Lilongwe University of Agriculture and

Natural Resources

Bunda Campus

Basic Sciences Department

MAT 32202: Elementary Linear Algebra and

Complex Numbers

Complex Numbers

Lecture Notes

Francisco Chamera

December 16, 2023

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 1

Contents

1 Definition, Real and Imaginary Parts 2

1.1 Real and Imaginary Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 The Argand Diagram and Polar Form 7

2.1 The Argand Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.2 The Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 De Moivre’s Theorem, Complex Conjugates 13

3.1 The De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.2 Complex Conjugates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 The Exponential Form of a Complex Number 19

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 2

1 Definition, Real and Imaginary Parts

Definition 1.1. A complex number is a number z of the form

z = x + iy

where x, y ∈ R and i2 = −1.

The set of complex numbers is denoted C. Addition and subtraction of complex

numbers is defined below.
Definition 1.2. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be complex numbers where
x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R. Then

1. z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + i(y1 + y2 )
2. z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + i(y1 − y2 )

Multiplication of complex numbers is defined in the natural way:

z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1 )(x2 + iy2 )

= x1 x2 + ix1 y2 + ix2 y1 + i2 y1 y2
= (x1 x2 − y1 y2 ) + i(x1 y2 + x2 y1 )

taking into account the fact that i2 = −1.

Example 1.3.

Let z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = 4 − i. Then

z1 + z2 = 7 + i

and
z1 z2 = (3 + 2i)(4 − i) = 12 − 3i + 8i − 2i2 = 14 + 5i.

The following theorem follows immediately from the definition of a complex number,
i.e., Definition 1.1.
Theorem 1.4. Let z1 , z2 , z3 ∈ C. Then

1. z1 + z2 ∈ C and z1 z2 ∈ C
2. z1 + z2 = z2 + z1 and z1 z2 = z2 z1
3. z1 + (z2 + z3 ) = (z1 + z2 ) + z3 and z1 (z2 z3 ) = (z1 z2 )z3
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 3

4. z1 (z2 + z3 ) = z1 z2 + z1 z3
5. z.1 = z and z + 0 = z for all z ∈ C
6. For all z ∈ C there exists a number −z such that z + (−z) = 0 and if z 6= 0,
then there exists a number z −1 such that zz −1 = 1

Proof. We prove the second part of number 6 and leave the rest as an exercise.

6. Let z = x + iy. Then

1 1 x − iy x − iy
z −1 = = × = 2 .
x + iy x + iy x − iy x + y2

Now
(x + iy)(x − iy)
zz −1 =
x2 + y 2
x2 − ixy + ixy − i2 y 2
=
x2 + y 2
x2 + y 2
= 2
x + y2
= 1.

In Theorem 1.4, the propeerties 2, 3 and 4 are called commutative, associative

and distributive laws respectively.
Definition 1.5. The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is
denoted by z̄ and is given by
z̄ = x − iy.

The sum of the complex number and its conjugate is

z + z̄ = (x + iy) + (x − iy) = 2x.
The difference is
z − z̄ = (x + iy) − (x − iy) = 2iy.
The product of a complex number by its conjugate is
z z̄ = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 − ixy + ixy − i2 y = x2 + y 2 .

Division of complex numbers is done by multiplying the denominator by its con-

jugate. The conjugate of the denominator is also multiplied by the numerator to
ensure that we do not change the value of the original number.
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 4

Example 1.6.

2 + 3i
Simplify and write your solution in the form x + iy.
5 − 2i
Solution

2 + 3i 2 + 3i 5 + 2i
= ×
5 − 2i 5 − 2i 5 + 2i
10 + 4i + 15i + 6i2
=
25 + 10i − 10i − 4i2
(10 − 6) + (4 + 15)i
=
25 + 4
4 + 19i
=
29
4 19
= + i.
29 29
Example 1.7.

