COMPUTER NETWORKS

INTRODUCTION

We are living in a connected world. Information is being produced, exchanged, and traced
across the globe in real time. It's possible as almost everyone and everything in the digital
world is interconnected through one way or the other.
A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each other is called
network. Some of the examples of network in our everyday life includes:
• Social network
• Mobile network
• Network of computers
• Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks
What is Computer Network?
A Computer network is an interconnection among two or more computers or computing
devices. Such interconnection allows computers to share data and resources among each
other Resources such as files, applications, printers and software are common information
shared in a networking.

The advantage of networking is

• Resource Sharing
• Collaborative Interaction
• Cost Saving
• Increased storage
• Time Saving
Evolution of Network:

(I) ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network)

• It came into existence in 1960s

• A project for interconnecting, US department of defense with academic and
research organization across different places for scientific collaboration.

(II) NSFNET (National Science Foundation Networks)

• It came into existence in 1986

• It was the first large-scale implementation of Internet technologies in a complex
environment of many independently operated networks
(III) INTERNET
• It came into existence in 1960s
• It is known as Network of Networks
• A global computer network providing variety of information and communication
facilities consisting of interconnected networks using standardized communication
protocols.

DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

DATA

Data means information in digital form which is stored processed and exchanged between
digital devices like computer, mobile phones or laptop.
Data can be text, image, audio, video or multimedia files.
Computers stores raw data and process these data into meaningful information. Hence,
we can define Information as processed data.

Raw Data Information

COMMUNICATION

The exchange of information between two or more networked or interconnected devices

is called communication. These devices must be capable of sending /receiving data over a
communication medium.
 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

The five main components of data communication are as follows:

SENDER: Sender is a device which is capable of sending data over a communication
network. In data communication Sender is also called Source.

RECEIVER: Receiver is a device which is capable of receiving data over a communication

network. In data communication Receiver is also called Destination.

MESSAGE: message is the information being exchanged between a sender and a receiver
over a communication network.

COMMUNICATION MEDIUM: Communication medium is the path or channel through

which the information is moved from the sender to the receiver. A communication
medium can be either wired/guided or wireless/unguided.

PROTOCOLS: The set of standard rules which are followed in data communication are
known as Data Communication Protocols. All the communicating devices like sender
receiver and other connected devices in the network should follow these protocols .

Why Protocols are needed?

The communicating devices may be in different geographical areas. The speed of these
devices may be different. Also, the data transfer rates of different networks may be
different. These complexities make it necessary to have a common set of rules to ensure
the secure communication of data.
Examples of some commonly used Protocols in data communication are given below:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Internet Protocol (IP)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP)
• Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

MEASURING CAPACITY OF COMMUNICATION MEDIA

Capacity of a communication channel means the maximum quantity of signals that a
communication channel can carry. The capacity of a communication medium is measured
by its bandwidth and data transfer rate.
BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies a transmission
media can carry.
The unit of bandwidth is Hertz.

DATA TRANSFER RATES

Data transfer rate is the number of bits transmitted through a channel per unit of time.
Data transfer rate is measured in bits per second (bps). It is also measured in Kilobits per
second (Kbps), Megabits per second (Mbps) or Gigabits per second (Gbps).

IP ADDRESS

IP address or Internet Protocol address is a unique numeric address assigned to every

device connected to a network. It uniquely identifies every node connected to a local
network or internet.
An IP address allows computers to send and receive data over the internet. They can also
be used to track down a user's physical location.There are two versions for IP address IPV4
and IPV6. IP addresses are binary numbers but are typically expressed in decimal form
(IPv4) or hexadecimal form (IPv6) to make reading and using them easily.

The commonly used IP address is IPV4. An IPv4 address consists of four numbers, each of
which contains one to three digits, with a single dot (.) separating each set of digits. Each
of the four numbers can range from 0 to 255.

Example IP address: 24.171.248.170

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender to
receiver. The process of selecting a path of data out of the available paths is
called switching. There are two popular switching techniques – circuit switching and
packet switching.

1. Circuit Switching

In circuit switching, whenever a source end node wants to send a message to the
destination end node a physical link is first established between the source and the
destination. Then only the data transmission takes place. After the complete transmission
of data this physical link is terminated.

