical Discharge ...................................................... 47 3.7 Nozzle K Factor ............................................................ 47 4.0 REFERENCES................................................................... 49 4.1 FM Global .................................................................. 49 4.2 Others ..................................................................... 49 APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS..................................................... 49 APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY............................................. 49 APPENDIX C HYDRAULIC TABLES...................................................... 50 APPENDIX D FORMS................................................................. 63
List of Figures
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Profile of a hydraulic gradient test per Example No. 1................... Moody Diagram (Courtesy ASME)............................................ Relationships between various hydraulic factors in typical piping........ Discharge Coefficients for three common hydrant outlets.................. Water Supply Graph N1.85 .................................................. Form 295 Hydraulic Calculations (front).................................. Form 295 Hydraulic Calculations (back)................................... 13 35 44 52 63 64 65
List of Tables
Table Table Table Table Table 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Data for Hydraulic Gradient Example No. 1............................... Values of FC for Corresponding Values of C .............................. Hazen-Williams Pipe Coefficients for Underground Pipe Use............... Discharge Coefficients of Typical Orifices and Nozzles.................. Values of K for Various Discharge Orifices.............................. 14 50 51 52 53
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Table 6. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices up to 2 in. (50 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures up to 40 psi (2.8 bar)................................................. 54 Table 7 Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices up to 2 in. (50 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 40 psi (2.8 bar) and up to 70 psi (4.8 bar)....................... 55 Table 11. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices Over 2 in. (50 mm) and up to 4-1/2 in. (114 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 70 psi (4.8 bar) and up to 100 psi (6.9 bar) ................................................................................. 59 Table 12. Equivalent Pipe Length Table, ft (C=120)............................... 60 Table 12(a). Equivalent Pipe Length Table, m (C=120)............................. 61 Table 13. Adjustment Multiplier for Tables 12 and 12(a).......................... 62
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1.0 SCOPE Automatic sprinklers with adequate water supplies are the best form of protection for most fire hazards. To determine the most economical means of installing a sprinkler system for a given location, both the automatic sprinkler system and the water supply available for that sprinkler system must be hydraulically analyzed. Therefore, in order to properly design and analyze an automatic sprinkler system, knowledge of water flow and energy losses within the piping network is required.
This data sheet provides guidance for determining: the hydraulic demands of an automatic sprinkler system, whether proposed or existing, at a given reference point. the available water supply, whether proposed or existing, at a given reference point.
Together, these two factors are used to determine whether the hydraulics of an automatic sprinkler system can provide an acceptable level of protection for a given hazard.
This data sheet does not provide guidance on how to determine the physical layout of sprinkler systems or water supplies.
1.1 Changes March 2010. This data sheet has been rewritten and reformatted. Text from the previous version of this data sheet has been combined with text from obsolete Data Sheet 2-8N, NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 1996 Edition.
1.2 Superseded Information This data sheet supersedes Data Sheet 2-8N, NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 1996 Edition.
2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 Protection 2.1.1 Hydraulics of Water Supplies for Automatic Sprinkler Systems 2.1.1.1 Introduction In order to properly analyze an automatic sprinkler system, the available water supply for that system must be thoroughly understood. This data sheet will provide
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guidance on determining the water supply available at a given reference point, called the base of the sprinkler riser (BOR), for the purpose of analyzing the adequacy of a sprinkler system. To determine the water supply available at the BOR, the following basic steps are taken: 1. Gain a thorough understanding of the type of water supply available. If it is a public supply, visit the water department and obtain details regarding the piping network and the means by which water is delivered, as well as permission to test the supply. Previous test results are usually on file and can be useful for planning the water supply test. 2. Gain a thorough understanding of the underground piping, including length, diameter, material, internal lining (if applicable), roughness coefficient, and approximate age of the pipe. Test the water supply to determine the flow and pressure available at the tests Effective Point. Make adjustments, as needed, for any elevation difference between the residual pressure gauge and the Effective Point. Perform a friction loss analysis between the Effective Point and the BOR. Make adjustments, as needed, for any elevation difference between the Effective Point and the BOR.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Once the water supply available at the BOR has been determined, it can be compared to the flow and pressure required of an existing sprinkler system, or used to determine the piping layout of a proposed sprinkler system. For the purpose of analyzing the flow and pressure available from a water supply, round flow values to the nearest 10 gpm, and pressure values to the nearest whole number for psi (for SI units, round flow values to the nearest 50 L/min and pressure values to the nearest tenth of a bar).
2.1.1.2 The Purpose of Water Supply Testing There are several reasons for flow-testing water supplies: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Flow available to a given area can be compared with demands specified in existing standards. Fire pumps and drivers are subject to numerous malfunctions that can be discovered and promptly corrected. Closed valves and other obstructions become apparent. Water supply deterioration can be detected. The potential training needs of facility personnel regarding the use of the fire protection system can be assessed. Although not the intention of a water supply test, occasionally weak spots in the underground piping network will fail during a water supply test involving high-pressure systems, such as those fed by fire pumps. Although it is undesirable to have a failure involving the water supply piping, it is 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

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far better to discover and repair these types of conditions than to have it occur during a fire event.
2.1.1.3 Precautions to Consider When Conducting Water Supply Testing Ensure qualified personnel direct flow tests because property damage can result from improperly conducted tests. The following are some of the more common problems that can arise: 1. 2. Improperly secured nozzles or hydrant caps can work loose. Excessive flows may draw vacuums in high buildings and in hilly country, possibly contaminating water supplies, damaging boilers, and interrupting industrial processes. Avoid reducing pressure in public mains below 20 psi (1.38 bar). Local flooding at low spots, such as truck docks, basements, pits, tunnels, etc., is possible. Water damage can occur to storage if it is located outdoors or in low-lying buildings where water can flow through doorways. High-voltage electrical equipment can be shorted by solid hose streams. Note that spray from fire protection equipment avoids this problem. Rapid valve operation results in water hammer, which can rupture piping and damage sprinkler equipment.
3. 4. 5. 6.
When using fire hoses, secure the nozzles to substantial supports such as posts, trees, or deeply driven stakes; never hold fire hoses by hand during a water supply test. When fire hoses are not available and waterflow from hydrants or pump headers must be redirected to avoid damage, use elbows and piping with adapters from hose thread to pipe thread. Ensure pipe downstream from elbows is at least ten diameters long to obtain smooth flow. If Pitot pressures are erratic or higher at orifice edges than at centers, provide piping downstream of the nearest elbow that is long enough to allow for steady Pitot pressure readings. Avoid the hazards outlined above by creating, prior to the test, a documented plan that outlines the steps needed for testing the water supply.
2.1.1.4 Planning for a Water Supply Test Before conducting a water supply test, plan a course of action that includes: Where to flow water Which hydrants or similar devices will be used Where to take pressure readings Which valve-operating sequence to use, if necessary
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The expected results of the test Notifying the appropriate people of the test Returning all water supplies to their normal operating condition
The intent of a water supply test is to determine the relationship between the flow and pressure available from a water supply (or supplies) that is being used to protect a facility equipped with automatic sprinklers. It is important to understand this relationship up to and including the largest required system flow (i.e., ceiling-level sprinklers, in-rack sprinklers, and hose demand) at the facility. Therefore, choose a sufficient number of hydrants, or other flowing devices, to achieve this flow demand and ensure water discharge from them will not result in damage (see Section 2.1.1.3). When possible, equip all flowing devices with discharge nozzles. When hydrants are used, ensure all hydrant caps are tightly secured before allowing water into the hydrant. Based on the location of the flowing devices, determine the best place to take the static and residual pressure readings. In general, this is at the pressure gauge located closest to the Effective Point of the test. Always attempt to arrange the Effective Point of the test to be as close as possible to the sprinkler system with the highest flow and pressure requirement. To avoid false pressure readings, ensure there are no check valves or shut valves in the underground piping between the flowing devices and the point where pressure readings are being taken. If a water supply source uses a storage tank, such as a fire pump and tank, ensure the tank is full prior to testing. If there is more than one water supply source for a facilitys automatic sprinkler system, first test each source individually, then, as a final step, conduct a water supply test with all water supply sources in service. Always maintain at least one water source in service at all times. Testing multiple sources will require the isolation of water closing control valves. To help identify the best method for individually and the valve closure sequencing for it, create sketch of the facilitys underground pipe network, the water it, and the valves that will be used for isolation. supply sources by testing each source a simple (free-hand) supply sources feeding
Create a written procedure that identifies the sequence of water sources to be tested and the valves that need to be closed for each test. Once a test of an individual water supply source has been completed, verify that all valves that were closed for the test have been reopened prior to the start of the next water supply test. Use the FM Global Red Tag Permit System for monitoring all valve closures. Before conducting a water supply test, determine the theoretical results of the test. Once the test has been conducted, compare the theoretical results to the actual results. If the actual results do not compare well with the theoretical results, determine the reason for this. See Section 2.1.1.7, as needed, regarding

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the use of hydraulic gradient testing to pinpoint areas within the underground piping network that may be causing larger than expected pressure reduction. Check for local regulations that may affect planning. For example, if may be necessary to notify the public water service and/or fire service before conducting a water supply test, even if the water source is from a private water supply system. In addition, if there are alarms that could activate as a result of the water supply test, notify the appropriate personnel prior to the start of the test, as well as after the test has been completed. If the water supply test will determine the FM Global index number of the local FM Global if any valves have to be shut guidelines outlined in the FM be conducted at an FM Global client location, number for the facility as well as the telephone servicing office. Notify the local servicing office during the water supply test and follow the Global Red Tag Permit System.
If the water supply test involves a public water system, do the following: 1. 2. 3. If the public water system is direct or intermittent pumping, determine the facilities that are in operation during the test. If the public water system includes elevated storage, conduct the test with the pumps shut down if possible. If the public water system is equipped with sources that will, or could, become active when higher flow rates are experienced, arrange the test to activate these sources (if possible), and determine (a) notification required, (b) time required to obtain service, and (c) facilities in operation. Check for pressure-regulating valves. Check for variations in operating procedures from day to night or from summer to winter.
4. 5.
2.1.1.5 Testing Water Supplies 2.1.1.5.1 Equipment Needed for Water Supply Tests Conducting a water supply test requires, at a minimum, the following equipment: A device, or devices, from which to flow water A Pitot tube or similar device for measuring the Pitot pressure of the flowing water A device with which to read the static and residual pressures A calibrated pressure gauge equipped with an appropriate scale for the anticipated pressures
2.1.1.5.1.1 Common Devices for Flowing Water The most common devices used for flowing water during a water supply test are fire hydrants and fire pump test headers. Water can be flowed from hydrant butts with or without attached nozzles. To flow water from a test header, a fire hose is commonly
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required to run the water to a safe discharge location. A nozzle is attached to the fire hose through which flow is discharged. The exact diameter size and discharge coefficient of the orifice nozzle through which water is flowing must be known in order to determine the waterflow rate during a water supply test. 2.1.1.5.1.2 Determining Waterflow Through an Open Orifice Waterflow from an open orifice with a known discharge coefficient is determined by measuring the velocity pressure of the water stream, also referred to as the Pitot pressure, using a Pitot tube. To obtain an accurate reading of the Pitot pressure, hold the end of the Pitot tube with the open orifice firmly in the center of the water jet. Hold the knife edge directly against the nozzle end with the blade at right angles to the nozzle axis.
The pitot pressure that is read from the Pitot tube is then converted to a corresponding waterflow rate either by using Equation 1 or by using Tables 6 through 11 in combination with the appropriate nozzle discharge coefficient (see Table 4 for typical nozzle discharge coefficient values). Avoid Pitot readings under 10 psi (0.69 bar) whenever possible by reducing the size or number of orifices discharging water during the test. The flow from an open orifice can be determined using the following equation: Q = (a) x (c) x (d)2 x (PV)0.5 (Equation 1)
where: Q is the waterflow rate through the open orifice, gpm (L/min). a is the conversion constant; use 29.8 when PV is in psi or 0.666 when PV is in bar. c is the orifice discharge coefficient (usually stamped on nozzle or orifice; otherwise see Table 4 for typical values). d is the diameter of open orifice, in. (mm). PV is the velocity pressure or Pitot pressure, psi (bar).
If a nozzle or orifice opening is not stamped with its discharge coefficient, see Table 4 for values of typical nozzles and orifices used for water supply testing. See Figure 4 if the open orifice is a hydrant butt without an attached discharge nozzle. Tables 6 through 11 provide values for Q from Equation 1 with the discharge coefficient set to a value of 1.00. The tables can be used to obtain the actual flow from the orifice opening by simply multiplying the value obtained from the table by the orifice discharge coefficient. For Pitot pressure values higher than 100 psi (6.9 bar), use Equation 1.

2.1.1.5.1.3 Static and Residual Pressure Readings
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During the test, the static and residual pressures are read from a pressure gauge. Common devices on which pressure gauges are mounted include fire pumps, sprinkler risers, and non-flowing hydrants. 2.1.1.5.2 Water Supply Test Procedure The following is the general procedure for testing a water supply. 1. Create a documented plan for the water supply test (as outlined in Section 2.1.1.4) prior to conducting the test. 2. Notify all required parties, such as any central station, proprietary supervisory service, public fire service, or water department, of the proposed water supply test. Using the FM Global Red Tag Permit System, isolate as needed the desired water supply source and/or section of the underground piping network to be tested. Read and record the static pressure. Ensure the devices chosen for flowing water will not result in damage. See Section 2.1.1.3 for additional guidance. Document the orifice diameter and discharge coefficient of each flowing device. Fully open the valve on the flowing device; ensure water discharge is not creating damage. Read and record the residual pressure once the pressure has stabilized (depending on the water supply, this may take a minute or two). Read and record the Pitot pressure at each flow opening.
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. Slowly close the valves of all flowing devices. 11. Record the static pressure. 12. Convert the Pitot pressure readings into flows using either Tables 6 through 11 or Equation 1. 13. Plot the results of the test on N1.85 graph paper (as outlined in Section 2.1.1.6) and compare to the anticipated results.
If the actual test results do not compare well with the anticipated test results, determine what might be causing the difference. In a case where the actual test results are much lower than the anticipated results, a hydraulic gradient, as outlined in Section 2.1.1.7, can be used to determine where excessive pressure loss is occurring within the underground piping network that has been tested. If the actual test results do compare well with the anticipated test results, reopen any closed valves and then proceed with the next water supply source and/or section of the underground piping network to be tested, as outlined above in Step 3.
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Continue this process until all water supply sources and all sections of the underground piping network have been tested. Once water supply testing has been completed, proceed as follows: 1. Dismantle the test setup and ensure all hydrant caps have been secured tightly in place. 2. Using the FM Global Red Tag Permit System, ensure all water supply control valves are returned to their normal, fully opened and locked/sealed condition. Refill any gravity and/or suction tanks that were used during the test. Ensure all fire pumps are placed in their normal automatic operating condition. Notify all required parties that the testing has been completed and determine if any waterflow and/or valve tamper alarms were received as a result of the test procedure.
3. 4. 5.
2.1.1.6 Graphical Representation of a Water Supply Test 2.1.1.6.1 Graphical Representation of the Water Supply Available at the Effective Point The results of a water supply test can be used to graphically demonstrate the water supply available at any flow and pressure at the Effective Point of the water supply test.
For a simple public water supply, the water supply available at the Effective Point of a water supply test is represented by plotting the following two points obtained from the water supply test: Static pressure, psi (bar) Residual pressure at measured flow rate, psi @ gpm (bar @ L/min)
For more complex public supply systems, such as those with intermittent pumping or sources that could become active when higher flow rates are experienced, more than one residual pressure is needed to produce an accurate graphical representation of the water supply available.
For a typical fire pump supply, the water supply available at the Effective Point of a water supply test is represented by plotting, at a minimum, the following three points obtained from the water supply test: Churn pressure, psi (bar) Residual pressure at 100% of fire pumps rated flow, psi @ gpm (bar @ L/min) Residual pressure at 150% of fire pumps rated flow, psi @ gpm (bar @ L/min)
The static pressure in combination with the residual pressures and their corresponding flows, as outlined above, represents the water supply available at