(2 + i)(1 − i)
Express in the form x + iy.
4 − 3i
Solution

(2 + i)(1 − i) 2 − 2i + i − i2
=
4 − 3i 4 − 3i
2 − 2i + i + 1
=
4 − 3i
3−i
=
4 − 3i
3−i 4 + 3i
= ×
4 − 3i 4 + 3i
12 + 9i − 4i − 3i2
=
16 + 9
15 + 5i
=
25
15 5
= + i.
25 25
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 5

1.1 Real and Imaginary Parts

Definition 1.8. For the complex number z = x + iy where x, y ∈ R, the real part of
z is x, denoted
R(z) = x
and the imaginary part of z is y denoted
I(z) = y.

Note that the imaginary part is the real number y.

If two complex numbers are equal, it follows that the real part of the first complex
number is equal to the real part of the second complex number, and the imaginary
parts for the two complex numbers are also equal.
Theorem 1.9. Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 where x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R. Then
z1 = z2 if and only if x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

Proof. Suppose z1 = z2 , i.e., x1 + iy1 = x2 + iy2 . Then

x1 − x2 = i(y2 − y1 ).
Squaring both sides we have
(x1 − x2 )2 = i2 (y2 − y1 )2 = −(y2 − y1 )2 .

Since both sides are real numbers, it follows that x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .

This theorem is used to solve equations involving complex numbers. This is called
equating real and imaginary parts of a complex number.
Example 1.10.

Find the values of x and y such that (1 + 2i)x + (2 + i)y = −1 + i.

Solution

(1 + 2i)x + (2 + i)y = −1 + i
x + 2ix + 2y + iy = −1 + i
(x + 2y) + (2x + y)i = −1 + i
giving x + 2y = −1 and 2x + y = 1.

Solving these equations simultaneously gives x = 1 and y = −1.

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 6

Exercise 1.11.

1. Simplify and write your answer in the form a + bi.

(a) (5 − 3i)(3 + 4i)
7−i
(b)
2 + 10i
(c) 8i(10 + 2i)
1 + 5i
(d)
−3i
6 + 7i
(e)
8−i
(f) (−3 − 9i)(1 + 10i)
(g) 3 + 3i + 8 − 2i − 7
(h) (1 + 2i)(4 − 6i)2
(i) (1 − 3i)3
(j) i(1 + 7i) − 3i(4 + 2i)
1 + 2i 2 + i
(k) −
3
 + 4i  5i 
2 1 1 1
(l) + i − i
3 2 2 3
√
−4 − i 3
(m) √
6+i 3
√ √ !2
3 5
(n) −
2 2

2. Find the real values of x and y such that

(1 − i)x + 2i (2 + 3i)y + i
(a) + = −i.
3−i 3+i
(b) (x + iy)(2 + 3i) = 4 + i
3. Find the real numbers x and y such that the complex number 3 − ix2 y is the
complex conjugate of −x2 − y − 4i.
4. Find real x and y if (x–iy)(3 + 5i) is the conjugate of –6–24i.
5. Solve the following systems of linear equations.
(
ix − iy = −2
(a)
2x + y = i
(
x+y =2
(b)
x − y = 2i
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 7

2 The Argand Diagram and Polar Form

2.1 The Argand Diagram

In the argand diagram (Figure 1), the complex number z = x + iy is plotted as

a point with coordinates (x, y). Since the real part of z is plotted on the horizontal
axis we often refer to this as the real axis. The imaginary part of z is plotted on
the vertical axis and so we refer to this as the imaginary axis.

Figure 1: The Argand Diagram

Example 2.1.

Figure 2 shows complex numbers z = 2 + 3i and w = −1 + i.

Figure 2: z = 2 + 3i and w = −1 + i

If we have two complex numbers z = a + bi and w = c + di, then as we already know

z + w = (a + c) + (b + d)i

that is, the real parts add together the same with imaginary parts. But this is
precisely what occurs with the addition of two vectors. If p and q are 2-dimensional
vectors then

p = ai + pj and q = ci + dj
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 8

where i and j are unit vectors in the x− and y− directions, respectively. So using
vector addition:
p + q = (a + c)i + (b + d)j.