Simple example of a circuit switching is telephone network in which a person calls another
person. When the call receiving person receives the call, then only the connection is
established. Then the message is conveyed and finally the connection is terminated.
Advantages:
1. Since a dedicated communication channel is set up before communicating the message,
the data transmission is reliable and is suitable for long and continuous communication.
2 Circuit switching uses fixed bandwidth as well as data rates.
3. As the data is communicated continuously, no need of sequencing or re ordering it at
the receiving end.

Disadvantages:
1. Time required to setup a physical connection between the sender and the receiver
makes delay in communication
2. Since a communication channel is dedicated for a particular transmission, it cannot be
utilized for other communication, even if the channel is free.
3. More expensive since connection has to be established every time before
communication.

2. Packet Switching
In the packet switching technique, the whole message is split into small packets. Now,
these packets are transmitted one by one from sender to the receiver through the
intermediary switches in the network. The packets will take shortest path as possible.
Every packet will have a sequence number in order to identify their order at the receiving
end. The packets will also contain information like source address, intermediate node
address, destination address etc.
Advantages:
1. Packet switching is effective type of data transmission technique as it effectively utilizes
the communication channel. Multiple users can share the channel simultaneously utilizing
the bandwidth effectively.
2. It is cost effective and easy to implement compared to circuit switching.
3. As the messages are sent as small sized packets, the data transmission is quick and easy.
Disadvantages:
1. In packet switching the movement of packets may not be in correct order. Hence it is
not suitable for voice communication.
2. Unorganized movement of packets makes it necessary to implement proper sequencing
and reordering techniques.
3. As the packets flow through multiple paths from the source to the destination, complex
security protocols are required to ensure reliable communication.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA
● A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the
source (transmitter) and destination (receiver). In data communication, transmission
media are the links that carry messages between two or more communicating devices.
● Transmission can be classified as guided or unguided.
● In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire/cable through which
data in terms of signals are propagated between the nodes. These are usually metallic
cable, fiber-optic cable, etc. They are also known as wired media.
● In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic waves
using an antenna. They are also known as wireless media.

Wired Transmission Media

● Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs to the category
of wired transmission media.
● Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission are, twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable.
● Twisted-pair and coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas the optical fiber
cable carries the light signals.

(A) Twisted Pair Cable

• A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA helical structure.
• Both the copper wires are insulated with plastic covers.
• Usually, a number of such pairs are combined together and covered with a
protective outer wrapping.

• The use of twisted configuration minimises the effect of electrical interference

from similar pairs close by.
Advantages:
• It is low-cost, low-weight and flexible cables.
• It is easy to install and maintain and requires RJ-45 Connector.
Disadvantages:
• Suitable for short distance (up to 100 mt.). For long distance Repeater is required.
• It supports low bandwidth and offers up to 100 Mbps speed.
(B) Coaxial cable
• Coaxial cable has a copper wire at the core of the cable which is surrounded with
insulating material. The insulator is further surrounded with an outer conductor (usually a
copper mesh). This outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover.
• The shielded design allows the cable's copper core to transmit data quickly, without
interference of environmental factors.
• These types of cables are used to carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer
distance.

• It is better shielded and has more bandwidth than a twisted pair.

Advantages:
• It offers high bandwidth and carry data for along distance (185-500 m)
• Suitable for Broadband transmission (cable TV) and can be used in shared cable
network.
Disadvantages:
• It is less flexible and expensive compared to Twisted Pair cable.
• Not compatible with modern cables like Twisted pair cable.

(C) Optical Fibre

• The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of glass.
• Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light through the media.
• A thin transparent strand of glass at the center is covered with a layer of less dense
glass called cladding. This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket made of PVC
• These cables are of light weight and have higher bandwidth which means higher
data transfer rate.
Advantages:
• It is free from Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI), since no Electrical signal are
carried.
• Offers secure and high speed transmission up to a long distance.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive and quite fragile (breakable).
• They are unidirectional
• Complicated Installation procedure and difficult to join two broken fiber.
• Not suitable for domestic purposes due to high maintenance cost.

Wireless Transmission Media

• In wireless communication technology, information travels in the form of
electromagnetic signals through air.
• Electromagnetic spectrum of frequency ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz is available
for wireless communication.
• Wireless technologies allow communication between two or more devices in short
to long distance without requiring any physical media.