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the Effective Point when there is no elevation difference between the Effective Point and the pressure gauge where the static and residual pressures are read.
If there is an elevation difference between the water supplys Effective Point and the pressure gauge, adjust both the static and residual readings to account for this elevation difference using Equation 2 as follows:
PE = (h) x 0.433 psi/ft (0.098 bar/m), when h is in feet (meters) (Equation 2)
where: PE is the pressure due to elevation, psi (bar).
If the Effective Point of the water supply test is located at a lower elevation than the pressure gauge used to measure the static and residual pressure readings, add the value of PE to both the static and residual pressure readings obtained during the water supply test. Subtract the value of PE from both the static and residual pressures if the Effective Point of the water supply test is located at a higher elevation than the pressure gauge used to measure the static and residual pressure readings. The results of water supply tests are graphically shown on N1.85 graph paper using the static pressure (at static flow conditions) and all of the residual pressures at their corresponding flow values. The y-axis of the N1.85 graph paper is used to represent the various values of pressure whereas the x-axis of the N1.85 graph paper is used to represent the various values of flow. This graph can then be used to determine the pressure available at any given flow and vise versa.
2.1.1.6.2 Theoretical Results of Water Supply Test at Locations Other Than the Effective Point The results of a water supply test are applicable at the tests Effective Point and can be graphically represented on N1.85 graph paper as outlined in Section 2.1.1.6.1. However, for sprinkler system analysis purposes, the results of the water supply test at the Effective Point need to be recalculated (or relocated) so they represent the theoretical supply that is available at the sprinkler systems base of riser (BOR).
The method for relocating the results of a water supply test from the Effective Point to another point within the water supplys piping network, such as the BOR, is accomplished graphically on N1.85 graph paper as follows: 1. 2. Graphically plot the results of the Effective Point on N1.85 graph paper as outlined in Section 2.1.1.6.1. Create a friction loss curve that represents the pressure loss (or gain) due to friction incurred between the Effective Point of the water supply test and the point in the piping network that the water supply test is being relocated to (such as the BOR). Plot this friction loss curve on the same
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N1.85 graph paper that contains the water supply available at the Effective Point.
3. 4.
Subtract (or add) the friction loss curve from the curve representing the water supply available at the Effective Point. Adjust the water supply curve obtained from Step 3 for any elevation difference that exists between the Effective Point and the point in the piping network that the water supply test is being relocated to.
Note that if the is closer to the will represent a being moved to a will represent a
test results are being moved to a point in the piping network that water source than the Effective Point, the friction loss curve gain in the residual pressures available. If the test results are point further away from the water source, the friction loss curve loss in the residual pressures available.
The water supply curve obtained from Step 4 above is the theoretical water supply available at the point in the piping network that the water supply test is being relocated to.
Once the water supply theoretically available at a sprinkler systems BOR has been determined, it can be compared to the required flow and pressure of the sprinkler system as outlined in Section 2.1.2.4.5.
2.1.1.7 Troubleshooting Water Supplies Via a Hydraulic Gradient Test If the residual pressure values from a water supply test are unexpectedly low, there may be several reasons to account for this, including: partly closed valves, pipes with excessive tuberculation, obstructions within the pipe, and potentially pipe size errors on plans depicting the underground piping network.
When the results from a water supply are unexpectedly low and no longer provide an acceptable level of flow and pressure for an automatic sprinkler system, conduct a hydraulic gradient test to identify the segment of the underground piping network where unexpectedly high pressure loss is occurring.
The following are needed in order to conduct a hydraulic gradient test: Single path flow through the section of underground piping where excessive pressure drop is taking place Several places where static and residual pressure readings can be taken A flowing device that allows for relatively high flow rates

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An understanding of the underground piping network, including pipe diameter, length of pipe between pressure reading stations and where any tees, crosses, bends, valves or meters within the piping network may be located
After the testing has been completed, tabulate the data as demonstrated in Table 1 and plot the gradient profile as demonstrated in Figure 24 to determine where the significant unexpected pressure drops occur. Recommend appropriate action to rectify the situation.
An example (Example No. 1) of a hydraulic gradient is provided in Figure 1.
Fig. 1. Profile of a hydraulic gradient test per Example No. 1 For this example, water is in a single-path flow from a source to the left of Hydrant A and flowing at a location to the right of Hydrant E. Static and residual pressure readings are taken at Hydrants A, B, C, D and E and are labeled as stations. The distance between each pressure station is determined as is the internal pipe diameter between each station.
The data from the hydraulic gradient test is collected and presented in Table 1.
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Table 1. Data for Hydraulic Gradient Example No. 1
The results of the hydraulic gradient indicate the pressure drop between Stations A to B, C to D and D to E are close to the anticipated value; however, the pressure drop between Stations B to C is unexpectedly high. Therefore, the recommendation would be to determine the reason for this high pressure drop and take appropriate steps to mitigate this cause.
For this specific example, the cause of the high pressure drop is due to tuberculation of the pipe segment between Stations B and C. The easiest means to mitigate the cause is to replace the affected section of pipe with new pipe having the same pipe diameter. However, because the adjacent segment of pipe is relatively short and is only 6 in. (150 mm) in diameter, the recommendation included replacing this segment of pipe as well with new 8 in. (200 mm) pipe. Based on theoretical calculations, implementation of this recommendation would result in an increase of roughly 34 psi (2.35 bar) at a flow of 1,000 gpm (3,785 L/min).
Explanation of columns in Table 1: Columns 1 through 6: Column 7: Column 8: Data collected prior to as well as during the hydraulic gradient test
Obtained by subtracting Column 5 from Column 4 Obtained by subtracting the Column No. 7 value in Row N from the Column No. 7 value in Row N + 1 (i.e. subtract Column No. 7 value for Row Station A from the Column No. 7 value for Row Station B) Obtained by dividing Column No. 8 by Column No. 2 Obtained by dividing Column No. 9 by the value obtained from Data Sheet 2-89 for the given flow, pipe diameter and Hazen-Williams coefficient. Note, if there are tees, crosses, bends, valves, or meters in the pipe segment being tested, obtain the pressure loss in these devices from Data Sheet 2-89 and deduct it from the observed drop in pressure before calculating the coefficient for the given pipe segment.
Column 9: Column 10:

Column 11:
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Obtained by using the value from Column No. 10 and matching it to the C value in Table 1 based on the expected C value listed in Column No. 4 Obtained by subtracting Column No. 5 from the largest value listed in Column No. 5
Column 12:
Column 13, Given: Obtained by adding Column Nos. 6 and 12 Column 13, Proposed: Obtained by determining the expected pressure drop from station to station once proposed changes/recommendations have been implemented
For this example, a total flow of 1,000 gpm (3,785 L/min) is being discharged from a location to the right of the hydrant shown at Station E. The static and residual pressures are read at each of the hydrants shown at Stations A, B, C, D and E with the results indicated in Table 1.
Columns 1 through 6 in Table 1 include data that is either obtained from conditions that exist prior to or are obtained during the hydraulic gradient test.
Column 7 contains the results of subtracting Column Nos. 6 from 5. In this example, at Station A the value is based on subtracting a residual pressure of 71 psi (4.90 bar) from a static pressure of 81 psi (5.59 bar) to obtain the indicated value of 10 psi (0.69 bar).
Column 8 contains the results of subtracting the values indicated in Column No. 6 from one row to the next. In this example, at Station B the value is based on subtracting a pressure differential value of 10 psi (0.69 bar) obtained at Station A from the value of 20 psi (1.38 bar) obtained at Station B to obtain the indicated value of 10 psi (0.69 bar).
Column 9 contains the results of dividing the values indicated in Column No. 8 by the values indicated in Column No. 2. For this example, at Station B the value is based on dividing 10 psi (0.69 bar) by 910 ft (277 m) to obtain the indicated value of 0.011 psi/ft (0.00249 bar/m).
Column 10 contains the results of dividing the values indicated in Column No. 9 by the corresponding values in Data Sheet 2-89. In this example the pipe between Station A and Station B is addressed in Table 9 of Data Sheet 2-89. For a flow of 1,000 gpm (3,785 L/min) and an internal pipe diameter of 8 in. (200 mm), the expected pressure drop per unit length is 0.011 psi/ft (0.00249 bar/m). Therefore, the value obtained for Column No. 10 in this example is based on dividing 0.011 psi/ft (0.00249 bar/m) by 0.011 psi/ft (0.00249 bar/m), which is 1.0.
Column 11 indicates the observed Hazen-Williams C value for the pipe segment based on the results of the hydraulic gradient test. It is obtained by using the value obtained for FC from Column No. 10 and converting it to an equivalent Hazen Williams C value indicated in Table 1. In this example at Station C, the FC value of 3.6 results in a Hazen Williams C value of approximately 50.
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Column 12 contains the difference in static pressure values between the highest static pressure observed and those at each station. For this example the highest static pressure observed was 85 psi (5.86 bar) at Station D, therefore the values in Column No. 12 are simply the indicated static pressures subtracted from a value of 85 psi (5.86 bar).
Column 13 (Given) contains the results of adding Column Nos. 6 and 12. For this example, at Station A the value is based on adding 71 psi (4.90 bar) and 4 psi (0.28 bar) to obtain the indicated value of 75 psi (5.17 bar).
Column 13 (Proposed) contains the results of using the appropriate value of pressure loss per unit length, based on the recommendation offered, multiplied by the value listed in Column No. 2 and subtracted from the row above it. For this example, the recommendation is to replace the existing 8 in. (200 mm) segment of pipe between Stations B and C as well as the existing 6 in. (150 mm) segment of pipe between Stations C and D with new 8 in. (200 mm) pipe, which would have a Hazen Williams C value of 140. From Table 13 of Data Sheet 2-89, the pressure drop per unit length of pipe is 0.0068 psi/ft (0.00154 bar/m) resulting in a pressure drop of 3.4 psi (0.23 bar) between Stations B and C and a pressure drop of 3.0 psi (0.21 bar) between Stations C and D. Therefore, the values in this column become 61.4 psi (4.25 bar) at Station C based on subtracting 3.4 psi (0.23 bar) from the pressure indicated at Station B, which is 65 psi (4.48 bar).
Items to consider during a hydraulic gradient test include: 1. Tests of private mains usually are made on much shorter runs of pipe than tests of public mains. In order to reduce the number of tests, choose mains that are typical of the age and probable condition of the system. 2. Where obstructions are suspected, investigate that portion of the yard system. Ensure heavy flow is induced through the test section to drop pressure from station to station as much as possible, reducing effects of fluctuating pressure or small inaccuracies in gauge readings. 3. Static pressure readings from sources such as gravity tanks or private reservoirs indicate true static pressures, provided there is no facility-use draft or significant leakage. However, static pressure readings from public water supply sources are actually residual pressures and trace combinations of elevation and normal gradient instead of elevation alone. Because of this, if it is important that very accurate readings are needed, determine when the normal draft from the supply is at a minimum and arrange for the hydraulic gradient test at that time. Otherwise, determine relative gauge elevations from topographic maps, municipal survey data, or (with caution) simply by observation.

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2.1.2 Hydraulics of Automatic Sprinkler Systems 2.1.2.1 Determining the Occupancy Hazard The first step in the installation and/or hydraulic evaluation of any automatic sprinkler system is the thorough understanding of the highest hazard that is to be protected by the sprinkler system. Once this level of hazard has been established, the required protection design for the sprinkler system can be determined using the applicable occupancy-specific data sheet. For example, the occupancy-specific data sheet may be Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection Water Demand for Nonstorage Sprinklered Properties, for a typical office or manufacturing occupancy; or it could be Data Sheet 8-9, Protection of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic Commodities, for a typical warehouse occupancy. Consult the Index of Data Sheets to determine the most appropriate occupancy-specific data sheet for the hazard being protected.
The hydraulic analysis of an automatic sprinkler system can be determined in more than one manner. This data sheet will demonstrate the methodology of hydraulically calculating an automatic sprinkler system from the most hydraulically remote automatic sprinkler to a reference point called the base of the riser (BOR). Once the required flow and pressure for a given protection design has been calculated to the base of the sprinkler riser, it can be plotted on N1.85 graph paper (see Figure 70) and then compared to the water supply available to determine whether the water supply can provide an acceptable level of protection.
The following sections of this data sheet will provide guidance on determining the required flow and pressure for a given sprinkler systems protection design at the sprinklers BOR.
2.1.2.2 Determining the Location and Shape of the Hydraulic Design on the Sprinkler System 2.1.2.2.1 Determining the Required Flow and Pressure at the Most Hydraulically Remote Sprinkler Once a required design has been obtained, hydraulic analysis of an automatic sprinkler system originates at the most hydraulically remote sprinkler (most remote sprinkler) with the minimum required flow and pressure at that sprinkler. This is determined as indicated in Section 2.1.2.2.1.1 for Density/Demand Area design formats or Section 2.1.2.2.1.2 for Number of Sprinklers/Pressure design formats.
2.1.2.2.1.1 Density/Demand Area Format In this format neither the required flow rate nor the required pressure at the most remote sprinkler is provided. The minimum required flow rate must first be calculated using the following equation:
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q = D x S x L (Equation 3)
where: q is the rate of water flow from a sprinkler, gpm (L/min). D is the required density, gpm/ft2 (mm/min). S is the spacing of sprinklers along the branchline, ft (m). L is the spacing of sprinklers between branchlines, ft (m).
When analyzing the flow available from an operating sprinkler, round the values obtained to the nearest whole number for gpm or nearest multiple of 5 for L/min.
Once the flow rate (q) is determined at the sprinkler, the pressure (p) at the sprinkler can be determined using the following equation: p = (q/K)2 (Equation 4)
where: p is the water pressure at the sprinkler, psi (bar). q is the rate of water flow from a sprinkler, gpm (L/min). K is the K-factor of sprinkler, gpm/psi0.5 ([L/min]/bar0.5).
When analyzing the pressure available from an operating sprinkler, round the values obtained to the nearest 0.1 decimal for psi or nearest 0.01 decimal for bar.
2.1.2.2.1.1.1 Converting from Number of Sprinklers/Pressure Format to Density/Demand Area Format If a sprinkler system design is given in the format of Number of Sprinklers/Pressure, it can be converted to the format of Density/Demand Area as indicated below.
For Density: D = [K x (p)0.5]/AMAX, gpm/ft2 (mm/min) (Equation 5)
where: D is the required density, gpm/ft2 (mm/min). K is the K-factor of sprinkler, gpm/psi0.5 ([L/min]/bar0.5). p is the minimum required water pressure at the sprinkler, psi (bar). AMAX is the maximum allowable sprinkler spacing, ft2 (m2). If the conversion is for an existing system then AMAX becomes the actual spacing of the sprinklers.