Figure 3: Vector and Complex Number Addition

We conclude from this that addition (and hence subtraction) of complex numbers
is essentially equivalent to addition (subtraction) of two-dimensional vectors (see
Figure 3).

2.2 The Polar Form

From the preceding discussion, the complex number z = a + bi can be represented

by a line pointing out of the origin and ending at a point with cartesian coordinates
(a, b). To locate the point P we introduce polar coordinates (r, θ) where r is the
positive distance from 0 and θ is the angle measured from the positive x-axis, as
shown in Figure 4. From the properties of the right-angled triangle there are obvious
relations between (a, b) and (r, θ):

a = r cos θ (1)

and
b = r sin θ. (2)
Squaring and adding Equations 1 and 2 gives
p
r = |z| = a2 + b2 . (3)
b
Dividing Equation 2 by Equation 1 gives tan θ = or equivalently
a
b
θ = tan−1 . (4)
a
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 9

Figure 4: Polar Form

This leads to an alternative way of writing a complex number:

z = a + bi = r cos θ + ir sin θ
= r(cos θ + i sin θ).

The angle θ is called the argument of z and written, for short, arg(z). The non-
negative real number r is the modulus of z. We normally consider θ to lie in the
interval −π < θ < π although any value θ + 2kπ for integer k will be equivalent to
θ. The polar form is also called modulus-argument form.
Example 2.2.

√ π
For z = 1 + i, r = |z| = 2 and arg(z) = θ =
, so the polar form is
4
√  π π
z = 2 cos + i sin .
4 4
Example 2.3.

π
Let z = i. Then r = |z| = 1 and θ = , so
2
π π
z = i = cos + i sin .
2 2
Example 2.4.
 π π
Express z = 2 cos + i sin in the form a + bi.
3 3
Solution
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 10
√
π 1 π 3
cos = and sin = , so
3 2 3 2
 π π √
z = 2 cos + i sin = 1 + i 3.
3 3

The polar form of a complex number is a much more convenient vehicle to use for
multiplication and division of complex numbers. To see why, let us consider two
complex numbers in polar form:

z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) and w = t(cos φ + i sin φ).

Then the product zw is calculated in the usual way

zw = r(cos θ + i sin θ)t(cos φ + i sin φ)

= rt[cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ + i(sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ)]
= rt[cos(θ + φ) + i sin(θ + φ)]

in which we have used the addition formulas for sine and cosine, namely

cos(θ + φ) = cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ

and
sin(θ + φ) = sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ.

We see that, in calculating the product, the moduli r and t multiply together whilst
the arguments arg(x) = θ and arg(w) = φ add together.

Example 2.5.
 π π  π π
Find the product z1 z2 given that z1 = 3 cos + i sin and z2 = 4 cos + i sin .
5 5 10 10
Solution

π  
h π π π i 3π 3π
z1 z2 = 3 × 4 cos + + i sin + = 12 cos + i sin .
5 10 5 10 10 10

A similar process works for division. It is not difficult to show that

z r
= [cos(θ − φ) + i sin(θ − φ)].
w t
We see that, in calculating the quotient, the moduli r and t divide whilst the argu-
ments arg(z) = θ and arg(w) = φ subtract.
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 11

Example 2.6.
 
z1 3π 3π  π π
Find the quotient given that z1 = 12 cos + i sin and z2 = 4 cos + i sin .
z2 4 4 4 4
Solution

    
z1 12 3π π 3π π  π π
= cos − + i sin − = 3 cos + i sin .
z2 4 4 4 4 4 2 2
Example 2.7.

Let z = 1 + i. Find z 4 .