There are many types of wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi,
WiMax etc.
The electromagnetic spectrum range (3KHz to 900THz) can be divided into 4 categories (
Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves and Visible or Light waves) according to their

frequency ranges.
Classification of transmission waves and their properties
Transmission Waves Properties

Radio Waves 1. Waves of frequency range 3 KHz - 1 GHz

2. Omni-directional, these waves can move in all directions
3. Radio waves of frequency 300KHz-30MHz can travel long distance
4. Susceptible to interference
5. Radio waves of frequency 3-300KHz can penetrate walls
6. These waves are used in AM and FM radio, television, cordless
phones.
Microwaves 1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 1GHz - 300GHz.
2. Unidirectional, can move in only one direction.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls, hills or mountains.
4. Needs line-of-sight propagation i.e. both communicating antenna
must be in the direction of each other.
5. Used in point-to-point communication or unicast communication
such as radar and satellite.
6. Provide very large information-carrying capacity.
Infrared waves 1. Electromagnetic waves of frequency range 300GHz - 400THz.
2. Very high frequency waves.
3. Cannot penetrate solid objects such as walls.
4. Used for short-distance point-to-point communication such as
mobile-to- mobile, mobile-to-printer, remote-control-to-TV, and
Bluetooth-enabled
devices to other devices like mouse, keyboards etc.
Radiowave transmission

Microwave transmission Infrared transmission

Network Devices
To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure networks
with different functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub, Switch,
Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc.

Modem

• Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’.

• It refers to a device used for conversion between analog signals and digital bits.
• It is used to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet,
digital data are converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it free-space or a
physical media) carries the signal to the receiver.
• There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes.
• The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into
analog signals.
• The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog
signals into digital data for the destination node to understand.

Ethernet Card

• Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC) is a network adapter
used to set up a wired network. It acts as an interface between computer and the network.
• It is a circuit board mounted on the motherboard of a computer
• The Ethernet cable connects the computer to the network through NIC.
• Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000
Mbps). Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in uniquely identifying the computer on
the network.
RJ45

• RJ 45 or Registered Jack-45 is an eight-pin connector

• It is used exclusively with Ethernet cables for networking.
• It is a standard networking interface that can be seen at the end of all network
cables.
• It is a small plastic plug that fits into RJ-45 jacks of the Ethernet cards present in
various computing devices.

Repeater

• A repeater is a device that amplifies a signal being transmitted on the network.

• Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable.
• These signals can travel a specified distance (usually about 100 m).
• Signals lose their strength beyond this limit and become weak.
• In such conditions, the weakened signal appearing on the cable is regenerated and
put back on the cable by a repeater.

Hub

• An Ethernet hub is a network device used to connect different devices through

wires. Data arriving on any of the lines are sent out on all the others. The limitation of Hub
is that if data from two devices come at the same time, they will collide.
Switch

• Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple computers or

communicating devices.
• When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data
packet and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet.
• It sends signals to only selected devices instead of sending to all.
• It can forward multiple packets at the same time.
• A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops such
signals and asks the sender to resend it.
• Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices to connect multiple devices thus
creating LANs or to access the Internet.

Router
• A router is a network device that can receive the data, analyses it, decide/alter how
it is packaged and transmit it to other networks.
• A router connects a local area network to the internet.
• For example, data has been divided into packets of a certain size. Suppose these
packets are to be carried over a different type of network which cannot handle bigger
packets. In such a case, the data is to be repackaged as smaller packets and then sent over
the network by a router.

• A router can be wired or wireless.

• A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and other devices.
• Nowadays, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a modem/
switch.
Gateway
• “Gateway” is a key access point that acts as a “gate” between an organisation's
network and the outside world of the Internet.
• Gateway serves as the entry and exit point of a network, as all data coming in or
going out of a network must first pass through the gateway in order to use routing
paths.
• If a node from one network wants to communicate with a node of a foreign
network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway, which then routes it to the
destination using the best possible route.

• For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the gateway is usually the Internet
Service Provider that provides access to the entire Internet.
• Generally, a router is configured to work as a gateway device in computer
networks.
• A gateway can be implemented completely in software, hardware, or a
combination of both.
• Since a network gateway is placed at the edge of a network, the firewall is usually
integrated with it.

WiFi card

• A Wi-Fi card connects to your laptop either in your USB port or a wider card slot.
• The Wi-Fi card acts as both a receiver and transmitter.
• It receives the wireless signal and communicates with the wireless network,
enabling you to access the Web with your laptop.
Computer Network Types
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.
A computer network can be categorized by their size, complexity and geographical spread.
A computer network is mainly of four types:

• LAN (Local Area Network)

• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
PAN (Personal Area Network)
• Personal Area Network is a network of information technology devices (laptop,
mobile phones, media player and play stations) arranged within the range of an
individual person, typically within a range of 10 meters / covers an area of 30 feet.
• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.