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For Demand Area: DA = TNOS x AMAX, ft2 (m2) (Equation 6)
where: DA is the demand Area, ft2 (m2). TNOS is the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design. AMAX is the maximum allowable sprinkler spacing. If the conversion is for an existing system then AMAX becomes the actual spacing of the sprinklers.
2.1.2.2.1.2 Number of Sprinklers/Pressure Format In this format the minimum required pressure for the most remote sprinkler is given, therefore only the flow rate from the sprinkler needs to be determined. The flow rate from the sprinkler is then calculated using the following equation: q = K x (p)0.5 (Equation 7)
where: q is the rate of water flow from a sprinkler, gpm (L/min). K is the K-factor of sprinkler, gpm/psi0.5 ([L/min]/bar0.5) or ([mm/min]/bar0.5). p is the water pressure at the sprinkler, psi (bar).
2.1.2.2.1.2.1 Converting from Density/Demand Area Format to Number of Sprinklers/Pressure Format If a sprinkler system design is given in the format of Density/Demand Area, it can be converted to the format of Number of Sprinklers/Pressure as indicated below.
For Number of Sprinklers:
TNOS = DA/AMAX (Equation 8)
where: TNOS is the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design. DA is the demand Area, ft2 (m2). AMAX is the maximum allowable sprinkler spacing, ft2 (m2). If the conversion is for an existing system then AMAX becomes the actual spacing of the sprinklers.
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For Pressure: p = [(D x AMAX)/K ]2, psi (bar) (Equation 9)
where: p is the minimum required water pressure at the sprinkler, psi (bar). D is the required density, gpm/ft2 (mm/min). AMAX is the maximum allowable sprinkler spacing. If the conversion is for an existing system then AMAX becomes the actual spacing of the sprinklers. K is the K-factor of sprinkler, gpm/psi0.5 ([L/min]/bar0.5) or ([mm/min]/bar0.5).
2.1.2.2.2 Determining Total Required Number of Automatic Sprinklers to be Hydraulically Calculated Once the minimum required flow rate and pressure at the most remote sprinkler has been determined, the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design must be calculated. This is determined as indicated in Section 2.1.2.2.2.1 for Density/Demand Area design formats or Section 2.1.2.2.2.2 for Number of Sprinklers/Pressure design formats.
2.1.2.2.2.1 Density/Demand Area Format In this format the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design is not provided and therefore must be calculated. This value is determined using the following equation:
TNOS = DA/(S x L) (Equation 10)
where: TNOS is the total number of sprinklers required in hydraulic design. DA is the demand Area, ft2 (m2). S is the spacing of sprinklers along the branchline, ft (m). L is the spacing of sprinklers between branchlines, ft (m).
2.1.2.2.2.2 Number of Sprinklers/Pressure Format In this format the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design is a given value.
2.1.2.2.3 Determining Required Number of Automatic Sprinklers per Branchline to be Hydraulically Calculated

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Once the total number of sprinkler required in the hydraulic design has been determined, the number of sprinklers required per branchline in the hydraulic design must be calculated. This is determined as indicated in Section 2.1.2.2.3.1 for Density/Demand Area design formats or Section 2.1.2.2.3.2 for Number of Sprinklers/Pressure design formats.
2.1.2.2.3.1 Density/Demand Area Format In this format the number of sprinklers required per branchline in the hydraulic design is not provided and therefore must be calculated. This value is determined using the following equation: NORSBL = [SF x (DA)0.5]/S (Equation 11)
where: NORSBL is the number of required sprinklers per branchline. SF is the shape factor. DA is the demand Area, ft2 (m2). S is the spacing of sprinklers along the branchline, ft (m).
Unless indicated otherwise by the occupancy-specific data sheet, use a shape factor of 1.2 for sprinklers installed under ceilings with slopes less than or equal to 5o, or a shape factor of 1.4 for sprinklers installed under ceilings with slopes greater than 5o.
Round the value of NORSBL to the nearest whole number using standard rounding methods (i.e. round down for fractional values of .49 and less; round up for fractional values of .50 and greater).
2.1.2.2.3.2 Number of Sprinklers/Pressure Format In this format the number of sprinklers required per branchline in the hydraulic design is not provided and therefore must be calculated. This value is determined using the following equation: NORSBL = [SF x (TNOS x S x L)0.5]/S (Equation 12)
where: NORSBL is the number of required sprinklers per branchline. SF is the shape factor. TNOS is the total number of sprinklers required in hydraulic design. S is the spacing of sprinklers along the branchline, ft (m). L is the spacing of sprinklers between branchlines, ft (m).
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Unless indicated otherwise by the occupancy-specific data sheet, use a shape factor of 1.2 for sprinklers installed under ceilings with slopes less than or equal to 5o, or a shape factor of 1.4 for sprinklers installed under ceilings with slopes greater than 5o.
Round the value of NORSBL to the nearest whole number using standard rounding methods (i.e. round down for fractional values of .49 and less; round up for fractional values of .50 and greater).
2.1.2.2.4 Determining the Location of the Most Hydraulically Remote Sprinkler Once the number of required sprinklers per branchline has been calculated, the location of the most remote sprinkler must be determined. This is analyzed in the same manner for both the Density/Demand Area format as well as the Number of Sprinklers/Pressure format. It is however, determined differently between tree-type sprinkler systems and grid-type sprinkler systems. Determine the location of the most remote sprinkler as indicated in Section 2.1.2.2.4.1 for tree-type sprinkler systems or Section 2.1.2.2.4.2 for grid-type sprinkler systems.
2.1.2.2.4.1 Tree-Type Sprinkler Systems For most tree-type sprinkler systems the location of the most remote sprinkler will be obvious. There will, however be times when different pipe sizes within a treetype system will require a more thorough analysis, via equivalent pipe length, to determine the actual location of the most remote sprinkler.
The equivalent pipe length method uses Equation 13 to convert all sprinkler system piping to a given pipe diameter and a given Hazen-Williams coefficient from which the hydraulically most remote sprinkler can be determined. LEQIV = LORIG x (DNEW/DORIG)4.87 x (CNEW/CORIG)1.85 (Equation 13)
where: LORIG is the original length of pipe with diameter DORIG and Hazen-Williams coefficient CORIG. LEQIV is the equivalent length of pipe for new diameter (DNEW) and/or new HazenWilliams coefficient (CNEW). DORIG is the original diameter of pipe with pipe length LORIG and Hazen-Williams coefficient CORIG. DNEW is the diameter of pipe to which DORIG is being converted. CORIG is the original Hazen-Williams coefficient of pipe with length of pipe LORIG and diameter DORIG. CNEW is the Hazen-Williams coefficient of pipe for new equivalent length of pipe LEQIV and/or new diameter DNEW.

2.1.2.2.4.2 Grid-Type Sprinkler Systems
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Locating the most remote sprinkler on a grid-type sprinkler system is not obvious and typically requires a computer software analysis. However, for a regular gridtype sprinkler system, the location of the most remote sprinkler can be approximated using the skew formula. Grid-type sprinkler systems that do not meet the definition of a regular grid require a trial-and-error method of analysis, which is best handled by a computer software program designed specifically for sprinkler system hydraulic analysis.
A regular grid-type sprinkler system is defined as follows: All of the sprinklers on the sprinkler system have the same K-factor. The spacing of sprinklers along the branchline as well as between branchlines is consistent throughout the sprinkler system. All of the branchlines are the same length and the same pipe diameter. The pipe diameters of the nearmain and the farmain are no more than two pipe sizes apart. Sprinkler outriggers are not present as part of the sprinkler system; however, if there are outriggers present, the number of outriggers on either side of the nearmain or farmain are less than 25% of the total number of sprinklers per branchline in the hydraulic design (NORSBL as defined below).
If a grid-type sprinkler system meets the definition of a regular grid-type system, the skew formula will indicate approximately how many sprinklers toward the farmain the most remote sprinkler is from the center of the grid. The skew formula is defined as follows: SKEW = [(TNOS/NORSBL)/TBWOS]1.85 x (TLOB/2S) (Equation 14)
where: SKEW is the approximate number of sprinklers the most remote sprinkler is located toward the farmain from the center of the sprinkler grid. TNOS is the total number of sprinklers required in the hydraulic design as defined in Section 2.1.2.2.2.2 or in Equation 10 of Section 2.1.2.2.2.1. NORSBL is number of required sprinklers per branchline as defined by Equation 11 in Section 2.1.2.2.3.1 or Equation 12 in Section 2.1.2.2.3.2. TBWOS is the total number of branchlines in the sprinkler system that are not included in the hydraulic design. TLOB is the total length of each branchline; this value includes fittings that connect the branchline to both the nearmain and the farmain. S is the spacing of sprinklers along the branchline, ft (m).
2.1.2.2.5 Positioning the Hydraulic Design Area on the Sprinkler System
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Once the total number of sprinklers included in the hydraulic design area, the number of sprinklers per branchline, and the location of the most remote sprinkler have been determined, the hydraulic design area can be positioned on the sprinkler system for the purpose of hydraulically analyzing the sprinkler system. Section 2.1.2.2.5.1 outlines how to perform this feat for a tree-type or loop-type sprinkler system whereas Section 2.1.2.2.5.2 outlines how to perform this feat for a grid-type sprinkler system.
2.1.2.2.5.1 Positioning the Hydraulic Design Area on a Tree-Type or Loop-Type Sprinkler System The most remote sprinkler is the starting point for positioning the hydraulic design area on a sprinkler system. The number of sprinklers per branchline, in combination with the total number of sprinklers included in the hydraulic design area, help define how many branchlines will have sprinklers included in the design area.
If the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area divided by the number of sprinklers per branchline results in a whole number, such as when the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area is 20 and the number of sprinklers per branchline is 5, then the shape of the hydraulic design area will either be a square or a rectangle when positioned on the sprinkler system.
If the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area divided by the number of sprinklers per branchline does not result in a whole number, such as when the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area is 25 and the number of sprinklers per branchline is 7, then the shape of the hydraulic design area will not result in either a square or a rectangle, but will have a few additional sprinklers attached to the square or rectangular shape. Position the additional sprinklers as part of the hydraulic design area using the following guidelines: Group all of the additional sprinklers together so they are continuous on the branchline, and Position the additional sprinklers so they are as close to the crossmain as allowable per the shape of the hydraulic design area.
2.1.2.2.5.2 Positioning the Hydraulic Design Area on a Grid-Type Sprinkler System The most remote sprinkler is the starting point for positioning the hydraulic design area on a sprinkler system. The number of sprinklers per branchline, in combination with the total number of sprinklers included in the hydraulic design area, help define how many branchlines will have sprinklers included in the design area.
If the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area divided by the number of sprinklers per branchline results in a whole number, such as when the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area is 20 and the number of sprinklers per branchline is 5, then the shape of the hydraulic design area will either be a square or a rectangle when positioned on the sprinkler system.

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If the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area divided by the number of sprinklers per branchline does not result in a whole number, such as when the total number of sprinklers in the hydraulic design area is 25 and the number of sprinklers per branchline is 7, then the shape of the hydraulic design area will not result in either a square or a rectangle, but will have a few additional sprinklers attached to the square or rectangular shape. Position the additional sprinklers as part of the hydraulic design area using the following guidelines: Group all of the additional sprinklers together so they are continuous on the branchline, and Position the additional sprinklers so they are as close to the nearmain as allowable per the shape of the hydraulic design area.
2.1.2.3 Hydraulic Calculations From the Most Remote Sprinkler to the Reference Point 2.1.2.3.1 Introduction Once the most remote sprinkler has been determined for a given sprinkler system and the hydraulic design area has been positioned on the sprinkler system, a hydraulic analysis of the sprinkler system back to the sprinklers base of riser (BOR) can be conducted.
For water-based sprinkler systems (this includes dry-pipe and similar systems), use the Hazen-Williams formula (Equation 15) to determine the flow and pressure required at the sprinkler systems BOR.
Although some hydraulic calculation methods use normal pressure as a means of determining a sprinkler systems required flow and pressure, FM Global uses a hydraulic calculation method that does not include velocity pressure.
Total pressure consists of three forms of pressure, including (1) pressure due to the required minimum flow from the most remote sprinkler, (2) pressure due to friction loss within the sprinkler piping network, and (3) pressure due to elevation.
The pressure due to the required minimum flow is defined in Equation 4 of Section 2.1.2.2.1.1 or is a given as indicated in Section 2.1.2.2.1.2.
The pressure due to friction loss within the sprinkler piping network is calculated using the Hazen-Williams formula as follows: pf = [(4.52)x(Q/C)1.85]/d4.87 (Equation 15)
where:
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pf is the frictional resistance in lb per in2 (psi) per foot of pipe. Q is the gallons per minute (gpm) flowing. d is the actual internal diameter of pipe in inches (in.). C is the friction loss coefficient (4.52 when the units indicated above are used).
For metric units: pf is the frictional resistance in bar per meter of pipe. Q is the liters per minute (L/min) flowing. d is the actual internal diameter of pipe in millimeters (mm). C is the friction loss coefficient (6.05 x 10-5 when the units indicated above are used).
FM Global Data Sheet 2-89, Pipe Friction Loss Tables, provides values of friction loss per length of sprinkler pipe for nominal pipe diameters. Table 1 of Data Sheet 2-89 provides friction loss values for steel pipe having a Hazen-Williams coefficient of 100, which can be used for dry-type sprinkler systems, whereas Table 2 in Data Sheet 2-89 provides friction loss values for steel pipe having a HazenWilliams coefficient of 120, which can be used for wet-type sprinkler systems. Data Sheet 2-89 provides adjustment values for sprinkler piping having Hazen-Williams coefficients other than 100 or 120. Table 2 from this data sheet can also be used to adjust friction loss values per unit length from either Table 1 or Table 2 of Data Sheet 2-89 to Hazen-Williams coefficient values other than 100 or 120. If the actual internal diameter of the sprinkler pipe is known, then the Hazen-Williams formula can be used to provide a more accurate friction loss value.
To obtain the total friction loss from one point within a piping system to another point where the flow, pipe diameter, and Hazen-Williams coefficient values are all constant, the following equation is used:
PF = pf x L (Equation 16)
where: PF is the total friction loss through a pipe over a distance L, psi. pf is the friction loss value per unit length of pipe for a pipe having a given diameter and Hazen-Williams coefficient, psi/ft (bar/m)(see Equation 15). L is the length of the pipe through which the friction loss is calculated, ft (m). This unit length, L, may include fittings, however all equivalent fitting lengths must be of the same Hazen-Williams coefficient value as the pipe that the fitting(s) is connected to.
See Table 12 (12a) for a listing of equivalent lengths for various fittings. Note that the equivalent lengths of these fittings are based on a Hazen-Williams coefficient value of 120. See Table 13 for an adjustment multiplier in the event the Hazen-Williams coefficient value for the pipe the fitting is connected to is something other than 120.