Solution
√  π π √ √
The polar form of z is z = 2 cos + i sin . So |z| = 2 giving |z|4 = ( 2)4 =
4 4
4.
π
Also multiplying together 4 times is the same as adding four times. The resulting
π 4
angle is 4 × = π.
4
Hence z 4 = 4(cos π + i sin π) = −4.
Exercise 2.8.

1. Find the modulus and argument of each complex number, then write in polar
form.
√ √
(a) 2 + i 2
(b) −3 + 5i
√
3 3 3
(c) − − i
2 2
(d) 1 − i
(e) 4 + 3i
(f) 3 − 2i
(g) 2 + 2i
√
(h) −2 3 − 2i
√
(i) − 3 + i
(j) 2i
(k) −5 + 4i
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 12
√
(l) 2 + i 7

2. Write each complex number in cartesian form (rectangular form).

(a) 5(cos π/3 + i sin π/3)

(b) 6(cos 30◦ + i sin 30◦ )
(c) 8(cos 7π/4 + i sin 7π/4)
(d) 10(cos 210◦ + i sin 210◦ )
(e) 4(cos 5π/6 + i sin π/6)
(f) 5(cos π/2 + i sin π/2)
(g) 7(cos 3π/2 + i sin 3π/2)
(h) 20(cos 205◦ + i sin 205◦ )

3. Display on an Argand diagram the complex numbers 1 − i, 1 + 3i and −1 + 2i.

1−i
4. Find the polar form of 1 − i and 1 + 3i, and hence calculate .
1 + 3i
5. Find the product of the complex numbers. Leave answers in polar form.

(a) z1 = 6(cos 20◦ + i sin 20◦ ) and z2 = 5(cos 50◦ + i sin 50◦ )
(b) z1 = 4(cos 15◦ + i sin 15◦ ) and z2 = 7(cos 25◦ + i sin 25◦ )
(c) z1 = cos π/4 + i sin π/4 and z2 = cos π/3 + i sin π/3
   
5π 5π 3π 3π
(d) z1 = 4 cos + i sin and z2 = 7 cos + i sin
6 6 3 2
(e) z1 = cos π/6 + i sin π/6 and z2 = cos π/4 + i sin π/4
z1
6. Find the quotient of the complex numbers. Leave answers in polar form.
z2
(a) z1 = 20(cos 75◦ + i sin 75◦ ) and z2 = 4(cos 25◦ + i sin 25◦ )
(b) z1 = cos 70◦ + i sin 70◦ and z2 = cos 230◦ + i sin 230◦
(c) z = 50(cos 80◦ + i sin 801̧rc ) and z = 10(cos 20◦ + i sin 20◦ )
1 2

(d) z1 = 3(cos π/5 + i sin π/5) and z2 = 4(cos π/10 + i sin π/10)
(e) z1 = 2 + 2i and z2 = 1 + i
 
5π 5π  π π
(f) z1 = 3 cos + i sin and z2 = 10 cos + i sin
18 18 16 16
(g) z1 = 2 − 2i and z2 = 1 − i
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 13

3 De Moivre’s Theorem, Complex Conjugates

3.1 The De Moivre’s Theorem

It is conveniently standard to write the expression

cos θ + i sin θ

in the abbreviated form

cis θ.
We have shown above that

cis θ cis φ = cis(θ + φ).

Consequently
(cis θ)2 = cis 2θ.
We will show that
(cis θ)n = cis nθ
or, in full, that
(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ (5)
where n ∈ N.

Clearly 5 holds when n = 0, since then both left and right hand sides are identical
and equal to one. Similarly
(cis θ)−1 = cis(−θ)
and
(cis θ)−n = cis(−nθ).
Hence 5 holds for any integer n.

Theorem 3.1 (De Moivre). If n ∈ Z, then (cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ.

Proof. Using mathematical induction, we prove this theorem for positive integers
only.

For n = 1, we have

(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))1 = cos 1θ + i sin 1θ,

so the result holds for n = 1.