LAN (Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as a building, office through a communication medium such as twisted pair,
coaxial cable, etc to share resources. Shared resources can be data, information,
programs, printers, hard-disks, modem etc. The data is transferred at an extremely
faster rate, and provides higher security
• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters,

and Ethernet cables.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area that
is spread over an area as big as a city by interconnecting different LAN to form a
larger network through a telephone exchange line.
• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.

Uses of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
• It can be used in a college within a city.
• It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries through a telephone line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Advantages of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:
• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.
Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
 • Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, WhatsApp, Skype allows you to communicate with
friends.
• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

•Security issue: A WAN network has many security issues as compared to LAN and MAN
network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which can
be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people
can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.
• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.
NETWORK PROTOCOL:

A protocol means the rules that are applicable for a network. Protocols defines
standardized formats for data packets, techniques for detecting and correcting errors etc.

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol

• It is a set of standardized rules that uses a client-server model of communication

in which a user or machine (a client) requests a service by a server in the network.
• The IP protocol ensures that each computer or node connected to the Internet is
assigned an IP address, which is used to identify each node independently.
• TCP ensures that the message or data is broken into smaller chunks, called IP
packets. Each of these packets are routed (transmitted) through the Internet, along a path
from one router to the next, until it reaches the specified destination. TCP guarantees the
delivery of packets on the designated IP address. It is also responsible for ordering the
packets so that they are delivered in sequence.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
• It is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files
from one host to another. It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their
creator to the computer that acts as a server for other computers on the internet. It is
also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
Objectives of FTP
• It provides the sharing of files.
• It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
• It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.)

• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to transmit an

electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different computers,
and it also supports:
I. It can send a single message to one or more recipients.
II. Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.
III. It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.
• The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules between servers.
They also have a way of handling the errors such as incorrect email address. For example,
if the recipient address is wrong, then receiving server reply with an error message of
some kind.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is protocol that is used to connect one computer system to
another. Computers use PPP to communicate over the telephone network or the Internet.
A PPP connection exists when two systems physically connect through a telephone line.
You can use PPP to connect one system to another. For example, an established PPP
connection between a branch office and a central office allows either office to transfer
data to the other through the network.

POP3 Protocol
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail protocol used to receive emails
from a remote server to a local email client. POP3 allows you to download email messages
on your local computer and read them even when you are offline.
How is mail transmitted?
Telnet
• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users want
to run different application programs at the remote site and transfers a result to the local
site. This requires a client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would not allow us
to create a specific program for each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user
access any application program on a remote computer. Therefore, a program that allows
a user to log on to a remote computer. A popular client-server program Telnet is used to
meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.
• Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local
terminal appears to be at the remote side.
There are two types of login:
Local Login- When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local login.
Remote login- When the user wants to access an application program on a remote
computer, then the user must perform remote login.

VoIP :
VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. It is also referred to as IP telephony, internet
telephony, or internet calling. It's an alternative to a public switched telephone network
(PSTN).

Introduction to Web Services

Everyone is using internet irrespective of their background & interest. The types of
services available on internet are as diverse as the interest of the people. Web Services
means the services provided by World Wide Web. The World Wide Web provides services
like chatting, emailing, video conferencing, e-learning, e-shopping, e-reservation, e-
groups and social networking. These services may mean different things to different
people but in simple words, they are the ways to communicate and here the
communication takes place between two electronic devices.

World Wide Web (WWW)

The World Wide Web commonly referred to as WWW, W3, or the Web is an
interconnected system of public webpages accessible through the Internet.
The Web is not the same as the Internet: the Web is one of many applications built on top
of the Internet.It’s invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989. Since that time, the Web has
changed the world. It has perhaps become the most powerful communication medium
the world has ever known.
Major components of WWW are,
1. Web Server – It is a computer that stores website resources (web pages, images,
videos, etc.).
2. Web Browser (Client) - A software application used to access the web resources.
3. Webpage - Hypertext documents formatted in Hypertext Mark-up Language
(HTML) and displayed in a web browser.
 4. Website - A website is a collection of inter-linked web pages that is identified by a
common domain name (website name) and stored on a web server.
5. HTTP Protocol - It governs data (web page) transfer between a server and a client.
6. HTML- A mark-up language used to specify the structure of a webpage.
7. URL- Address used to identify documents and other web resources on the internet.