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Account for fittings when they either: 1. 2. Cause a change in the direction of flow, or Cause a change in the velocity of the flow.
Size a fitting based on the pipe size connected downstream of the fitting and calculate the friction loss across the fitting when hydraulically analyzing the sprinkler piping connected downstream of the fitting.
For sprinkler pipe having a Hazen-Williams coefficient value other than those listed in Table 13, convert the equivalent fitting length indicated in Table 12 (12a) to the appropriate Hazen-Williams coefficient using the following equation: LEQADJ = (LEQ from Table 12 [12a]) x (CACTUAL/120)1.85 (Equation 17)
where: LEQADJ is the equivalent length of the fitting adjusted to the Hazen-Williams value, ft (m). LEQ is the equivalent length obtained from Table 12 (12a), ft (m). CACTUAL is the actual Hazen-Williams coefficient value (C) of the sprinkler pipe.
The pressure due to elevation is calculated using the following equation:
PE = 0.433 psi/ft (0.098 bar/m) x h, psi (bar) (Equation 2)
where: PE is the pressure due to elevation forces, psi (bar). h is the overall height between the most remote sprinkler and the BOR, ft (m).
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is another calculation method for analyzing the friction loss within a sprinkler system. It is generally used for sprinkler systems filled with antifreeze solutions where the viscosity of the solution is greater than water. See Section 2.1.2.3.6 for further discussion on hydraulic calculations involving the Darcy-Weisbach method.
The following sections give basic guidelines on conducting a sprinkler system hydraulic analysis from the most remote sprinkler to the sprinklers BOR.
2.1.2.3.2 Tree-Type Sprinkler Systems For tree-type sprinkler systems, the hydraulic analysis of the sprinkler system originates at the most remote sprinkler and is calculated in a single path back to 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved
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the sprinkler systems BOR. Once the hydraulic design area has been positioned on the sprinkler system as outlined in Section 2.1.2.2.5, the hydraulic analysis initiates from the most remote sprinkler with the minimum required flow and pressure as outlined in Section 2.1.2.2.1.
Starting at the most remote sprinkler with the minimum required flow and pressure, the Hazen-Williams formula is used to determine the friction loss from the most remote sprinkler to the next closest sprinkler on the same branchline. Once the friction loss has been calculated, it is added to the pressure that is required at the most remote sprinkler to determine the minimum required pressure at the next closest sprinkler. The flow from this sprinkler can then be determined using Equation 7 from Section 2.1.2.2.1.2. This process is continued until either (a) the next closest sprinkler is not included in the hydraulic design area, or (b) the top of the riser nipple or the crossmain are encountered. In either case, the Hazen-Williams formula is used to hydraulically calculate the minimum flow and pressure needed at the intersection of the branchline to the top of the riser nipple or to the crossmain if there is no elevation difference between the branchline and the crossmain.
If the hydraulic design area includes sprinklers only on one side of a crossmain, then the Hazen-Williams formula is used to calculate the flow and pressure requirements for each branchline with sprinklers within the hydraulic design area back to the connection of the branchline to the crossmain. If there are riser nipples, then the calculation is continued from the branchline down through the riser nipple to the connection at the crossmain. At this connection point a Kfactor of the branchline can be calculated using the following equation: KLINE = Q/P0.5 (Equation 18)
where: KLINE is the K-factor that represents the flow and pressure for the branchline. Q is the total flow at the intersection point based on the minimum required flow at the sprinkler furthest from the intersection point and within the hydraulic design area. P is the total pressure at the intersection point based on the minimum required pressure at the sprinkler furthest from the intersection point and within the hydraulic design area.
If there are sprinklers on both sides of a crossmain included in the hydraulic design area, then the minimum required flow and pressure as determined from Equation 7 from Section 2.1.2.2.1.2 is applied to both sprinklers that are furthest from the intersection point of the branchline and the crossmain and are still within the boundaries of the hydraulic design area.
The Hazen-Williams formula is then used to calculate the flow and pressure for both branchlines back to their common point of connection; typically, this is either the top of a riser nipple or at the crossmain when riser nipples are not present.

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If the pressure requirements at this common point are not equal, then the calculated flow from the branchline with the lower minimum required pressure has to be hydraulically balanced up to the pressure required for the other branchline. This is accomplished using the following equation: QADJ = QL x [(PH PE)/(PL PE)]0.5 (Equation 19)
where: QADJ is the flow that has been adjusted up from PL to PH , gpm (L/min). QL is the flow that is required at the common intersection point based on PL, gpm (L/min). PL is the lower of the two pressure requirements at the common intersection point, psi (bar). PH is the higher of the two pressure requirements at the common intersection point, psi (bar). PE is any pressure due to elevation that is included in PL, psi (bar).
Note that the exponential value for this equation is 0.50 when balancing together relatively small flow amounts, such as when balancing sprinklers on a single branchline together, but the value increases to 0.54 when relatively large flow amounts, such as balancing two sprinkler systems together, are involved.
The value of QADJ is then added to the value of QH (the flow that is required at the common intersection point based on PH) to obtain the total minimum required flow at the common intersection point.
Equation 19 is commonly referred to as the equation for hydraulic balancing. It is used whenever two calculated sprinkler flows meet at a common reference point and are at different required pressures. The flow based on the lower required pressure is always balanced up to the higher required pressure. The important aspect to realize when hydraulic balancing is required is to account for any pressure due to elevation (PE) when using Equation 19.
If this common point is at a riser nipple, then calculate the friction loss from the nipple riser to the crossmain and add it to PH in order to determine the minimum required flow and pressure at the connection to the crossmain. Once the minimum required flow and pressure has been calculated to the crossmain connection, the Kfactor of the branchline can be determined using Equation 18.
Once all sprinklers in the hydraulic design area have been calculated back to the crossmain and the K-factor of each branchline has been determined, then the flow and pressure required at the BOR can be calculated by starting at the flow and pressure at the most remote branchline and working backward through the crossmain using the Hazen-Williams formula to calculate the friction loss through the crossmain and then adding in the sprinkler flow from each flowing branchline using the following equation:
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QBL = KLINE x (P)0.5 (Equation 20)
where: QBL is the flow being sent into the branchline from the crossmain at pressure P, gpm (L/min). KLINE is the K-factor of the branchline that flow is being directed into, gpm/psi0.5 (L/min/bar0.5). P is the pressure required at the intersection of the branchline and crossmain, psi (bar).
Once the flow flow required friction loss friction loss elevation.
from the last flowing branchline has been added in, this becomes the at the BOR. The Hazen-Williams formula is then used to determine the from this connection point to the BOR. Once the pressure due to has been calculated, the final step is to add in any pressure due to
2.1.2.3.3 Loop-Type Sprinkler Systems Loop-type sprinkler systems provide a means of reducing the friction loss within a sprinkler system by replacing the single-flow path crossmain with a multi-flow path loop main. Calculation of a simple loop-type sprinkler system (i.e. a system having dead-end branchlines and a single loop main) can be calculated by hand. If, however, the sprinkler branchlines are not of the dead-end type or the sprinkler system is equipped with more than one loop main, then calculation by hand would be very involved and would best be handled by a computer program.
The calculation method of simple loop-type sprinkler systems takes into account two basic hydraulic principles: (1) Pressure difference between any two points of a sprinkler system is the same by any route through the system, and (2) Water flow into a point within the sprinkler system equals the flow away from the point.
These two basic principles allow a simple loop-type sprinkler system to be calculated in the same manner as a tree-type sprinkler system with the following two differences: (1) The shape of the hydraulic design area is established in same manner as a tree-type system but it is positioned on the sprinkler system as close as possible to the hydraulically most remote point on the loop main, and (2) The flow from the branchline closest to the center of the hydraulic design area is split with a given amount flowing in a counter-clockwise direction within the loop main while the rest of the flow from this branchline is flowing in a clockwise direction. The percentage of flow in any one direction is determined using the following equation: Q1/QT = 1/([L1/L2]0.54 + 1) (Equation 21)

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where: QT is the total amount of flow from the center branchline. It is equal to the sum of Q1 and Q2. L1 is the equivalent length of pipe from the crossmain/feedmain (CM/FM) connection to the center branchline within the hydraulic design area. It must be based on the same equivalent diameter and Hazen-Williams coefficient upon which L2 is based. L2 is the equivalent length of pipe from the crossmain/feedmain (CM/FM) connection to the center branchline within the hydraulic design area. It must be based on the same equivalent diameter and Hazen-Williams coefficient upon which L1 is based. Q1 is the amount of flow from the center branchline that flows through the loop main having an equivalent length L1. Q2 is the amount of flow from the center branchline that flows through the loop main having an equivalent length L2.
Once Q1 and Q2 have been determined, then the hydraulic analysis is the same as a tree-type system back to the CM/FM connection. At this point in the sprinkler system the flow based on the lower pressure can be hydraulically balanced up to the higher pressure and then added together. The calculation back to the BOR is the same as indicated for a tree-type system.
2.1.2.3.4 Grid-Type Sprinkler Systems The hydraulic evaluation of a grid-type automatic sprinkler system consists of multiple trial and error calculations based on the principles that the flow into a point on a sprinkler system equals the flow out and the pressure at any point in a sprinkler system must be a single value. Due to the nature of a grid-type sprinkler, there are multiple points within the sprinkler system where water flows through multiple paths, thus resulting in the need to conduct hydraulic balancing calculations, usually to within 0.5 psi (0.003 bar).
Such calculations are very involved and are best handled by a computer software program specifically designed for the evaluation of automatic sprinkler systems using either the Hazen-Williams formula or by the Darcy-Weisbach calculation method.
2.1.2.3.5 Multiple-Level Sprinkler Systems There are two types of multiple-level sprinkler systems from a hydraulic analysis standpoint. The first is a single sprinkler system in which there is one or more branchlines having sprinklers at different elevation levels that connect together at a reference point other than the BOR. An example of this would be sprinklers that are protecting the area below a mezzanine and are fed from the same sprinkler system that is protecting the area above the mezzanine. Another example of this would be an isolated storage rack that is protected by both ceiling and in-rack sprinklers in which the in-rack sprinklers are fed from the same sprinkler system located above the rack storage.
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The other type of multiple-level sprinkler system is one in which two or more sprinkler systems are protecting the same area at different elevation levels, but connect together at the BOR. The most common example of this type of multiple-level sprinkler system combination is a ceiling-level sprinkler system and a separate inrack sprinkler system that connect together at their BORs.
2.1.2.3.5.1 A Sprinkler System With Multiple-level Sprinklers Connecting Prior to the Base of the Sprinkler Riser Often, an automatic sprinkler system will have sprinklers located at more than one elevation when referenced to the BOR. When this is the case, hydraulic calculations will require hydraulic balancing at some point within the sprinkler system prior to the BOR if the minimum pressure required is different at the same point of connection.
The hydraulic calculation method for such cases is no different than what has been previously discussed before in Section 2.1.2.3. To demonstrate this concept, the following example is provided.
Example No. 2: An isolated 25 ft (7.5 m) high storage rack is located within a manufacturing area and must be provided with in-rack sprinklers to provide an acceptable level of protection. Because it is an isolated storage rack, the in-rack sprinklers protecting it are fed from the ceiling system located above the storage rack. The in-rack sprinklers are located at the 15 ft (4.5 m) high tier level whereas the ceiling sprinklers are located 29 ft (8.7 m) above the floor. At the point of connection where the in-rack sprinkler piping connects to the ceiling sprinkler system, the minimum required flow and pressure for the in-rack sprinklers is 135 gpm (510 L/min) at 35 psi (2.41 bar), which includes a pressure gain of 6.1 psi (0.42 bar) due to elevation. The minimum required flow and pressure for the ceiling sprinklers at this same connection point is 660 gpm (2,500 L/min) at 45 psi (3.10 bar) and includes a pressure loss of 1.3 psi (0.09 bar) due to elevation.
Because the minimum required flows from both systems are at different pressures at their point of connection, the flow from the sprinklers at the lower pressure must be hydraulically balanced up to the higher minimum required pressure using Equation 19 as follows: QADJ = (135 gpm) x [(45 psi (-6.1 psi)/(35 psi (-6.1 psi))]0.5 = 151 gpm QADJ = (510 L/min) x [(3.10 bar (-0.42 bar)/(2.41 bar (-0.42 bar))]0.5 = 570 L/min
Therefore, at the point of connection, the in-rack sprinkler adjusted flow of 151 gpm (570 L/min) is added to the minimum required ceiling sprinkler flow of 660 gpm (2,500 L/min) to obtain a minimum required flow and pressure of 811 gpm (3,070 L/min) and 45 psi (3.10 bar) at the common point of connection.
2.1.2.3.5.2 A Multiple-level Sprinkler System Consisting of Two or More Sprinkler Systems at Different Elevations Within the Same Protected Area Connecting at the Base of the Sprinkler Riser