Assume now that the result is true for n = k, i.e.,

(cos θ + i sin θ)k = cos kθ + i sin kθ. (6)

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 14

We need to show that the result also holds for n = k + 1. Now

(cos θ + i sin θ)k+1 = (cos θ + i sin θ)(cos θ + i sin θ)k

= (cos θ + i sin θ)(cos kθ + i sin kθ) (by 6)
= cos θ cos kθ + i2 sin θ sin kθ + i sin θ cos kθ + i sin kθ cos θ
= cos θ cos kθ − sin θ sin kθ + i sin θ cos kθ + sin kθ cos θ
= cos(kθ + θ) + i sin(kθ + θ)
= cos[(k + 1)θ] + i sin[(k + 1)θ]

where the last expression is obtained after using addition formulas for the sine and
cosine functions.

Since we have shown that the statement is true for the case of n = 1 and also that

(cos θ+i sin θ)k = cos kθ+i sin kθ ⇒ (cos θ+i sin θ)k+1 = cos[(k+1)θ]+i sin[(k+1)θ],

we can conclude that the formula holds for all n ∈ N, and this completes the
proof.

De Moivre’s Theorem is used in three ways;

1. To aid in simplifying complex number expressions.

2. To find roots of complex numbers.
3. To prove some trigonometric identities.

Example 3.2.
√
Simplify (−2 3 − 2i)12 .

Solution

First we express the complex number in polar form.

√ q √ p √
r = | − 2 3 − 2i| = (−2 3)2 + (−2)2 = 4(3) + 4 = 16 = 4

and    
−1 −2 −1 1 π 7π
θ = tan √ = tan √ = or .
−2 3 3 6 6
7π √
The answer is since −2 3 − 2i is in the third quadrant.
6
Therefore
√
 
7π 7π
−2 3 − 2i = 4 cos + i sin .
6 6
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 15

Now, using De Moivre’s theorem,

12
√
 
12 7π 7π
(−2 3 − 2i) = 4 cos + i sin
6 6
    
7π 7π
= 412 cos 12 × + i sin 12 ×
6 6
= 412 [cos(14π) + i sin(14π)]
= 412 [cos 0 + i sin 0]
= 412 [1 + 0i]
= 412
= 16777216.

Example 3.3.

Find all the values of 81/3 .

Solution

Let z = 81/3 . Then z 3 = 8. Writing the right-hand side as a complex number in

polar form gives:
z 3 = 8(cos 0 + i sin 0), (7)
i.e., r = |8| = 8 and arg(z) = 0. However, if we now generalise our expression for
the argument, by adding an arbitrary integer multiple of 2π, Equation 7 becomes

z 3 = 8(cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ)

where k = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

Now taking cube root of both sides gives

√ √
 
3 1/3 3 2kπ 2kπ
z= 8(cos 2kπ + i sin 2kπ) = 8 cos + i sin .
3 3

The normal procedure is to take three consecutive values of k (say k = 0, 1, 2). Any
other value of k chosen will lead to a root (a value of z) which repeats one of the
three already determined.

z0 = 2(cos 0 + i sin 0) = 2
√
 
2π 2π
z1 = 2 cos + i sin = −1 + i 3
3 3
√
 
4π 4π
z2 = 2 cos + i sin = −1 − i 3.
3 3
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 16

Example 3.4.
√
1 3
Find all solutions to the equation z 4 = − − i .
2 2
Solution

√ !2 r
v
u 2
u 1 3 1 3 √
r=t − + − = + = 1=1
2 2 4 4
and √ !
−1 − 2
3
−1
√ π 4π
θ = tan 1 = tan ( 3) = or .
−2 3 3
√
4π 1 3
The answer is since − − i is in the third quadrant.
3 2 2
Hence √
1 3 4π 4π
− −i = cos + i sin .
2 2 3 3
Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ). Then
4π 4π
z 4 = r4 (cos(4θ) + i sin(4θ)) = cos + i sin
3 3
4π π πk
giving r = 1 and 4θ = + 2πk ⇒ θ = + .
3 3 2
For k = 0, 1, 2, 3 :
√
π π 1 3
z0 = cos + i sin = + i
3 3 2 √2
5π 5π 3 1
z1 = cos + i sin =− +i
6 6 3 √2
4π 4π 1 3
z2 = cos + i sin =− −i
3 3 2 2
11π 11π
z3 = cos + i sin .
6 6
Example 3.5.