Web Architecture
Web is working based on a client-server architecture.

Client: It is a computer capable of requesting, receiving & displaying information in the

form of web pages or using a particular service from the service providers (Servers). It’s
also called as web browsers.
Servers: It is a remote computer which provides/transfers information to the client (in the
form of web pages) or access to particular services.

So, it’s basically the Client requesting web pages and the Server serving it as long as the
requested content is available in the server. i.e. a request-response model.
Difference between Internet and WWW
Internet World Wide Web(WWW)
Internet stands for Interconnected
WWW stands for World wide Web
Networks
Internet is a means of connecting a World Wide Web which is a collection of
computer to any other computer anywhere information which is accessed via the
in the world. Internet.

WWW is service on top of that

Internet is infrastructure.
infrastructure.

WWW is more software-oriented as

Internet is primarily hardware-based.
compared to the Internet.
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol. WWW uses HTTP Protocol.
 HTML (Hypertext Mark-up Language)
• It is not a programming language. It is a mark-up language that tells web browsers
how to structure the web pages you visit.
• HTML is language the helps in creating and designing web content.
• It has a variety of tags and attributes for defining the layout and structure of the
web document.
• It is designed to display the data in formatted manner.
• A HTML document has the extension .htm or .html.
• Hypertext is a text which is linked to another document.
HTML Code As Rendered in the Browser
<html>
<head>
<title>
Welcome to KVS RO Ekm
</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Web Services</h1>
<b>Hyper Text Mark-up Language</b>
<br>
<i>Used for creating web pages</i>
</body>
</html>
XML (eXtensible Mark-up Language)

• XML is a mark-up language like HTML.

• It is designed to transport or store data.
• In contrast to HTML, it’s used to transport the data and not for displaying the data.
• Unlike HTML, it does not have predefined tags.
• It is possible to define new tags in XML.
• It allows the programmer to use customized tags.
• XML is case sensitive.
• A XML document has the extension .xml.
HTML v/s XML

HTML XML
HTML stands for Hyper Text Mark-up XML stands for eXtensible Mark-up
Language Language
HTML is a case insensitive. XML is case sensitive.
Predefined tags (commands). User defined tags (commands).
It is used for presentation of the Data. It is used for transportation of the Data.
Small errors can be ignored. Errors not allowed.
Closing tags are optional. Compulsory to use closing tags.

HTTP - Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

▪ HTTP is used to transfer data across the web. HTTP specifies how to transfer hypertext
(linked web documents) between two computers.
▪ It allow users of the World Wide Web to exchange information found on web pages.
▪ When accessing any web page entering http:// in front of the address tells the browser
to communicate over HTTP.
▪ A Protocol is a set of rules for communication between two computers. HTTP is a
textual, stateless protocol.

▪ Clients (web browsers) send requests through request object of http to web servers
for web pages, resources etc.
▪ Web server respond accordingly through response object of http.
▪ After this cycle (request – response), the connection between client and server across
the Internet is disconnected.
▪ A new connection must be made for each request (means for each web page).
▪ Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an extension of the HTTP.
▪ It is used for secure communication over a computer network.
▪ In HTTPS, the communication protocol is encrypted using Transport Layer Security
(TLS).
▪ HTTPS provides,
1) Encryption: Encrypting the exchanged data to keep it secure from eavesdroppers.
2) Data integrity: Data cannot be modified or corrupted during transfer.
3) Authentication: Proves that your users communicate with the intended website.
Domain Names

▪ The Internet is a vast ocean where information is available in the form of millions of
websites.
▪ Each website is stored on a server which is connected to the Internet, which means
each server has an IP address. Every device connected to the Internet has an IP address.
▪ To access a website, we need to enter its IP address on our web browser.
▪ But it is very difficult to remember the IP addresses of different websites as they are
in terms of numbers or strings.
▪ However, it is easier to remember names, and therefore, each computer server
hosting a website or web resource is given a name against its IP address. These names
are called the Domain names or hostnames corresponding to unique IP addresses
assigned to each server.
▪ For easy understanding, it can be considered as the phonebook where instead of
remembering each person’s phone number, we assign names to their numbers.
For example, IP addresses and domain names of some websites are as follows:
Domain Name IP Address
ncert.nic.in 164.100.60.233
cbse.nic.in 164.100.107.32 DNS look-up table
kvsangathan.nic.in 164.100.166.91
wikipedia.org 198.35.26.96
▪ The process of converting a hostname (such as www.google.com) into the
corresponding IP address (such as 172.217.14.196) is called domain name resolution.
▪ Specialized DNS servers are used for domain name resolution (DNS resolution), so
whenever you type some web address (domain name) on the address bar of a web
browser, it will be translated into an equivalent IP address with the help of one or more
DNS servers including local DNS cache.