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Often, two separate automatic sprinkler systems will be used to protect the same area, such as separate ceiling and in-rack sprinkler systems. When this is the case, hydraulic analysis of the two systems will require hydraulic balancing at some point within the fire protection network, usually just below each of the sprinkler systems BOR.
The hydraulic calculation method for such cases is no different than what has been previously discussed before in Section 2.1.2.3. To demonstrate this concept, the following example is provided.
Example No. 3: An 80 ft (24.4 m) high warehouse contains open-frame rack storage to 75 ft (23 m) high. The storage racks are protected by 5 levels of in-rack sprinklers. The demand for the in-rack sprinkler system is based on a minimum flow of 30 gpm (115 L/min) from the most remote 14 sprinklers (7 on 2 levels), which requires a flow and pressure of 475 gpm (1,800 L/min) and 75 psi (5.17 bar) at the in-rack sprinkler systems BOR. The required pressure for this sprinkler system includes 30.3 psi (2.09 bar) due to elevation pressure. The demand for the ceiling sprinkler system is based on a minimum pressure of 10 psi (0.69 bar) from the most remote 15 sprinklers, which requires a flow and pressure of 550 gpm (2,082 L/min) and 80 psi (5.52 bar) at the ceiling sprinkler systems BOR. The required pressure for this sprinkler system includes 34.2 psi (2.36 bar) due to elevation pressure. The two sprinkler systems are fed from a common point located just below their BORs.
Because the minimum required flows from both systems are at different pressures at their point of connection, the flow from the sprinklers at the lower pressure must be hydraulically balanced up to the higher minimum required pressure using Equation 19 as follows: QADJ = (475 gpm) x [(80 psi 30.3 psi)/(75 psi 30.3 psi))]0.54 = 503 gpm QADJ = (1,800 L/min) x [(5.52 bar 2.09 bar)/(5.17 bar 2.09 bar)]0.54 = 1,904 L/min
Therefore, at the point of connection, the in-rack sprinkler adjusted flow of 503 gpm (1,904 L/min) is added together with the minimum required ceiling sprinkler flow of 550 gpm (2,082 L/min) to obtain a minimum required flow and pressure of 1,053 gpm (3,986 L/min) and 80 psi (5.52 bar) at the common point of connection.
2.1.2.3.6 Darcy-Weisbach Analysis Method Use the Darcy-Weisbach analysis method for sprinkler systems containing liquid media other than water, such as an antifreeze solution, as this analysis method more accurately accounts for changes in the liquids temperature, density, and viscosity compared to the results obtained using the Hazen-Williams analysis method.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula is as follows:
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FDW = (0.000216) x (f) x (L) x () x (Q)2/(d)5 (psi) (Equation 22) FDW = (2.252) x (f) x (L) x () x (Q)2/(d)5 (bar) (Equation 22a)
where: FDW is the friction loss per the Darcy-Weisbach formula, psi (bar). f is the friction loss factor per the Moody diagram. L is the length of the pipe through which the friction loss is calculated, ft (m). is the density of the liquid media, lb/ft3 (kg/m3). Q is the flow rate within the sprinkler piping, gpm (L/min). d is the internal diameter of the sprinkler pipe, in. (mm).
The value of f is determined using the Moody diagram shown in Figure 2. The f values are shown on the left side of the Moody diagram along the y-axis; to obtain a particular f value, you need to know both the Reynolds number (Re), which is shown along the x-axis of the diagram, and the relative roughness factor, which is on the right side of the diagram along the y-axis. Where the lines for the Reynolds number and the relative roughness factor intersect, follow the line to the left to find the value of the friction loss factor.
The Reynolds number is obtained from the following equation:
Re = 50.6 x (Q) x ()/[(d) x ()] (English-based units) (Equation 23) Re = 21.22 x (Q) x ()/[(d) x ()] (SI units) (Equation 23a)
where: is the absolute (dynamic) viscosity, centipoise.
The relative roughness factor number is obtained from the following equation: Relative roughness factor = /D (Equation 24)
where: is the pipe wall roughness, ft (mm). D is the internal pipe diameter, ft (mm).

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Fig. 2. Moody Diagram (Courtesy ASME)
2.1.2.4 Graphical Representation of the Hydraulic Analysis 2.1.2.4.1 Introduction Once the minimum required flow and pressure of any sprinkler system has been calculated at the sprinkler systems BOR, graphical representation of the hydraulic relationship between the flow and pressure of the calculated sprinkler system is required in order to determine the level of protection that is provided by the available water supply. This graphical representation, which is called a sprinkler demand curve, is illustrated using N1.85 graph paper, as shown in Figure 5 of Appendix D.
There are two types of sprinkler systems for graphical representation purposes. The first is a single sprinkler system that is protecting a given area. The second is an area that is protected by more than one sprinkler system. Examples of multiple sprinkler systems in the same area would be an area protected by an existing ceiling sprinkler system as well as an over-lay sprinkler system, or storage racks that are provided with in-rack sprinklers fed from a system separate than the ceiling level sprinklers protecting the racks. 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved
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Discussion on how to graphically represent both types of sprinkler systems is provided in the two following sections.
2.1.2.4.2 Plotting the Results of a Single Sprinkler System Within the Protected Area To graphically represent the minimum required flow and pressures for an automatic sprinkler system on N1.85 graph paper, you need the following two points that help develop the sprinkler demand curve: 1. 2. The flow and pressure at the sprinkler systems BOR to meet the minimum required design, and The pressure due to elevation (at no flow) between the BOR and the sprinkler at the highest elevation located within the demand area
The sprinkler demand curve can also be represented mathematically using the following equation: P2 = (Q2/Q1)1.85 x (P1 PE) + PE (Equation 25)
where: Q1 is a given flow value on the sprinkler demand curve at pressure P1, gpm (L/min). Q2 is any flow on the sprinkler demand curve at a pressure P2, gpm (L/min). P1 is a given pressure value on the sprinkler demand curve at flow Q1, psi (bar). P2 is any pressure on the sprinkler demand curve at a flow Q2, psi (bar). PE is the pressure due to elevation between the highest sprinkler and the BOR, psi (bar).
2.1.2.4.3 Plotting the Results of Multiple Sprinkler Systems Within the Protected Area To graphically represent multiple sprinkler systems within the same protected area operating simultaneously, follow these steps: 1) 2) Plot the sprinkler demand curves for each sprinkler system individually as outlined in Section 2.1.2.4.2. Draw a combined sprinkler system curve that represents all of the individual sprinkler systems operating simultaneously as follows: (a) Start at 0 psi (0 bar) and rise up the y-axis (pressure scale) until the first sprinkler system pressure point due to elevation is encountered. At this pressure point the combined sprinkler system demand curve will be the same as the sprinkler demand curve until the pressure value reaches the elevation pressure of another sprinkler system. Once the elevation pressure point of another sprinkler system is encountered, the combined sprinkler system demand curve becomes the combined flow of the sprinkler systems at the given pressure value. 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved
(b)
(c)

3)
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This process is continued until all sprinkler systems have been combined into a single demand curve.
2.1.2.4.4 Plotting the Available Water Supply After Deductions Section 2.1.2.4 outlines the procedure for graphically plotting the water supply available at an automatic sprinkler systems BOR.
In most cases the design requirements for the automatic sprinkler system will include a hose demand as part of the design. In such cases, the hose demand needs to be deducted from the water supply available at the sprinkler systems BOR if the water supply for the hose streams also feeds the automatic sprinkler system.
To adjust a water supply due to an indicated deduction, first plot the water supply available at the sprinkler systems BOR prior to any deductions and label this curve accordingly. For the water supply available after deductions, simply draw the same water supply curve, but adjust it by subtracting the required deduction flow from each pressure point on the curve. 2.1.2.4.5 Rating the Sprinkler System for Adequacy Once the water supply available at a sprinkler systems BOR (minus any required deductions) and the sprinkler system demand curve (or combined curve if more than one sprinkler system is provided) have been plotted on N1.85 graph paper, the adequacy rating of the sprinkler system can be determined.
Sprinkler systems are rated as either Adequate or Inadequate.
An automatic sprinkler system is rated Adequate when the available water supply, after accounting for any required deductions, is able to provide the full flow and pressure required for all sprinkler systems operating concurrently within the protected area for the required duration.
An available water supply that cannot meet the requirements for a rating of Adequate is rated as Inadequate.
The process for determining the rating of an automatic sprinkler system is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. Plot and label the water supply available at the BOR. Plot and label the water supply available at the BOR after any required deductions. Plot and label all concurrently operating sprinkler systems for the area being protected. Plot and label the combined sprinkler system curve if more than one sprinkler system curve is drawn.
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5.

In a case where a single sprinkler system is provided, graphically determine the flow and pressure available to the sprinkler system from the water supply (after deductions). The flow and pressure available is based on where the sprinkler demand curve and the curve for the water supply (after deductions) intersect. In a case where more than one sprinkler system is provided, graphically determine the flow and pressure available to each sprinkler system from the water supply (after deductions). The flow and pressure available to each sprinkler system is first determined by seeing where the combined sprinkler system curve and the curve for the available water supply (after deductions) intersect. Using the pressure value at this intersection, see what the corresponding flow values are for each sprinkler system on its respective sprinkler demand curve. Using the flow and pressure values available at the BOR for each sprinkler system, indicate what is available for the sprinkler system using the design format required of the sprinkler system. See Section 2.1.2.4.5.1 for further details regarding this process. Determine the duration available from the water supply.
6.
7.
8.
If the available water supply can provide the required flow and pressure for the sprinkler system(s) for the entire required duration, the sprinkler system rates Adequate; otherwise it rates Inadequate.
See Section 2.1.2.4.5.1 for a discussion on how to convert the flow and pressure available from the water supply into a format that the sprinkler system design was based on.
See Section 2.1.2.4.5.2 for a discussion on how to determine the duration available from a water supply.
2.1.2.4.5.1 Converting Flow and Pressure Available to a Sprinkler System into a Design Format There are three formats that the designs for most sprinkler systems are based on. They include: Density/Demand Area Minimum Required Flow @ Most Remote Sprinkler/Number of Sprinklers Minimum Required Pressure @ Most Remote Sprinkler/Number of Sprinklers
The entirety of the sprinkler demand curve for each individual sprinkler system represents either a fixed demand area or a fixed number of sprinklers; however, each individual point along the sprinkler demand curve represents different values of density, minimum required flow, or minimum required pressure.
2.1.2.4.5.1.1 Conversion of the Flow and Pressure Available at the BOR from a Water Supply to a Design Based on Density

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Conversion of the flow and pressure available at the BOR from a water supply to a design based on density is accomplished as follows:
DAVAIL = DDESIGN x (QAVAIL/QDESIGN) (Equation 26)
where: DAVAIL is the density available from the water supply based on QAVAIL. DDESIGN is the density based on the required design. QAVAIL is the flow available from the water supply at the BOR. QDESIGN is the flow based on the required design at the BOR.
2.1.2.4.5.1.2 Conversion of the Flow and Pressure Available at the BOR from a Water Supply to a Design Based on Minimum Required Flow at the Most Remote Sprinkler Conversion of the flow and pressure available at the BOR from a water supply to a design based on minimum required flow at the most remote sprinkler is accomplished as follows:
qAVAIL = qDESIGN x (QAVAIL/QDESIGN), (Equation 27) or qAVAIL = qDESIGN x (DAVAIL/DDESIGN) (Equation 28)
where: qAVAIL is the flow available from the water supply at the most remote sprinkler. qDESIGN is the flow based on the required design at the most remote sprinkler. QAVAIL is the flow available from the water supply at the BOR. QDESIGN is the flow based on the required design at the BOR. DAVAIL is the density available from the water supply based on QAVAIL. DDESIGN is the density based on the required design.
2.1.2.4.5.1.3 Conversion of the Flow and Pressure Available at the BOR from a Water Supply to a Design Based on Minimum Required Pressure at the Most Remote Sprinkler Conversion of the flow and pressure available at the BOR from a water supply to a design based on minimum required pressure at the most remote sprinkler is accomplished as follows: pAVAIL = pDESIGN x ([PAVAIL PE]/[PDESIGN PE])1.08 (Equation 29)
where: pAVAIL is the pressure available from the water supply at the most remote sprinkler. pDESIGN is the pressure based on the required design at the most remote sprinkler.
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PAVAIL is the pressure available from the water supply at the BOR. PDESIGN is the pressure based on the required design at the BOR. PE is the pressure due to elevation between the BOR and the highest sprinkler located within the sprinkler system.
2.1.2.4.5.2 Determining Duration Available from a Water Supply In addition to meeting the flow and pressure requirements for a sprinkler system or combination of sprinkler systems, a water supply must also be available for a given time period to help ensure a fire can be extinguished before the water supply becomes exhausted.
The duration of a water supply is determined as follows:
Duration = (Volume of Water Supply)/(QAS + QDEDUCT) (Equation 30)
where: Duration is the time period that the water supply will be available to provide the minimum required flow and pressure, minutes. Volume of Water Supply is the capacity of the water supply available, gal (L). QAS is the required minimum flow rate of all of the sprinkler systems protecting the affected area, gpm (L/min). QDEDUCT is the required minimum flow rate for all deductions, gpm (L/min).
3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Bernoullis Theorem and Applications Problems of water flow in pipes are usually solved by procedures based on Bernoullis theorem, which states that in steady flow, without friction, the sum of velocity head, pressure head, and elevation head is constant for a particle throughout its course. This theorem can be expressed by the following equation: (v2/2g) + (p/w) + Z = H (Equation 31)
where: v is the velocity, ft/s (m/s). g is the acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/sec2). p is the pressure, lb/ft2 (bar). w is the weight of water per unit volume = 62.4 lb/ft3 (9,810 N/m3). z is the elevation head (or potential head), distance above an assumed datum, ft (m). H is the total head of water, ft (m).

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In Equation 31 the terms (v2/2g) and (p/w) express velocity head and pressure head, respectively and are defined as indicated in the following equations: Velocity head = hv = v2/2g, (Equation 32)
and
Pressure head = hp = p/w, (Equation 33)
We can rearrange Equation 32 to solve for velocity as follows: v = (2gh)0.5 (Equation 34)
Likewise, we can rearrange Equation 33 to solve for pressure as follows:
p = (w)x(hp) (Equation 35)
Because total head (H) is constant, a change in velocity results in the conversion of velocity head to pressure head, or vice versa.
For a pipeline flowing full between points A and B, Bernoullis theorem can be modified to include friction, as follows: (vA2/2g) + (pA/w) + zA = (vB2/2g) + (pB/w) + zB + hAB (Equation 36)
where hAB is the total dynamic head lost between points A and B.
Figure 3 illustrates the relationships between various factors in typical piping. Heads are indicated by heights to which water rises in the vertical tubing. Velocity magnitudes and directions are indicated by arrows. At each location, B, C, D, E, and F, pressure head, hpF, hpB, etc., is a measure of the potential energy of water in the pipe; velocity head, hvF, etc., is a measure of the kinetic energy of the water; and the sum, hpF + hvF, etc., total head, is a measure of the total energy of the water.
Flow rate in a pipeline or discharge through an orifice can be expressed in terms of velocity and cross-sectional area of the stream as follows:
Q = (A) x (v) (Equation 37)
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where: Q is the flow rate, ft3/sec (m3/sec). A is the cross-sectional stream area, ft2 (m2). v is the average water velocity, ft/sec (m/sec).
Equation 37 can be rearranged to solve for velocity as follows:
v = Q/A (Equation 38)
In Figure 3, QF = QB because no water flows out of the pipe (once stabilized in the vertical tubing).
Therefore, from Equation 37, (AF) x (vF) = (AB) x (vB), and since the pipe does not change size, AF = AB, so that vF = vB. This means kinetic energy is the same at point F and at point B, and hvF = hvB. Pressure head decreases linearly between points F and B. The difference, hpF - hpB, is friction loss or the total dynamic head lost between points F and B (see Equation 36).
The loss rate per unit length is (hpF - hpB)/L, where L is length between points F and B.
In Figure 3, water is flowing out of the pipe at point B, and the fitting between points D and E reduces the cross-sectional area. Flow at point F is the sum of flows at points B and C, QF = QB + QC. Since QB > 0, QC must be less than QF, (AC x vC < AF x vF). The cross-sectional areas at points F and C are the same, so vC < vF. This means kinetic energy at point C is less than at point F or hvC < hvF. Pressure head, hpC, is shown slightly less than hpF because of friction loss straight through the fitting. Flow out of the pipe at point B has substantially increased velocity, because all potential energy is given up to friction or converted to kinetic energy. Thus, total head at point F, hpF + hvF, equals hFB + hvB, friction loss between points F and B plus velocity head at point B. From experimental observation, friction loss between points F and B for discharging water is approximately equal to velocity head at point F, hFB hvF.
Between points C and D, QC = QD, vC = vD, hvC = hvD, and hpC drops slightly because of friction to hpD.
From points D to E, QD = QE or (AE) x (vE) = (AD) x (vD) (from Equation 37), but AE < AD, so vE must be greater than vD. Since velocity increases, kinetic energy does also, and hvE > hvD shows this.
Since friction loss in reducers is greater than in pipes, the rate of drop from hpD to hpE is greater than from hpC to hpD. 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