Use De Moivre’s theorem to prove that cos(3θ) = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ.

Solution

By De Moivre’s theorem
(cos θ + i sin θ)3 = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ. (8)
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 17

Expanding the expression on the left hand side gives

(cos θ + i sin θ)3 = cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ + 3i2 cos θ sin2 θi3 sin3 θ
= cos3 θ + 3i cos2 θ sin θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ − i sin3 θ
= [cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ] + i[3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ].

Substituting this back into Equation 8 gives

[cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ] + i[3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ] = cos 3θ + i sin 3θ.

Now, if we equate the real part on the left side of the equation with the real part
on the right, we get the result:

cos 3θ = cos3 θ − 3 cos θ sin2 θ.

Example 3.6.

Use De Moivre’s theorem to prove that sin(3θ) = 3 cos2 θ sin θ − sin3 θ.

Solution

Equating the imaginary parts in the solution of Example 3.5 gives the result.

3.2 Complex Conjugates

The complex conjugate of a complex number z = x + iy is given by z̄ = x − iy

(Definition 1.5). Note that z̄ is the reflection of z in the real axis (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Complex Conjugate

It is not difficult to prove the following facts about complex conjugates;

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 18

1. z = z̄ if and only if z ∈ R
2. z + w = z̄ + w̄
3. zw = z̄ × w̄
4. z + z̄ = 2R(z)
5. z̄¯ = z
6. z z̄ = |z|2

The number of roots in a polynomial is equal to the degree of that polynomial.

For example, in quadratic polynomials, we will always have two roots counted by
multiplicity. These roots could be real or complex depending on the determinant of
the quadratic equation.

The theorem below is called complex conjugate root theorem. It tells us that
complex roots are always found in pairs. In other words if we find, or are given, one
complex root, then we can state that its complex conjugate is also a root.
Theorem 3.7 (Complex Conjugate Root). Let P (z) = an z n +an−1 z n−1 +...+a1 z+a0 ,
where a0 , a1 , a2 , ..., an ∈ R. If z is a solution to P (z) = 0, then so is z̄.

Proof. P (z) = an z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 = 0.

Then by the properties of complex conjugation,

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 = 0

an z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 = 0
an z n + an−1 z n−1 + ... + a1 z + a0 = 0
an z̄ n + an−1 z̄ n−1 + ... + a1 z̄ + a0 = 0
P (z̄) = 0

which entails that z̄ is also a root of P (z) as required.

Example 3.8.

If z = 2 + 3i is a root of P (z) = z 2 − 4z + 13, then z̄ = 2 − 3i is another root of

P (z) = z 2 − 4z + 13.
Example 3.9.

Given z1 = 2 and z2 = 2 + i are zeros of z 3 + bz 2 + cz + d,

1. find the value of z3 .

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 19

2. Find the values of b, c and d.

Solution

1. By the complex conjugate root theorem, since z2 = 2 + i is a solution, its

conjugate 2 − i is also a solution. Hence z3 = 2 − i.

2. The trick in finding values of the coefficients b, c and d is to write the polyno-
mial in its factor form. Since we know that 2, 2 + i and 2 − i are all factors of
this polynomial we have

P (z) = (z − 2)(z − (2 + i))(z − (2 + i))

= (z − 2)(z − 2 − i)(z − 2 + i)
= (z − 2)(z 2 − 2z + zi − 2z + 4 − 2i − zi + 2i − i2 )
= (z − 2)(z 2 − 4z + 5)
= z 3 − 6z 2 + 13z − 10.

Hence b = −6, c = 13 and d = −10.

4 The Exponential Form of a Complex Number

We have, so far, considered two ways of representing a complex number, (z =

x + iy) Cartesian form and (z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)) polar form. In this Section we
introduce a third way of denoting a complex number called the exponential form.

If x is a real number then the exponential number e raised to the power x can be
written as a series of powers of x:

x x2 x3 x4 x5
e =1+x+ + + + + ... (9)
2! 3! 4! 5!
where n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ... × (n − 2) × (n − 1) × n. We ask you to accept Equation 9 and
that if we want to calculate ex for a particular value of x we will only take a finite
number of terms in the series. Obviously the more terms we take in any particular
calculation the more accurate will be our calculation. Similar series expansions exist
for the trigonometric functions sin x and cos x:

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + ... (10)
3! 5! 7!
and
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + ... (11)
2! 4! 6!
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 20

in which the angle x is given in radians.

In Equation 9, replacing x on both left-hand and right-hand sides by iθ gives

iθ (iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4 (iθ)5 (iθ)6

e = 1 + (iθ) + + + + + + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
Replacing i2 by −1 gives

iθ θ2 θ3 θ4 θ5 θ6
e = 1 + (iθ) − − i + + i − + ...
2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
which, when organised into real and imaginary terms gives, finally
2 4 3 5
   
θ θ θ θ
e(iθ) = 1 − + − .... + i θ − + − ... = cos θ + i sin θ.
2! 4! 3! 5!
Definition 4.1. If θ ∈ R, then
e(iθ) = cos θ + i sin θ.

Note that when θ = 0,

e(iθ) = e0 = cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1
as expected. When θ = π,
eiπ = cos π + i sin π = −1.
This leads to Euler’s famous formula
e(iπ) + 1 = 0
which combines the five most basic quantities in mathematics: e, π, i, 1 and 0.
Example 4.2.

Find complex number expressions, in Cartesian form, for (a) eiπ/4 (b) e−i

Solution

π π 1 1
(a) eiπ/4 = cos + i sin = √ + i √ .
4 4 2 2
(b) e−i = cos(−1) + i sin(−1) = 0.540 − i(0.841).

Since z = r cos θ + i sin θ and eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ we therefore obtain another way in
which to denote a complex number
z = reiθ
called the exponential form.
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 21

Definition 4.3. The exponential form of a complex number is

z = reiθ in which r = |z| and θ = arg(z)

so
z = reiθ = r cos θ + ir sin θ.

Example 4.4.

If z = reiθ and w = teiφ find expressions for (a) z −1 (b) z̄ (c) zw

1 1 −iθ
(a) If z = reiθ , then z −1 = = e using the normal rules for indices.
reiθ r
(b) Working in polar form, if z = reiθ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) then

z̄ = r(cos θ − i sin θ) = r(cos(−θ) + i sin(−θ)) = re−iθ

since cos(−θ) = cos θ and sin(−θ) = − sin θ. This reflects the general rule: to
find the complex conjugate of any expression simply replace i by −i wherever
it occurs in the expression.

(c) zw = (reiθ )(teiφ ) = rteiθ eiφ = rteiθ+iφ = rtei(θ+φ) which is again the result we
are familiar with: when complex numbers are multiplied their moduli multiply
and their arguments add.

Example 4.5.

Please verify the following (we express the given complex numbers in exponential
form):

√ √
(a) z = 1 + i = 2ei7π/4 (or equivalently 2eiπ/4 )
√
(b) z = 2 + 3i = 13ei(0.9828)

(c) z = −6 = 6eiπ

Exercise 4.6.

√
1. Simplify (1 − i 3)12 .

2. Find all the complex cube roots of 27.

3. Find all the complex fourth roots of 64(cos 240◦ + i sin 240◦ ).
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 22

4. If z = cos π/2 + i sin π/2, find the value of z 4 .

1
5. If z1 = cos θ + i sin θ and z2 = cos φ + i sin φ, find z1 z2 + .
z1 z2
6. If z1 = cos α + i sin α and z2 = cos β + i sin β, show that
 
1 z1 z2
(a) cos(α − β) = +
2 z2 z1
 
1 1
(b) sin(α + β) = z1 z2 −
2i z1 z2
7. Calculate (−4 + 4i)4 .

8. Find all solutions of the equation z 5 = −1

9. Using De Moivre’s Theorem, show that cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.

10. Express the following complex numbers in exponential form.

√
(a) 1 + i 3
√  π π
(b) 2 2 cos + i sin
4 4
(c) −8
(d) −4i
(e) 4 + 7i
(f) −3 + 3i
(g) −2 + 3i

11. Find all roots of the equation z 4 − 2z 3 + 7z 2 − 4z + 10 = 0 [Find the values of

a ∈ R for which ai is a solution].

12. If 2 + i is the root of the equation z 2 − 4z + c = 0, find the other root and the
value of c.

13. z1 = 3 and z2 = 1 + 2i are roots of the equation z 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0. Find

z3 and the values of b, c and d.

14. z1 = −2 and z2 = 3 + i are roots of the equation 2z 3 + bz 2 + cz + d = 0. Find

z3 and the values of b, c and d.

15. z1 = 2i and z2 = 3 + i are both roots of the equation z 4 + bz 3 + cz 2 + dz + e = 0.

(a) Find the other roots.

(b) Find the values of b, c, d and e.

16. Write in cartesian form

Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 23

(a) z = e−iπ/6
(b) z = 6eiπ/4
(c) z = −4e−iπ/3
(d) z = −e−πi
(e) z = −2e(−2π)i
5π
(f) z = 3e 4 i
(g) z = 8ei(π/3)
7π
(h) z = 5e 4 i
(i) e(π/2)i e(π/4)i

17. Compute each of the following leaving the result in cartesian form.



(a) 3e(π/6)i 2e(π/4)i

10
(b) 2e(π/4)i
24e(4π/3)i
(c)
6e(π/2)i
√
(d) 9e(3π/2)i
√
3 1
18. Given that z = + i, simplify z 2 , z 3 , z 4 and illustrate each of these numbers
2 2
as points on an Argand diagram.

19. The complex number u = −10 + 9i

(a) Show the complex number u on an Argand diagram.

(b) Calculate the argument of u giving your answer to the nearest degree.
(c) Find the complex number v such that vu = −11 + 28i.
√
(d) Verify that |u + v| = 8 2.

20. Solve the following using the quadratic formula

(a) z 2 + 2z + 2 = 0
(b) z 2 − z + 1 = 0
√ √ √
21. Find 3 + i in the polar form and hence find ( 3 + i)3 and ( 3 + i)8 .
√
22. Let z be the complex number −1 + i 3.

(a) Express z 2 in the form a + bi.

(b) Find the value of the real number p such that z 2 + pz is real.
5π
(c) Find the value of the real number q such that Arg(z 2 + qz) = .
6
Complex Numbers, Francisco Chamera, LUANAR - Bunda Campus 24

23. If z = cos θ + i sin θ, use De Moivre’s theorem to show that

1
(a) 2 cos θ = z +
z
1
(b) 2 cos 2θ = z 2 +
z2
1
(c) 2 cos nθ = z n + n
z
24. Use De Moivre;s theorem to prove that

(a) sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

(b) cos 5θ = cos5 θ − 10 cos3 θ sin2 θ + 5 cos θ sin4 θ.

25. Simplify (1 + i)10 − (1 − i)10 . Given that n is a positive integer, show that
(1 + i)4n − (1 − i)4n = 0.

26. Show that 1 + i is a root of the equation z 4 = −4 and find the other roots in
the form a + bi where a, b ∈ R.