URL-Uniform Resource Locator

▪ Every web page that is displayed on the Internet has a specific address associated with
it, this address is known as the URL.
▪ Like postal address is required to reach a letter to a person staying anywhere on earth.
The URL consists of four basic parts, namely, server type, hostname, folder name
and the filename. Each one of these has a specific function.
1) The “server type” indicates the type of Internet server (Protocol) being accessed.
The server type is always followed by “://” and the host name.
2) The host name/domain name is the Internet address of a remote computer on
which the files reside.
3) The folder name indicates the name of the directory in which the files are located.
4) The filename specifies the name of the specific document to be displayed in the
browser. The filename itself consists of two pieces of information, the name of the
file to be displayed and the file extension, which specifies the file type (.htm for
HTML file, .txt for a text file, .bmp for a bitmap image, etc.)
The structure of a URL can be represented as follows:

Server type://hostname/directory/sub-directory/.../filename

directory
A URL is illustrated in below figure.

http://in.reddif.com/news/index.html

Hostname or
protocol domain name filename

Websites
▪ A website is a collection of linked web pages (plus their associated resources) that
share a unique domain name.
▪ Thus, a Web site is a collection of related Web pages.
▪ Each web page of a given website provides explicit links, most of the time in the form
of clickable portion of text, that allow the user to move from one page of the website
to another.
▪ Each Web site is owned and updated by an individual, company, or an organization.
▪ Web is a dynamically moving and changing entity, today web sites generally change on
a daily or even hourly basis.
▪ To access a website, type its domain name in your browser address bar, and the
browser will display the website's main web page, or homepage (casually referred as
"the home")

Web page
▪ Web page is an electronic document designed using HTML.
▪ It displays information in textual or graphical form.
▪ It may also contain downloadable data files, audio files or video files.
▪ Traversal from one webpage to another web page is possible through hyperlinks.
Difference between Webpage and Website
A web page is one single page of information, while a website is made up of a number of
related web pages inter-connected by links known as hyperlinks.

Web Browser
• Web browser is software program to navigate the web pages on the internet.
• A bowser interprets the coding language of the web page and displays it in graphic
form.
• A web browser allows anyone to access the web without even knowing commands
used in software languages to design a web page.
• Internet works on client -server model.
• A web browser is a client which requests the information from the web server.
• The web server sends the information back to the client.
• The web address of the webpage written on the address bar tells the web browser
which page to access.
• The most popular web browsers are: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Internet
Explorer, Safari, Opera, Netscape and UC Browser.

What is a cookie?

• A cookie is information stored on your computer by a website you visit.

• Cookies often store your settings for a website, such as your preferred language or
location.
• When you return to the site, browser sends back the cookies that belong to the
site.
• This allows the site to present you with information customized to fit your needs.
• Cookies can store a wide range of information, including personally identifiable
information (such as your name, home address, email address, or telephone
number).
• However, this information can only be stored if you provide it - websites cannot
gain access to information you didn't provide to them, and they can't access other
files on your computer.

Web Server
• A web server is a computer or a group of computers hosting one or more websites.
• "Hosting" means that all the web pages and their supporting files are available on
that computer.
• The web server will send any web page from the website it is hosting to any user's
browser, per user request.
• More importantly, since a web server can host multiple websites, the term web
server is never used to designate a website, as it could cause great confusion.
• It works on client/server model.
• It delivers the requested web page to web browser.
• Web servers use special programs such as Apache or IIS to deliver web pages over
the http Protocol
Web Hosting
▪ Web hosting is the process of uploading/saving the web content on a web server to
make it available on WWW.
▪ In case an individual or a company wants to make its website available on the internet,
it should be hosted on a web server.
▪ A good way to think about this is if the domain name is the address of our house, then
web hosting is the actual house that address points to. All websites on the internet,
need web hosting.
▪ Domain names and web hosting are two different services. However, they work
together to make websites possible. It is possible with the system known as DNS .