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Formulas, such as Q = (A)x(v), depending on velocity or velocity head, are not suited to the solution of problems involving flow in closed pipes because simple equipment for direct measurement of velocity or velocity head in closed pipes is not available. Ordinary pressure gauges tapped into pipelines register pressure head only, and therefore give no indication of velocity head or rate of flow. Although suitable devices and procedures for direct pipeline gauging have been developed for studies of waterworks distribution systems, penstocks, etc., these methods are seldom employed in private fire protection practice.
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Fig. 3. Relationships between various hydraulic factors in typical piping 2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

3.2 Hazen-Williams Formula
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For fire protection and waterworks, the most widely accepted pipe flow formula was developed by G. S. Williams and Allen Hazen. In conventional fire protection units, the Hazen-Williams formula is: p = (c) (Q/C)1.85/d4.87 (Equation 15)
where: p is the loss per unit length, psi/ft (bar/m). c is the constant = 4.52 (6.06 105 for p in bars). Q is the flow rate, gpm (L/min). C is the Hazen-Williams pipe coefficient. d is the internal pipe diameter, in. (mm).
Other formulas, developed by Chezy, Darcy, Weisbach, Fanning, Reynolds, and others, are sometimes used.
Head is converted to pressure by the relation: 1 ft = 0.433 psi (1 m = 0.098 bar)
Under this relation, terminology changes as follows: Total head Velocity head Elevation head Pressure head corresponds to corresponds to corresponds to corresponds to Total Pressure Velocity Pressure Elevation Pressure Normal Pressure
Friction loss tables in Data Sheet 2-89 give values of p for varying flow rates, pipe coefficients, and pipe diameters. Factors for changing from one pipe coefficient to another are also given.
Suggested values of C for various kinds of pipe used underground are given in Table 3. The rate of change in the value of C with age in unlined cast-iron pipe depends on corrosive activity of the water. Saturation Index is a commonly used measure of a specific waters corrosive quality and should be available from the water utility in the area. It establishes three categories: positive, zero, and negative, corresponding to mildly, moderately, and severely corrosive waters.
Fire protection pipe, normally without flow, is expected to deteriorate less rapidly than pipe subject to continuous or intermittent draft. Cement-lined, bitumastic-enamel-lined, or cement asbestos pipe is relatively smooth with little or no reduction in carrying capacity over a reasonable period of time.
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Unlined steel pipe exposed to water for various time periods has a wide range of C values. To allow for quick early deterioration under field conditions use a HazenWilliams C value of 120 for wet pipe sprinkler systems as well as dry pipe sprinkler systems provided with galvanized piping and a Hazen-Williams C value of 100 for dry pipe sprinkler systems equipped with black steel type sprinkler piping.
3.3 Pressure Loss at Fittings In typical public water or fire protection pipe, losses arising from changes in flow direction and changes in velocity are called loss due to fittings. Such losses are proportional to velocity head (v2/2g) and can be equated to losses in a length of straight pipe. Table 12 (12a) gives equivalent pipe lengths for various fittings.
In underground pipe computations, fitting loss is generally a small portion of total loss and is not normally considered unless specific devices, such as backflow preventers which can cause at least a loss of 5 psi (0.34 bar) across them, have been installed. In sprinkler system computations, fitting loss is normally considered.
Experiments have shown that pressure loss due to fittings occurs primarily downstream from the fittings and involves cavitation and turbulence. Thus, tees have larger losses than short radius elbows, which have larger losses than long radius elbows, etc.
3.4 Discharge from Nozzles From Equations 32 and 37, it follows that: Q = (A) x [(2)x(g)x(hv)]0.5 (Equation 39)
In a jet discharging from a nozzle, all the available head (velocity head plus pressure head) is converted to velocity head, which can be measured with a Pitot gauge. When velocity head and nozzle diameter are known, theoretical discharge can be computed from Equation 39.
3.5 Discharge Coefficient Actual discharge is less than computed discharge because velocity is not uniform over the cross section of the stream. Therefore, a correction factor, or discharge coefficient, is needed in order to use Equation 39.
Thus, Equation 39 is modified to include a correction factor, or discharge coefficient, as follows: Q = (c)x(A) x [(2)x(g)x(hv)]0.5 (Equation 40)

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where c is the discharge coefficient. Table 4 gives typical discharge coefficients.
Discharge coefficients used in calculations of flow from hydrants depend upon the character of the hydrant outlet. Figure 4 shows three typical types of hydrant outlets.
Hydrants with orifice plates or valved butts are not in any of the above categories. Use hoses with nozzles to determine flow.
In convenient fire protection units, Equation 40 may be rewritten as follows: Q = (a)x(c)x(d2)x(PV)0.5 (Equation 1)
where: Q is the rate of flow, gpm (L/min). a is the constant = 29.8 (0.666 for PV in bars). c is the discharge coefficient. d is the orifice diameter, in. (mm). PV is the velocity pressure or Pitot pressure, psi (bar).
3.6 Theoretical Discharge Tables 6 through 11 give theoretical discharges in gpm (L/min), based on Equation 1, for various orifice diameters and velocity (Pitot) pressures when c = 1.00. To obtain actual discharge, find theoretical discharge corresponding to known PV and d, and multiply by appropriate coefficient from Table 4.
3.7 Nozzle K Factor Equation 1 can also be written in the form: Q = (K)x(PV)0.5 (Equation 41)
where: K = (a)x(c)x(d2) (Equation 42)
K is a theoretical constant for a given orifice. If nozzle K is known and PV is measured, discharge in gpm (L/min) is found from Equation 41. Nominal values of K for various nozzles are given in Table 5.
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The K of a sprinkler is calculated from a variation of Equation 41 as follows: Q = (K)x(PN)0.5 (Equation 43)
where PN is measured upstream from the sprinkler in a pipe or reservoir.
When PN is measured in a reservoir, PV is essentially zero, so we use PN = Pt and write: Q = (K)x(Pt)0.5 (Equation 44)
3.1.8 Combined Sprinkler Discharge and Pipe Flow Discharge from single sprinklers is calculated from Equation 7 (or 44). Flow in a pipe is available from Equation 15 (p = (c/d4.87)x(Q/C)1.85) where we solve for Q. For a specific piece of pipe, c, C and d are constant, so we can solve for Q to get: Q = (K)x(p0.54) (Equation 44)
where: K = (C)x(d2.63)/(c0.54) is also constant (Equation 45)
If several sprinklers in a constant elevation system are operating, calculations use both p0.5 and p0.54. A group of sprinklers with piping can thus be represented by Q = (K)x(pr), where K is constant and 0.5 < r < 0.54. Pinpointing r within this range is impractical. When friction loss is relatively small, as with large pipe, short branch lines, or small groups of sprinklers, r is close to 0.5. Conversely, when friction loss is relatively large, r is close to 0.54.
For a fixed number of operating sprinklers, total pressure throughout a sprinkler system at constant elevation is directly proportional to total pressure at any given point. If total pressure at one point is changed from Pt1 to Pt2, total pressure at every other point with the same elevation is multiplied by Pt2/Pt1. From Q = (K)x(pr), we get Q1 = (K)x(p1r) and Q2 = (K)x(p2r) which yield Q2/Q1 = (p2/p1)r. Thus to change from p1 to p2, find Q2 from: Q2/Q1 = (p2/p1)0.5, for r = 0.50 (Equation 46) or Q2/Q1 = (p2/p1)0.54, for r = 0.54 (Equation 47)
Although technically this method applies only when the sprinklers are at exactly the same elevation, it is satisfactory in single-story sections of sprinkler systems unless the ceiling is steeply pitched.

4.0 REFERENCES 4.1 FM Global Data Sheet 2-89, Pipe Friction Loss Tables
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Data Sheet 3-26, Fire Protection Water Demand for Nonstorage Sprinklered Properties Data Sheet 8-9, Protection of Class 1, 2, 3, 4 and Plastic Commodities Hydraulics Tables (P6920) Pocket Guide to Automatic Sprinklers (P8807) 4.2 Others American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow," by Moody, Transactions of the ASME, 1944. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection. NFPA 15.
APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS Effective Point: The location where the results of a water flow test are applicable. Its location is based on where the column of static water starting in the residual pressure gauge meets the column of flowing water, adjusted for elevation difference. Hydraulic Gradient: A test method that isolates any location of abnormally high pressure loss which causes low yields. It is a profile of residual pressure. It assumes a uniform rate of flow and simultaneous residual pressure readings at various points along the pipe. In practice, moving one gauge progressively from test point to test point while test flow is maintained yields maximum consistency in pressure readings. Residual Pressure: Pressure observed at sprinkler risers, non-flowing hydrants, or other direct connections to the supply pipe during test flow conditions. Static Pressure: Pressure observed at sprinkler risers, non-flowing hydrants, or other direct connections to the supply pipe when there is no test flow.
APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY March 2010. This data sheet has been rewritten and reformatted. Text from the previous version of this data sheet has been combined with text from obsolete Data Sheet 2-8N, NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems 1996 Edition.
September 2006. Minor editorial changes were made for this revision.
May 2006. Data Sheet 3-0 was updated to remove any reference to Data Sheet 2-76, which was made obsolete.
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APPENDIX C HYDRAULIC TABLES Table 2. Values of FC for Corresponding Values of C Corresponding Values of FC for Given Values of C C Value = 100 C Value 180 170 165 150 145 140 130 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 FC 0.337 0.375 0.396 0.472 0.503 0.537 0.615 0.662 0.714 0.838 0.914 1.00 1.10 1.22 1.35 1.51 1.70 1.93 2.22 2.57 3.02 3.61 C Value = 120 C Value 180 170 165 150 145 140 130 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 FC 0.472 0.525 0.555 0.662 0.705 0.752 0.862 0.927 1.00 1.17 1.28 1.40 1.54 1.70 1.89 2.12 2.39 2.71 3.11 3.61 4.23 5.05 C Value = 130 C Value 180 170 165 150 145 140 130 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 FC 0.548 0.609 0.643 0.767 0.817 0.872 1.00 1.08 1.16 1.36 1.48 1.62 1.79 1.97 2.19 2.46 2.77 3.14 3.61 4.18 4.91 5.86 C Value = 140 C Value 180 170 165 150 145 140 130 125 120 110 105 100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 FC 0.628 0.698 0.738 0.880 0.937 1.00 1.15 1.23 1.33 1.56 1.70 1.86 2.05 2.26 2.52 2.82 3.17 3.61 4.13 4.79 5.63 6.72

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Table 3. Hazen-Williams Pipe Coefficients for Underground Pipe Use Kind of Pipe Cast-iron, unlined 10 years old 15 years old 20 years old 30 years old 50 years old Cast-iron, unlined, new Cast-iron, cement-lined Cast-iron, bitumastic-enamel-lined Cement-asbestos Approved plastic-lined steel Approved glass-fiber-reinforced plastic Approved PVC Mild 105 100 95 85 75 Water Corrosiveness Moderate 90 75 65 55 50 120 140 140 140 145* 160* 150* Severe 75 60 55 45 40
*If using the Hazen-Williams formula, use these coefficients. If using nominal pipe size and Table 1 from Data Sheet 2-89, use the following artificial C coefficients in internal diameter between these pipes and Schedule 40 steel pipe: FM Approved plastic-lined steel - 165; FM Approved glass-fiber-reinforced plastic - 180; FM Approved PVC - 165
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Fig. 4. Discharge Coefficients for three common hydrant outlets Table 4. Discharge Coefficients of Typical Orifices and Nozzles Type of Orifice Hydrant butt, smooth, well-rounded outlet Hydrant butt, square outlet Hydrant butt, inset outlet Smooth Underwriter nozzles Deluge nozzles Open pipe, smooth and well-rounded, at least 10 diameters long Open pipe, burred opening or less than 10 diameters long *See Figure 4 c 0.80* 0.70* 0.60* 0.97 0.99 0.90 0.80

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Table 5. Values of K for Various Discharge Orifices

Nominal Diameter Size Type of Orifice
Sprinkler
Nominal K Value
in.
3/8 7/16 1/2 17/32 0.64
mm
10
English
2.8 4.0
Metric*
40 60 80 115 160 104 320 420 470 530 590 650 720 790 860 940 1020 1110 1190 1280 1380 1470 1570 1670 1460 1860 1890 1910 1940 1940 2150 2370 5500 6960
13 14 16 13 22 25 27 29 30 32 33 35 37 38 40 41 43 44 46 48 49 50 50 57 57 57 57 60 64 67 100 113
5.6 8.0 11.2 7.2 22.2 29.1 32.8 36.8 41.0 45.4 50.1 54.9 60.0 65.4 70.9 76.8 82.8 89.0 95.5 102 109 116 100 130 131 133 134 134 149 164 381 484
Nozzle
1/2 7/8 1 1-1/16 1-1/8 1-3/16 1-1/4 1-5/16 1-3/8 1-7/16 1-1/2 1-9/16 1-5/8 1-11/16 1-3/4 1-13/16 1-7/8 1-15/16 2
Open pipe, smooth and well-rounded (c = 0.85) FM Nozzle (c = 0.86) (c = 0.87) (c = 0.88) (c = 0.89) Hydrant butt (c = 0.80)
2 2-1/4 2-1/4 2-1/4 2-1/4 2-3/8 2-1/2 2-5/8 4 4-1/2
*For use with pressure in terms of bars
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Table 6. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices up to 2 in. (50 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures up to 40 psi (2.8 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 10 (0.7) 12 (0.8) 14 (1.0) 16 (1.1) 18 (1.2) 20 (1.4) 22 (1.5) 24 (1.7) 26 (1.8) 28 (1.9) 30 (2.1) 32 (2.2) 34 (2.3) 36 (2.5) 38 (2.6) 40 (2.8) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 39 (12) 42 (13) 46 (14) 49 (15) 52 (16) 55 (17) 57 (17) 60 (18) 62 (19) 65 (20) 67 (20) 69 (21) 71 (22) 73 (22) 75 (23) 77 (24) 3/8 (10) 13.3 (50.2) 14.5 (54.9) 15.7 (59.3) 16.8 (63.4) 17.8 (67.3) 18.7 (70.9) 19.7 (74.4) 20.5 (77.7) 21.4 (80.9) 22.2 (83.9) 23.0 (86.9) 23.7 (89.7) 24.4 (92.5) 25.1 (95.2) 25.8 (97.8) 26.5 (100)
Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 1/2 (13) 23.6 (89.2) 25.8 (97.7) 27.9 (106) 29.8 (113) 31.6 (120) 33.3 (126) 34.9 (132) 36.5 (138) 38.0 (144) 39.4 (149) 40.8 (154) 42.1 (160) 43.4 (164) 44.7 (169) 45.9 (174) 47.1 (178) 5/8 (16) 36.8 (139) 40.3 (153) 43.6 (165) 46.6 (176) 49.4 (187) 52.1 (197) 54.6 (207) 57.0 (216) 59.4 (225) 61.6 (233) 63.8 (241) 65.8 (249) 67.9 (257) 69.8 (264) 71.8 (272) 73.6 (279) 3/4 (19) 53.0 (201) 58.1 (220) 62.7 (237) 67.1 (254) 71.1 (269) 75.0 (284) 78.6 (298) 82.1 (311) 85.5 (324) 88.7 (336) 91.8 (348) 94.8 (359) 97.7 (370) 101 (381) 103 (391) 106 (401) 7/8 (22) 72.1 (273) 79.0 (299) 85.4 (323) 91.3 (345) 96.8 (366) 102 (386) 107 (405) 112 (423) 116 (440) 121 (457) 125 (473) 129 (489) 133 (504) 137 (518) 141 (532) 144 (546) 1 (25) 94.2 (357) 103 (391) 112 (422) 119 (451) 126 (479) 133 (504) 140 (529) 146 (553) 152 (575) 158 (597) 163 (618) 169 (638) 174 (658) 179 (677) 184 (695) 189 (713) 1 1/8 (29) 119 (451) 131 (495) 141 (534) 151 (571) 160 (606) 169 (638) 177 (670) 185 (699) 192 (728) 200 (755) 207 (782) 213 (808) 220 (832) 226 (857) 233 (880) 239 (903) 1 1/4 (32) 147 (557) 161 (611) 174 (659) 186 (705) 198 (748) 208 (788) 218 (827) 228 (863) 237 (899) 246 (933) 255 (965) 263 (997) 272 (1028) 279 (1057) 287 (1086) 295 (1115) 1 1/2 (38) 212 (803) 232 (879) 251 (950) 268 (1015) 285 (1077) 300 (1135) 315 (1190) 329 (1243) 342 (1294) 355 (1343) 367 (1390) 379 (1436) 391 (1480) 402 (1523) 413 (1564) 424 (1605) 1 3/4 (44) 289 (1092) 316 (1197) 342 (1293) 365 (1382) 387 (1466) 408 (1545) 428 (1620) 447 (1692) 465 (1761) 483 (1828) 500 (1892) 516 (1954) 532 (2014) 548 (2073) 563 (2129) 577 (2185) 2 (50) 377 (1427) 413 (1563) 446 (1688) 477 (1804) 506 (1914) 533 (2018) 559 (2116) 584 (2210) 608 (2301) 631 (2387) 653 (2471) 674 (2552) 695 (2631) 715 (2707) 735 (2781) 754 (2854)

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Table 7. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices up to 2 in. (50 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 40 psi (2.8 bar) and up to 70 psi (4.8 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 42 (2.9) 44 (3.0) 46 (3.2) 48 (3.3) 50 (3.5) 52 (3.6) 54 (3.7) 56 (3.9) 58 (4.0) 60 (4.1) 62 (4.3) 64 (4.4) 66 (4.6) 68 (4.7) 70 (4.8) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 79 (24) 81 (25) 83 (25) 84 (26) 86 (26) 88 (27) 90 (27) 91 (28) 93 (28) 94 (29) 96 (29) 98 (30) 99 (30) 101 (31) 102 (31) 3/8 (10) 27.2 (103) 27.8 (105) 28.4 (108) 29.0 (110) 29.6 (112) 30.2 (114) 30.8 (117) 31.4 (119) 31.9 (121) 32.5 (123) 33.0 (125) 33.5 (127) 34.0 (129) 34.6 (131) 35.1 (133) 1/2 (13) 48.3 (183) 49.4 (187) 50.5 (191) 51.6 (195) 52.7 (199) 53.7 (203) 54.7 (207) 55.8 (211) 56.7 (215) 57.7 (218) 58.7 (222) 59.6 (226) 60.5 (229) 61.4 (233) 62.3 (236) 5/8 (16) 75.4 (286) 77.2 (292) 79.0 (299) 80.6 (305) 82.3 (312) 83.9 (318) 85.5 (324) 87.1 (330) 88.7 (336) 90.2 (341) 91.7 (347) 93.1 (353) 94.6 (358) 96.0 (363) 97.4 (369) 3/4 (19) 109 (411) 111 (421) 114 (430) 116 (440) 119 (449) 121 (458) 123 (466) 125 (475) 128 (483) 130 (492) 132 (500) 134 (508) 136 (515) 138 (523) 140 (531) Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 7/8 (22) 148 (560) 151 (573) 155 (586) 158 (598) 161 (611) 165 (623) 168 (635) 171 (646) 174 (658) 177 (669) 180 (680) 183 (691) 185 (702) 188 (712) 191 (723) 1 (25) 193 (731) 198 (748) 202 (765) 207 (782) 211 (798) 215 (813) 219 (829) 223 (844) 227 (859) 231 (874) 235 (888) 238 (902) 242 (916) 246 (930) 249 (944) 1 1/8 (29) 244 (925) 250 (947) 256 (968) 261 (989) 267 (1009) 272 (1029) 277 (1049) 282 (1068) 287 (1088) 292 (1106) 297 (1124) 302 (1142) 306 (1160) 311 (1177) 316 (1194) 1 1/4 (32) 302 (1142) 309 (1169) 316 (1195) 323 (1221) 329 (1246) 336 (1271) 342 (1295) 348 (1319) 355 (1342) 361 (1365) 367 (1388) 373 (1410) 378 (1432) 384 (1453) 390 (1475) 1 1/2 (38) 435 (1645) 445 (1683) 455 (1721) 465 (1758) 474 (1795) 484 (1830) 493 (1865) 502 (1899) 511 (1933) 519 (1966) 528 (1998) 536 (2030) 545 (2062) 553 (2093) 561 (2123) 1 3/4 (44) 591 (2239) 605 (2291) 619 (2343) 632 (2393) 645 (2443) 658 (2491) 671 (2538) 683 (2585) 695 (2631) 707 (2676) 719 (2720) 730 (2763) 741 (2806) 753 (2849) 764 (2890) 2 (50) 773 (2924) 791 (2993) 809 (3060) 826 (3126) 843 (3190) 860 (3253) 876 (3315) 892 (3376) 908 (3436) 923 (3495) 939 (3553) 954 (3609) 968 (3665) 983 (3721) 997 (3775)
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Table 8. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices up to 2 in. (50 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 70 psi (4.8 bar) and up to 100 psi (6.9 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 72 (5.0) 74 (5.1) 76 (5.2) 78 (5.4) 80 (5.5) 82 (5.7) 84 (5.8) 86 (5.9) 88 (6.1) 90 (6.2) 92 (6.3) 94 (6.5) 96 (6.6) 98 (6.8) 100 (6.9) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 103 (32) 105 (32) 106 (33) 108 (33) 109 (33) 110 (34) 112 (34) 113 (34) 114 (35) 116 (35) 117 (36) 118 (36) 119 (36) 121 (37) 122 (37) 3/8 (10) 35.6 (135) 36.0 (136) 36.5 (138) 37.0 (140) 37.5 (142) 37.9 (144) 38.4 (145) 38.9 (147) 39.3 (149) 39.8 (151) 40.2 (152) 40.6 (154) 41.1 (155) 41.5 (157) 41.9 (159)
Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 1/2 (13) 63.2 (239) 64.1 (243) 64.9 (246) 65.8 (249) 66.6 (252) 67.5 (255) 68.3 (258) 69.1 (262) 69.9 (265) 70.7 (268) 71.5 (271) 72.2 (273) 73.0 (276) 73.8 (279) 74.5 (282) 5/8 (16) 98.8 (374) 100 (379) 102 (384) 103 (389) 104 (394) 105 (399) 107 (404) 108 (409) 109 (413) 110 (418) 112 (423) 113 (427) 114 (432) 115 (436) 116 (441) 3/4 (19) 142 (538) 144 (546) 146 (553) 148 (560) 150 (568) 152 (575) 154 (582) 155 (588) 157 (595) 159 (602) 161 (609) 163 (615) 164 (622) 166 (628) 168 (635) 7/8 (22) 194 (733) 196 (743) 199 (753) 202 (763) 204 (772) 207 (782) 209 (792) 212 (801) 214 (810) 216 (819) 219 (828) 221 (837) 224 (846) 226 (855) 228 (864) 1 (25) 253 (957) 256 (970) 260 (983) 263 (996) 267 (1009) 270 (1021) 273 (1034) 276 (1046) 280 (1058) 283 (1070) 286 (1082) 289 (1094) 292 (1105) 295 (1117) 298 (1128) 1 1/8 (29) 320 (1211) 324 (1228) 329 (1245) 333 (1261) 337 (1277) 342 (1293) 346 (1309) 350 (1324) 354 (1339) 358 (1354) 362 (1369) 366 (1384) 370 (1399) 373 (1413) 377 (1428) 1 1/4 (32) 395 (1495) 401 (1516) 406 (1536) 411 (1557) 417 (1576) 422 (1596) 427 (1615) 432 (1634) 437 (1653) 442 (1672) 447 (1690) 451 (1709) 456 (1727) 461 (1745) 466 (1762) 1 1/2 (38) 569 (2153) 577 (2183) 585 (2212) 592 (2241) 600 (2270) 607 (2298) 615 (2326) 622 (2354) 629 (2381) 636 (2408) 643 (2434) 650 (2461) 657 (2487) 664 (2512) 671 (2538) 1 3/4 (44) 774 (2931) 785 (2972) 796 (3011) 806 (3051) 816 (3090) 826 (3128) 836 (3166) 846 (3203) 856 (3240) 866 (3277) 875 (3313) 885 (3349) 894 (3385) 904 (3420) 913 (3454) 2 (50) 1011 (3828) 1025 (3881) 1039 (3933) 1053 (3985) 1066 (4035) 1079 (4086) 1093 (4135) 1105 (4184) 1118 (4232) 1131 (4280) 1143 (4328) 1156 (4374) 1168 (4421) 1180 (4466) 1192 (4512)

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Table 9. Theoretical Discharge thru Circular Orifices Over 2 in. (50 mm) up to 4-1/2 in. (114 mm), gpm (Lpm), with Discharge Coeff. Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures up to 40 psi (2.8 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 10 (0.7) 12 (0.8) 14 (1.0) 16 (1.1) 18 (1.2) 20 (1.4) 22 (1.5) 24 (1.7) 26 (1.8) 28 (1.9) 30 (2.1) 32 (2.2) 34 (2.3) 36 (2.5) 38 (2.6) 40 (2.8) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 39 (12) 42 (13) 46 (14) 49 (15) 52 (16) 55 (17) 57 (17) 60 (18) 62 (19) 65 (20) 67 (20) 69 (21) 71 (22) 73 (22) 75 (23) 77 (24) 2 1/4 (57) 477 (1806) 523 (1978) 565 (2137) 604 (2284) 640 (2423) 675 (2554) 708 (2678) 739 (2797) 769 (2912) 798 (3022) 826 (3128) 853 (3230) 880 (3330) 905 (3426) 930 (3520) 954 (3611) 2 3/8 (60) 532 (2012) 582 (2204) 629 (2381) 672 (2545) 713 (2699) 752 (2845) 788 (2984) 824 (3117) 857 (3244) 890 (3367) 921 (3485) 951 (3599) 980 (3710) 1008 (3817) 1036 (3922) 1063 (4024) 2 1/2 (64) 589 (2229) 645 (2442) 697 (2638) 745 (2820) 790 (2991) 833 (3153) 874 (3307) 912 (3454) 950 (3595) 986 (3730) 1020 (3861) 1054 (3988) 1086 (4111) 1118 (4230) 1148 (4346) 1178 (4459) 2 5/8 (67) 649 (2458) 711 (2692) 768 (2908) 821 (3109) 871 (3297) 918 (3476) 963 (3646) 1006 (3808) 1047 (3963) 1087 (4113) 1125 (4257) 1162 (4397) 1197 (4532) 1232 (4663) 1266 (4791) 1299 (4916) Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 2 3/4 (70) 713 (2697) 781 (2955) 843 (3192) 902 (3412) 956 (3619) 1008 (3815) 1057 (4001) 1104 (4179) 1149 (4349) 1193 (4514) 1234 (4672) 1275 (4825) 1314 (4974) 1352 (5118) 1389 (5258) 1425 (5395) 3 (75) 848 (3210) 929 (3517) 1004 (3798) 1073 (4061) 1138 (4307) 1199 (4540) 1258 (4761) 1314 (4973) 1368 (5176) 1419 (5372) 1469 (5560) 1517 (5743) 1564 (5919) 1609 (6091) 1653 (6258) 1696 (6420) 3 1/4 (83) 995 (3768) 1090 (4127) 1178 (4458) 1259 (4766) 1335 (5055) 1408 (5328) 1476 (5588) 1542 (5837) 1605 (6075) 1666 (6304) 1724 (6525) 1781 (6739) 1835 (6947) 1889 (7148) 1940 (7344) 1991 (7535) 3 1/2 (89) 1154 (4369) 1265 (4786) 1366 (5170) 1460 (5527) 1549 (5862) 1633 (6179) 1712 (6481) 1788 (6769) 1861 (7045) 1932 (7311) 2000 (7568) 2065 (7816) 2129 (8057) 2190 (8290) 2250 (8518) 2309 (8739) 3 3/4 (95) 1325 (5016) 1452 (5495) 1568 (5935) 1676 (6345) 1778 (6730) 1874 (7094) 1966 (7540) 2053 (7771) 2137 (8088) 2218 (8393) 2295 (8688) 2371 (8973) 2444 (9249) 2514 (9517) 2583 (9778) 2650 (10030) 4 (100) 1508 (5707) 1652 (6252) 1784 (6753) 1907 (7219) 2023 (7657) 2132 (8071) 2236 (8465) 2336 (8841) 2431 (9202) 2523 (9550) 2612 (9885) 2697 (10210) 2780 (10520) 2861 (10830) 2939 (11120) 3016 (11410) 4 1/2 (114) 1908 (7223) 2090 (7912) 2258 (8546) 2414 (9136) 2560 (9690) 2699 (10210) 2830 (10710) 2956 (11190) 3077 (11650) 3193 (12090) 3305 (12510) 3414 (12920) 3519 (13320) 3621 (13700) 3720 (14080) 3817 (14450)
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Table 10. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices Over 2 in. (50 mm) and up to 4-1/2 in. (114 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 40 psi (2.8 bar) and up to 70 psi (4.8 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 42 (2.9) 44 (3.0) 46 (3.2) 48 (3.3) 50 (3.5) 52 (3.6) 54 (3.7) 56 (3.9) 58 (4.0) 60 (4.1) 62 (4.3) 64 (4.4) 66 (4.6) 68 (4.7) 70 (4.8) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 79 (24) 81 (25) 83 (25) 84 (26) 86 (26) 88 (27) 90 (27) 91 (28) 93 (28) 94 (29) 96 (29) 98 (30) 99 (30) 101 (31) 102 (31) 2 1/4 (57) 978 (3701) 1001 (3788) 1023 (3873) 1045 (3956) 1067 (4038) 1088 (4118) 1108 (4196) 1129 (4273) 1149 (4349) 1169 (4423) 1188 (4496) 1207 (4568) 1226 (4639) 1244 (4709) 1262 (4778)
Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 2 3/8 (60) 1089 (4123) 1115 (4220) 1140 (4315) 1165 (4408) 1189 (4499) 1212 (4588) 1235 (4675) 1258 (4761) 1280 (4845) 1302 (4928) 1324 (5010) 1345 (5090) 1366 (5169) 1386 (5246) 1406 (5323) 2 1/2 (64) 1207 (4569) 1235 (4676) 1263 (4781) 1290 (4884) 1317 (4985) 1343 (5084) 1369 (5180) 1394 (5275) 1418 (5369) 1443 (5461) 1467 (5551) 1490 (5640) 1513 (5727) 1536 (5813) 1558 (5898) 2 5/8 (67) 1331 (5037) 1362 (5156) 1393 (5271) 1423 (5385) 1452 (5496) 1481 (5605) 1509 (5711) 1537 (5816) 1564 (5919) 1591 (6020) 1617 (6120) 1643 (6218) 1668 (6314) 1693 (6409) 1718 (6503) 2 3/4 (70) 1461 (5528) 1495 (5658) 1529 (5785) 1561 (5910) 1594 (6032) 1625 (6151) 1656 (6268) 1687 (6383) 1716 (6496) 1746 (6607) 1775 (6717) 1803 (6824) 1831 (6930) 1858 (7034) 1886 (7137) 3 (75) 1738 (6579) 1779 (6734) 1819 (6885) 1858 (7033) 1897 (7178) 1934 (7320) 1971 (7460) 2007 (7597) 2043 (7731) 2078 (7863) 2112 (7993) 2146 (8121) 2179 (8247) 2212 (8371) 2244 (8493) 3 1/4 (83) 2040 (7721) 2088 (7903) 2135 (8080) 2181 (8254) 2226 (8424) 2270 (8591) 2313 (8755) 2356 (8915) 2397 (9073) 2438 (9228) 2478 (9381) 2518 (9531) 2557 (9679) 2596 (9824) 2634 (9968) 3 1/2 (89) 2366 (8955) 2422 (9165) 2476 (9371) 2529 (9573) 2581 (9770) 2632 (9964) 2683 (10150) 2732 (10340) 2780 (10520) 2828 (10700) 2874 (10880) 2920 (11050) 2966 (11230) 3010 (11390) 3054 (11560) 3 3/4 (95) 2716 (10280) 2780 (10520) 2842 (10760) 2903 (10990) 2963 (11220) 3022 (11440) 3080 (11660) 3136 (11870) 3192 (12080) 3246 (12290) 3300 (12490) 3353 (12690) 3405 (12890) 3456 (13080) 3506 (13270) 4 (100) 3090 (11700) 3163 (11970) 3234 (12240) 3303 (12500) 3372 (12760) 3438 (13010) 3504 (13260) 3568 (13510) 3631 (13740) 3693 (13980) 3754 (14210) 3814 (14440) 3874 (14660) 3932 (14880) 3989 (15100) 4 (114) 3911 (14800) 4003 (15150) 4092 (15490) 4181 (15820) 4267 (16150) 4352 (16470) 4434 (16780) 4516 (17090) 4596 (17390) 4674 (17690) 4752 (17980) 4828 (18270) 4903 (18560) 4976 (18830) 5049 (19110)

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Table 11. Theoretical Discharge through Circular Orifices Over 2 in. (50 mm) and up to 4-1/2 in. (114 mm), gpm (L/min), with Discharge Coefficient Equal to 1.00 (See Table 4); Velocity Head Pressures Over 70 psi (4.8 bar) and up to 100 psi (6.9 bar)
Velocity Head psi (bar) 72 (5.0) 74 (5.1) 76 (5.2) 78 (5.4) 80 (5.5) 82 (5.7) 84 (5.8) 86 (5.9) 88 (6.1) 90 (6.2) 92 (6.3) 94 (6.5) 96 (6.6) 98 (6.8) 100 (6.9) Velocity Pressure ft/sec (m/sec) 103 (32) 105 (32) 106 (33) 108 (33) 109 (33) 110 (34) 112 (34) 113 (34) 114 (35) 116 (35) 117 (36) 118 (36) 119 (36) 121 (37) 122 (37) 2 1/4 (57) 1280 (4845) 1298 (4912) 1315 (4978) 1332 (5043) 1349 (5107) 1366 (5171) 1383 (5233) 1399 (5295) 1415 (5357) 1431 (5417) 1447 (5477) 1463 (5536) 1478 (5595) 1494 (5653) 1509 (5710) 2 3/8 (60) 1426 (5399) 1446 (5473) 1465 (5547) 1485 (5619) 1503 (5691) 1522 (5761) 1541 (5831) 1559 (5900) 1577 (5968) 1595 (6036) 1612 (6102) 1630 (6168) 1647 (6234) 1664 (6298) 1681 (6362) 2 1/2 (64) 1580 (5982) 1602 (6064) 1624 (6146) 1645 (6226) 1666 (6305) 1687 (6384) 1707 (6461) 1727 (6538) 1747 (6613) 1767 (6688) 1786 (6762) 1806 (6835) 1825 (6907) 1844 (6979) 1863 (7050) 2 5/8 (67) 1742 (6595) 1766 (6686) 1790 (6776) 1814 (6864) 1837 (6952) 1859 (7038) 1882 (7123) 1904 (7208) 1926 (7291) 1948 (7373) 1970 (7455) 1991 (7535) 2012 (7615) 2033 (7694) 2053 (7772) Orifice Diameter, in. (mm) 2 3/4 (70) 1912 (7238) 1939 (7338) 1965 (7436) 1990 (7535) 2016 (7629) 2041 (7724) 2066 (7818) 2090 (7910) 2114 (8002) 2138 (8092) 2162 (8182) 2185 (8270) 2208 (8358) 2231 (8444) 2254 (8530) 3 (75) 2276 (8614) 2307 (8733) 2338 (8850) 2369 (8965) 2399 (9080) 2429 (9193) 2458 (9304) 2487 (9414) 2516 (9523) 2544 (9630) 2573 (9737) 2600 (9842) 2628 (9946) 2655 (10050) 2682 (10150) 3 1/4 (83) 2671 (10110) 2708 (10250) 2744 (10390) 2780 (10520) 2815 (10660) 2850 (10790) 2885 (10920) 2919 (11050) 2953 (11180) 2986 (11300) 3019 (11430) 3052 (11550) 3084 (11670) 3116 (11790) 3148 (11910) 3 1/2 (89) 3098 (11720) 3140 (11890) 3182 (12050) 3224 (12200) 3265 (12360) 3306 (12510) 3346 (12660) 3385 (12810) 3425 (12960) 3463 (13110) 3501 (13250) 3539 (13400) 3577 (13540) 3614 (13680) 3651 (13820) 3 3/4 (95) 3556 (13460) 3605 (13640) 3653 (13830) 3701 (14010) 3748 (14190) 3795 (14360) 3841 (14540) 3886 (14710) 3931 (14880) 3976 (15050) 4020 (15210) 4063 (15380) 4106 (15540) 4149 (15700) 4191 (15860) 4 (100) 4046 (15310) 4102 (15520) 4157 (15730) 4211 (15940) 4265 (16140) 4318 (16340) 4370 (16540) 4422 (16740) 4473 (16930) 4523 (17120) 4573 (17310) 4623 (17500) 4672 (17680) 4720 (17870) 4768 (18050) 4 1/2 (114) 5120 (19380) 5191 (19650) 5261 (19910) 5330 (20170) 5397 (20430) 5465 (20680) 5531 (20930) 5596 (21180) 5661 (21430) 5725 (21670) 5788 (21910) 5851 (22140) 5913 (22380) 5974 (22610) 6035 (22840)
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Table 12. Equivalent Pipe Length Table, ft (C=120)

Nominal Pipe Size, in. Standard Screwed Elbow or Run of Tee Reduced 1/2 (Note 1) 45o Elbow 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 25 31 38 90o Straight Flanged (Note 2) or Medium Sweep Elbow (Note 3), or Tee Reduced 1/4 Standard Tee or Cross-Flow Turned 90o (Notes 2 and 4) 90o Long Radius Flanged Elbow (Note 2) 100 4 5 6 8 10 12 15 17 20 25 30 35 50 60 67 78 89 99 120 145 175 Swing Check Alarm Check or Dry Pipe Valve 25 35 45 60 75 90 100 125 150 160 200 250 350 400 500 600 700 750 800 1000 1250 1500 7 8 12 15 18 23 28 31 33 58 67 75 92 100 125 145 165 200 220 280 330 20 25 34 40 50 65 80 90 100 130 160 7 9 11 14 17 20 25 30 35 40 50 65 80 100 120 135 150 160 200 250 300 Globe Valve Fully Open Butterfly Valve Fully Open (Note 5)
Gate Valve % Open
Angle Valve
75 1 2 3 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 16 19 23 27 31 35 39 47 60 70
50 8 10 13 16 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 80 100 120 130 150 175 190 230 290 350
1 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 30 36
2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 18 22 27
3 4 5 6 6 8 10 12 16 19 22 26 30 34 38 45 58 70
3 4 5 5 6 8 9 13 16 18 21 24 27 30 35 45 55
1 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18
12 10 12 19 21 24 26 30 35 44
Note 1: Includes reducer or bushing reduced one half Note 2: Values apply to cast-iron flanged, bell and spigot, mechanical joint and push-on joint pipe. Ignore friction loss of straight run through tee Note 3: Includes reducer or bushing reduced one quarter Note 4: Equivalent lengths also apply to square elbows Note 5: Butterfly valves values for 4 in through 12 in. originate from NFPA 15; and values for 14 in. through 24 in. are averaged and converted to equivalent feet of loss: C=120

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Table 12(a). Equivalent Pipe Length Table, m (C=120)

Nominal Pipe Size, mm Standard Screwed Elbow or Run of Tee Reduced 1/2 (Note 1) 45o Elbow 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.5 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.6 9.4 11.6 90o Straight Flanged (Note 2) or Medium Sweep Elbow (Note 3), or Tee Reduced 1/4 Standard Tee or Cross-Flow Turned 90o (Notes 2 and 4) 90o Long Radius Flanged Elbow (Note 2) 100 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.6 5.2 6.1 7.6 9.1 10.7 15.2 18.3 20.4 23.8 27.1 30.2 36.6 44.2 53 Swing Check Alarm Check or Dry Pipe Valve 25 10.7 13.7 18.3 22.9 27.4 30.5 38.1 45.7 48.8 61 76 107 122 152 183 213 229 244 305 381 457 2.1 2.4 3.7 4.6 5.5 7.0 8.5 9.4 10.1 17.7 20.4 22.9 28.0 30.1 38.1 44.2 50 61 67 85 100 6.1 7.6 10.4 12.2 15.2 19.8 24.4 27.4 30.5 40.0 48.8 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.3 5.2 6.1 7.6 9.1 10.7 12.2 15.2 19.8 24.4 30.5 36.6 41.1 45.7 48.8 61 76 91 Globe Valve Fully Open Butterfly Valve Fully Open (Note 5)
Gate Valve % Open
Angle Valve
75 0.3 0.6 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.9 5.8 7.0 8.2 9.4 10.7 11.9 14.3 18.3 21.3
50 2.4 3.0 4.0 4.9 6.1 7.6 9.1 10.7 12.2 13.7 18.3 24.4 30.5 36.6 39.6 45.7 53 58 70 88 107
20 25 32 40 50 65 80 90 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 750 900
0.6 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.3 5.5 6.7 8.2
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.7 4.9 5.8 6.7 7.9 9.1 10.3 11.6 13.7 17.7 21.3
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.7 4.0 4.9 5.5 6.4 7.3 8.2 9.1 10.7 13.7 16.8
0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.7 4.6 5.5
3.7 3.0 3.7 5.8 6.4 7.3 7.9 9.1 10.7 13.4
Note 1: Includes reducer or bushing reduced one half Note 2: Values apply to cast-iron flanged, bell and spigot, mechanical joint and push-on joint pipe. Ignore friction loss of straight run through tee Note 3: Includes reducer or bushing reduced one quarter Note 4: Equivalent lengths also apply to square elbows Note 5: Butterfly valves values for 100 mm through 300 mm originate from NFPA 15; and values for 350 mm through 600 mm are averaged and converted to equivalent feet of loss: C=120
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Table 13. Adjustment Multiplier for Tables 12 and 12(a) Hazen-Williams Coefficient Value 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 Adjustment Multiplier 1.51 1.33 1.16 1.00 0.851 0.714 0.587 Hazen-Williams Coefficient Value 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Adjustment Multiplier 0.472 0.369 0.277 0.198 0.131 0.077 0.036

APPENDIX D FORMS
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Page 63
Fig. 5. Water Supply Graph N1.85
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Page 64

Fig. 6. Form 295 Hydraulic Calculations (front)

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Page 65
Fig. 7. Form 295 Hydraulic Calculations (back)

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FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheet

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

PE = (h) x 0.433 psi/ft (0.098 bar/m), when h is in feet (meters) (Equation 2)

where: PE is the pressure due to elevation, psi (bar).

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

An example (Example No. 1) of a hydraulic gradient is provided in Figure 1.

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Table 1. Data for Hydraulic Gradient Example No. 1

Column 9: Column 10:

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

For Density: D = [K x (p)0.5]/AMAX, gpm/ft2 (mm/min) (Equation 5)

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

For Demand Area: DA = TNOS x AMAX, ft2 (m2) (Equation 6)

For Number of Sprinklers:

TNOS = DA/AMAX (Equation 8)

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

For Pressure: p = [(D x AMAX)/K ]2, psi (bar) (Equation 9)

TNOS = DA/(S x L) (Equation 10)

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HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

2010 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved

HYDRAULICS OF FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS