Complex Analysis

1. Complex Numbers:

1.1 Definition.
A number of the form z = x + iy, where x and y are real numbers and i= −1 or i2 = -1, is called a
complex number.

The number x is called the Real Part and y is called the Imaginary Part of z and we write
x = Re z and y = Im z

Note:
1. If x= 0, then the complex number z is called purely imaginary and if y = 0 then z is a real
number.
2. The set of Complex numbers is denoted by C
3. If z1= x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2, then
(i) z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1) + (x2 + iy2)= (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)
(ii) z1 z2 = (x1 + iy1) (x2 + iy2 ) = (x1x2 – y1y2) + i(x1y2 + x2y1) {since i2 = -1}
z1 x + iy1 x + iy1 x2 − iy2  x1 x2 + y1 y2   y1 x2 − x1 y2 
(iii) If z20, then = 1 = 1  = +i 
z2 x2 + iy2 x2 + iy2 x2 − iy2  x22 + y22   x22 + y22 
1.2 Conjugate
If z = x + iy is a complex number, then the number x – iy is called the conjugate of z and is
denoted by z

1.2.1 Properties of Conjugate.

(i) z is real iff z = z
(ii) z + z = 2 Re z
(iii) z – z =2i Im z
(iv) z1 + z2 = z1 + z2
 z1  z1
(v)  =
 z2  z2

1.3 Modulus
The modulus or absolute value of the complex number z = x + iy denoted by z is defined as
z = x2 + y 2

1.3.1 Properties of Modulus.

(i) z 0
zz = z
2
(ii)
(iii) z1 z2 = z1 z2
z1 z
(iv) = 1 provided z 2  0
z2 z2
(v) z1 + z2  z1 + z2
(vi) z1 − z2  z1 − z2

Page1 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

1.4 Geometrical representation of Complex numbers (Argand Diagram).
A complex number z= x + iy can be represented by a point P(x, y)
on a plane. The axis of x is called the Real axis and the axis of y is y P(x+i y)
called the Imaginary Axis
r
The distance OP is the modulus of z and the angle , OP makes y
with the Real axis, is the Argument or Amplitude of z 
O x
1.5 Polar form of Complex number.
Consider any non-zero complex number z = x + iy
Let (r,) denote the polar co-ordinate of the point (x, y)
Hence x= r cos and y = r sin
z= r cos + i r sin
= r(cos + i sin), which is the polar form of the complex number z = x + iy
Clearly r is the modulus and  is the argument

Note:
(i) z =r= x2 + y 2
 y
(ii) arg z or amp z =  =tan −1  
x
1.6 Properties of argument.

(i) arg z = arg z

(ii) arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2
z 
(iii) arg  1  = arg z1 − arg z2
 z2 

1.7 Exponential and Circular functions of Complex number.

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ ------------------ (i)

Proof:
We know that,
  2 3
e = 1+ + + + ............
1! 2! 3!

e i
= 1+
( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i )
+
2
+
3
+
4
+
5
+
6
+
7
+ .........
1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
i
2 2
i i
3 3
i i
4 4
i
5 5 6 6 7 7
= 1 + i + + + + + + + .........
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
( −1)  2 ( −1) i 3 ( −1)  4 ( −1) i  5 ( −1)  6 ( −1) i  7
2 2 3 3
= 1 + i +
2!
+ +
3!
+
4!
+
5!
+
6! 7!
+ ........  i 2 = −1 
2 3 4 5 6 7
= 1 + i − −i + +i − −i + ........
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

Page2 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 2 4 6  3 5 7 
= 1− + − + .......... + i   − + − + ........ 
2! 4! 6!  3! 5! 7! 
 2 4 6 3 5 7 
= cos  + i sin   cos  = 1 − + + − + ...... and sin  =  − + − + ........
 2! 4! 6! 3! 5! 7! 
Similarly

e -iθ = cos θ − i sin θ ----------------- (ii)

From (i) and (ii)

eiθ + e-iθ eiθ − e-iθ

cos θ = and sin θ =
2 2i

1.8 Hyperbolic functions.

e x − e− x e x + e− x e x − e− x
(i ) sinh x = (ii ) cosh x = (iii ) tanh x =
2 2 e x + e− x
2 2 e x + e− x
(iv) cosech x = x − x (v ) sech x = x (vi ) coth x = x − x
e −e e + e− x e −e
e x + e− x e x − e− x
(vii ) cosh x + sinh x = + = ex
2 2
e + e− x
x
e − e− x
x
(viii ) cosh x − sinh x = − = e− x
2 2
( cosh x + sinh x ) = cosh nx + sinh nx
n
(ix)

1.9 Formulae of Hyperbolic Functions:

A. (i ) cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 (i ) sech 2 x + tanh 2 x = 1 (i) coth 2 x − cosec h 2 x = 1

B. (i ) sinh ( x  y ) = sinh x cosh y  cosh x sinh y

(ii ) cosh ( x  y ) = cosh x cosh y  sinh x sinh y
tanh x  tanh y
(iii ) tanh ( x  y ) =
1  tanh x tanh y

C. (i ) sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh x

(ii ) cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
= 2 cosh 2 x − 1
= 1 + 2sinh 2 x
2 tanh x
(iii ) tanh 2 x =
1 + tanh 2 x

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  x+ y  x− y
D. (i ) sinh x + sinh y = 2sinh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x+ y  x− y
(ii ) sinh x − sinh y = 2 cosh   sinh  
 2   2 
 x+ y  x− y
(iii ) cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x+ y  x− y
(iv) cosh x − cosh y = 2sinh   sinh  
 2   2 

e x − e− x e x + e− x
(For proof put, sinh x = and cosh x = )
2 2
1.10 Relation between Circular and Hyperbolic functions:

(i) sin ix = i sinh x (ii) cos ix = cosh x (iii) tan ix = i tanh x

(iv) sinh ix = i sin x (v ) cosh ix = cos x (vi) tanh ix = i tan x
Proof:
(i ) sin ix = i sinh x
e ( ) −e ( )  eiθ − e-iθ 
i ix -i ix
sin ix =  sin θ = 
2i  2i 

e− x − e x  e x − e− x  2e −e 
x −x  e x − e− x 
 2i  ( )  2i  
= =− = i =i  = i sinh x
2i      2 
(ii ) cos ix = cosh x
e ( ) +e ( )  eiθ + e-iθ 
i ix -i ix
cos ix =  cos θ = 
2  2 
e− x + e x
=
2
= cosh x  i 2 = −1
(iii ) tan ix = i tanh x
sin ix i sinh x
tan ix = = = i tanh x
cos ix cosh x
(iv) sinh ix = i sin x
eix − e − ix cos x + i sin x − ( cos x − i sin x )  ei =cos + i sin  & 
sinh ix = =  
2 2  e − i =cos − i sin  
cos x + i sin x − cos x + i sin x
= = i sin x
2
(v ) cosh ix = cos x
eix + e − ix cos x + i sin x + ( cos x − i sin x )
cosh ix = = = cos x
2 2
(vi ) tanh ix = i tan x
sinh ix i sin x
tanh ix = = = i tan x
cosh ix cos x

Page4 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

1.11 DE MOIVER’S THEOREM

( cosθ + i sinθ )
n
= cos nθ + i sin nθ

1.12 Circles

Equation of the circle

centred at 0 with radius ‘r’ y
z =r y z−a = r
is z = r and the equation
of the circle centred at ‘a’ . .a
0 x
with radius ‘r’ is z − a = r
Equation the unit circle is 0 x
z =1

Note:
i
1. Equation of the circle centred at 0 with radius ‘r’ in the polar form is z = re , 0    2
2. The equation of the circle centred at ‘a’ with radius ‘r’ in the polar form is
z = a + rei , 0    2

1.13 Exercise

1. Find the following:

(i) (2 + 3i) + (6 – 5i) (ii) (1 – 3i) – (–2 – 3i) (iii) (4 + 5i)( –3 –2i)
2 − 5i
(iv) ( 2 + 3i )( 2 − 3i ) (v)
3 + 7i
2. Find the modulus and amplitude of the following numbers:
(i) 2 – 3i (ii) t – 2ti (iii) 1+i

3. Express the following numbers in (i) Polar form and (ii) Exponential form:
(i) 2 – 5i (ii) 1 + 2i (iii) 3 i–5 (iv) 2i – 3

4. Express the following numbers in (i) x + iy form and (ii) Polar form:
 
i i
(i) 3e2i (ii) 6ei (iii) 2e 3
(iv) e 4

Page5 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

2. Functions of a Complex variable:

2.1 Complex variable

A complex variable denoted by z is defined as z = x + iy, where x and y are real variables.
Note:
A complex variable in the Polar form is z = rei where r = z = x 2 + y 2 and
 y
 = Arg ( z ) = tan −1  
x
2.2 Complex Function-Definition.
If to each value of a complex variable z = x + iy in a region R, there corresponds a value of w,
then w is said to be a function of the variable z and is denoted by w = f(z)

1. By replacing z with x + iy , each complex function w = f(z) can be put in the form,
w = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) where u(x, y) and v(x, y) are real valued functions of the real variables x
and y and are respectively called the real part and imaginary part of the function f(z)

2. By replacing z with rei, each complex function w = f(z) can be put in the form,
w = u ( r , ) + iv ( r , ) where u ( r , ) and v ( r , ) are real valued functions of the real variables r
and  and are respectively called the real part and imaginary part of the function f(z)

Note:
If to each value z, there corresponds one and only one value of w, then w is called a single
valued function of z otherwise it is called a multi valued function.

Example 1.
The function w=z2 is a single valued function and w = z is a multivalued function

Example 2.
Express the function w = z2 in the form u + i v
Ans:
w = z 2 = ( x + iy ) = x 2 + i 2 xy + ( iy ) = x 2 + i 2 xy − y 2
2 2
 (i )
2

= −1

= ( x 2 − y 2 ) + i 2 xy
 u = x 2 − y 2 and v = 2 xy
OR
w = z 2 = ( rei ) = r 2 ei 2 = r 2 ( cos 2 + i sin 2 ) = r 2 cos 2 + ir 2 sin 2
2

 u = r 2 cos 2 and v = r 2 sin 2

Example 3.
1
Express the function w = in the form u + i v
z
Ans:
1 1 x − iy x − iy x y
w= = = = 2 = 2 −i 2
z x + iy ( x + iy )( x − iy ) x + y 2
x +y 2
x + y2
x −y
u = , v= 2
x +y
2 2
x + y2

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 Example 4.
Express the function w = cos z in the form u + i v
Ans:
w = cos z = cos ( x + iy ) = cos x cos ( iy ) − sin x sin ( iy )
= cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y  cos ( ix ) = cosh x, sin ( ix ) = i sinh x
 u = cos x cosh y, v = − sin x sinh y

2.3 Limit of a function

Let w= f(z) be a function defined in some region R containing the point z 0 and if z approaches
the value z0, the value of the function f(z) is arbitrarily close to a complex number l, then we say
that the limit of the function f(z) as z approaches z0 is l. and we write lim f ( z ) = l
z →z0
2.3.1 Theorems on limits
If f(z) and g(z) are two functions whose limit at z0 exist, then
(i) lim  f ( z )  g ( z )  = lim f ( z )  lim g ( z )
z → z0 z → z0 z → z0

(ii) lim  f ( z ) g ( z )  = lim f ( z ) lim g ( z )

z → z0 z → z0 z → z0

 f ( z )  zlim
→ z0
f ( z)
(iii) lim   = , provided lim g ( z )  0
z → z0
 g ( z )  zlim
→z
g ( z) z → z0
0

2.4 Continuous functions

Let w= f(z) be a function defined in some region R containing the point z 0. Then f(z) is said to be
continuous at z0, if lim f ( z ) = f ( z0 )
z → z0
The function w= f(z) is said to be continuous in R, if it is continuous at each point of R.

2.4.1 Properties of continuous functions.

If f(z) and g(z) are two continuous functions at z0, then
(i) f(z)  g(z) is also continuous at z0
(ii) f(z) g(z) is also continuous at z0
f (z)
(iii) is also continuous at z0 if g ( z0 )  0
g (z)

2.5 Differentiability
If w=f(z) is a complex function defined in a region R. Then the derivative of w = f(z) denoted by,
dw df
or f ( z ) or is defined as
dz dz
y
dw f ( z + z ) − f ( z )
= lim provided the Q(x+X, y+y)
dz  z →0 z
limit exists and has the same value for all
the different ways in which z approaches
zero. P(x, y)
O x
The function f(z) is said to be differentiable
in R if it is differentiable at all points of R.

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2.6 Examples.

Example 1.
The function f(z) = z2 is differentiable at every point and its derivative is 2z
Ans.
f(z) = z2
f(z+z)=(z+z)2=z2+2z z+(z)2
f ( z + z ) − f ( z ) z 2 + 2 z z + z 2 − z 2 2 z z + z 2 z ( 2 z + z )
 = = = = 2 z + z
z z z z
f ( z + z ) − f ( z )
f  ( z ) = lim = lim ( 2 z +  z ) = 2 z + 0 = 2 z
z →0 z  z →0

Example 2.
The function f(z) = z is nowhere differentiable.
Ans.
f (z) = z
f ( z + z ) = z + z = z + z  Property(iv) of 1.2.1 
f ( z + z ) − f ( z ) z + z − z z
 = =
z z z
f ( z + z ) − f ( z )  z   x − iy 
f  ( z ) = lim = lim   = lim  
z → 0 z  z → 0 z
 
 z → 0 x + i y
 
Consider z → 0 along the line y = mx where m is any real number
 x − imx 
 f  ( z ) = lim    as z → 0, x and y → 0
 x → 0 x + imx
 
 x (1 − im )   1 − im  1 − im
= lim   = lim  =
 x → 0 x (1 + im ) x → 0 1 + im
    1 + im
Clearly the limiting value is different for different values of m.
Therefore, the function f(z) = z is not differentiable.

2.7 Analytic function.

A function f(z), defined in a region R of the complex plane, is said to be analytic at a point z0R if
f(z) is differentiable at every point of some neighbourhood of z0.
If f(z) is analytic at every point of the region R, then f is said to be analytic in R.

A function which is analytic at every point of the complex plane is called an entire function or
integral function or regular function or homomorphic function.

A point at which a function ceases to possess a derivative is called a singular point.

2.7.1 Necessary condition for a function f(z) to be analytic.

Statement:
If w = f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) is an analytic function of z, then the four partial derivatives
u u v v should exist and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann Equation
, , and
x y x y

u v v u
= and =− or u x = v y and vx = −u y
x y x y

Page8 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Proof:
Let f(z)= u(x, y) + i v(x, y) be an analytic function of z in a region R
Then f  ( z ) = lim f ( z + z ) − f ( z ) exist and has y R(x, y+y)
z →0 z Q(x+X, y+y)
unique value in all approaches of z→0 {refer 2.4}

z= x + iy
z + z = (x + x) + i(y + y) P(x, y)
S(x+X, y)
 z= (x + x) + i(y + y) – (x + iy)
= x + i y ------ (i) O x
f(z)= u(x, y) + i v(x, y) ------- (ii)
f(z + z) = u(x + x , y + y) + i v(x + x, y + y) ----------------- (iii)
Then
f ( z +  z) − f (z)
f  ( z ) = lim
z → 0 z
u ( x +  x, y + y ) + iv ( x +  x, y + y ) − u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) 
= lim
z → 0  x + i y
 from (i), (ii) and (iii)
u ( x +  x, y + y ) − u ( x, y )  v ( x +  x, y + y ) − v ( x, y ) 
= lim + i lim  z →0 − − − − − ( A)

z → 0  x + i y   x + i y 

Let us assume that z → 0, first assuming that y = 0 and then x → 0 ( Along the line SP in the
figure)
 From (A),
u ( x +  x, y ) − u ( x, y )  v ( x +  x, y ) − v ( x, y ) 
f  ( z ) = lim + i  lim 
 x →0 x x→0 x 
u v
= +i − − − − − − ( B)
x x
Next, we assume that z → 0, first assuming that x = 0 and then y → 0 (Along the line RP in
the figure)
 From (A),
u ( x, y + y ) − u ( x, y )  v ( x, y + y ) − v ( x, y ) 
f  ( z ) = lim + i  lim 
y → 0 i y  y →0 i y 
i u ( x, y + y ) − u ( x, y )   v ( x, y + y ) − v ( x, y ) 
= lim  +  lim 
y → 0 i y
2
 y →0 y 
u ( x, y + y ) − u ( x, y )  v ( x, y + y ) − v ( x, y ) 
= −i lim +  lim 
y → 0 y  y →0 y 
u v
= −i +
y y
v u
= −i − − − − − − (C )
y y
Since f(z) is an analytic function f’(z) is unique
 From (B) and (C) we get u = v and v = − u
x y x y

Page9 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

2.7.2 Sufficient condition for Analyticity.
Statement:
The sufficient conditions for a single valued function w = f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) , defined in a
region R, to be analytic are:
1. The partial derivatives u , u , v and v exist
x y x y
2. They are continuous at each point of the region R
3. Satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann Equation u = v and v = − u or u x = v y and v x = −u y
x y x y

Proof:
z= x + iy
z + z = (x + x) + i(y + y)
 z= (x + x) + i(y + y) – (x + iy)
= x + i y ------ (i)
f(z)= u(x, y) + i v(x, y) ------- (ii)
f(z + z) = u(x + x , y + y) + i v(x + x, y + y) ----------------- (iii)

Using *Taylor’s Theorem of two variables and retaining only the first powers of x and y, we
have,
 u u   v v 
f ( z +  z ) = u ( x, y ) +   x +  y  + iv ( x, y ) + i   x +  y  + − − − − −
 x y   x y 
 u v   u v 
= u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) +  + i   x +  + i   y + − − − − −
 x x   y y 
 u v   u v 
= f (z) +  + i   x +  + i   y + − − − − −  u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) = f ( z )
 x x   y y 
 u v   u v 
 f (z +  z) − f (z) =  + i   x +  + i   y + − − −
 x x   y y 
 u v   v u 
=  + i   x + − + i   y + − − −  using C-R equations
 x x   x x 
 u v   v u 
=  + i   x + i i +   y
 x x   x x 
 u v   u v 
=  +i x+i +i  y
 x x   x x 
 u v 
=  + i  (  x + i y )
 x x 
 u v 
=  +i z
 x x 

*
If f(x, y) and its all order partial derivatives are continuous, then
 f f  1   2 f 2f 2f 
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) + h + k  + h 2 2 + 2hk + k2 2 
 x y  2!  x xy y 
1  3 3f 3f 2  f
3
3  f 
3
+ h + 3h k 2 + 3hk
2
+k + −−−−−−−−−−−−
3!  x 3 x y xy 2 y3 

Page10 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 f (z +  z) − f (z) u v
 = +i
z x x
f (z +  z) − f (z) u v
 f  ( z ) = lim = +i
 z →0 z x x

Hence f’(z) exists and is equal to u + i v . Therefore, f(z) is analytic.

x x
Note:

If f(z) is analytic then,

u v
(i) f ( z) = +i
x x
u u
(ii) f ( z) = −i  using C-R equations
x y
u u v v
(iii) f ( z) = −i = +i  using C-R equations
x y y x

2.7.3 Polar form of Cauchy-Riemann Equations.

w = f ( z ) where z = rei

( )
 f ( z ) = f rei = u ( r , ) + iv ( r ,  ) − − − − − − (1)
Differentiating (1) partially with respect to r and , we get,
u v
f  ( rei )  ei = +i − − − − − − (2)
r r
and
u v
f  ( rei )  rei  i =+i − − − − − − (3)
 
1  u v 
 f  ( rei )  ei =  + i  − − − − − (4)
ir    
from (2) and (4) we get.
u v 1  u v 
+i =  +i 
r r ir    
1 u 1 v − ( i ) u 1 v −i u 1 v
2

=  + i =  + =  +
ir  ir  ir  r  r  r 
u v 1 v i u
 +i = −  − − − − − (5)
r r r  r 
Equating the real and imaginary parts we get ,

u 1 v v −1 u 1 −1
= and =  ur = v and vr = u
r r  r r  or
r r

These equations are called C-R equations in Polar form.

Note:
−i  u v 
−i
If f ( z ) = u ( r , ) + iv ( r , ) is analytic, then f  ( z ) = e  + i  = e ur + ivr 
 r r 

Page11 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

2.7.4 Examples

Example 1.

Show that the function f(z)= z3 is analytic in the entire Z plan. Hence find f  ( z ) .
Ans:
f ( z ) = z 3 = ( x + iy ) = x3 + 3 x 2 ( iy ) + 3x ( iy ) + ( iy )
3 2 3

( ) (
= x3 + 3i x 2 y − 3xy 2 − iy 3 = x3 − 3xy 2 + i 3x 2 y − y 3 )
 u = x3 − 3xy 2 and v = 3x 2 y − y 3
u x = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 vx = 6 xy
u y = −6 xy v y = 3x 2 − 3 y 2
Clearly ux , u y , vx , v y exist and are continuous for all values of x and y
Also ux = 3x − 3 y = v y and vx = 6 xy = −u y u and v satisfy C-R equations.
2 2

Hence by the sufficient conditions for a function to be analytic, f ( z ) = z3 is analytic.

( )
f  ( z ) = u x + ivx = 3x 2 − 3 y 2 + i 6 xy

( )
= 3  x 2 − y 2 + i 2 xy  = 3z 2
   2
( )
z 2 = ( x + iy ) = x 2 − y 2 + i 2 xy 
(OR)

( )
3
f ( z ) = z 3 = rei = r 3ei3 = r 3 ( cos 3 + i sin 3 ) = r 3 cos 3 + i r 3 sin 3

 u = r 3 cos 3 and v = r 3 sin 3

u v
= 3r 2 cos 3 = 3r 2 sin 3
r r
u v
= −3r 3 sin 3 = 3r 3 cos 3
 
u u v v
Clearly , , and exist and are continuous for all values of r and  .
r  r 

Also,
u 1 1 v
= 3r 2 cos 3 =  3r 3 cos 3 =
r r r 
v
r
1
(
= 3r 2 sin 3 = − −3r 3 sin 3 = −
r
1 u
r 
)
u and v satisfy C-R equations.

Hence by the sufficient conditions for a function to be analytic, f ( z ) = z3 is analytic.

 u v 
f  ( z ) = e−i  + i  = e −i 3r 2 cos 3 + i3r 2 sin 3  = 3r 2e −i cos 3 + i sin 3 
 r r   

( )
2
= 3r 2e −i ei 3 = 3r 2ei 2 = 3 rei = 3z 2

Page12 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Example 2.
2
Show that the function f(z) = z is differentiable only at the origin.
Ans:

(
f ( z ) = z = x + iy = x 2 + y 2 = x 2 + y 2 + i 0
2 2
)
 u = x2 + y 2 and v = 0
ux = 2 x vx = 0
uy = 2 y vy = 0
Clearly ux , u y , vx , v y exist and are continuous for all values of x and y.
Also ux = 2 x  v y and vx = 0  −u y u and v do not satisfy C-R equations.
Hence f(z) is not analytic.

When z=0,
u x ( 0, 0 ) = 2  0 = 0, u y ( 0, 0 ) = 2  0 = 0
vx ( 0, 0 ) = 0, v y ( 0, 0 ) = 0
 u x ( 0, 0 ) = 0 = v y ( 0, 0 ) and vx ( 0, 0 ) = 0 = −u y ( 0, 0 )
C-R equations are satisfied at z=0 and ux , u y , vx , v y exist and are continuous at z=0
f(z) is differentiable at z=0

Example 3.
Show that the function f(z) = z z is not analytic anywhere.
Ans:
f ( z ) = z z = ( x + iy ) x + iy = ( x + iy ) x 2 + y 2 = x x 2 + y 2 + iy x 2 + y 2

u = x x2 + y 2 and v = y x 2 + y 2
1 2 x2 + y 2 1 xy
ux = x  2 x + x2 + y 2 = vx = y  2x =
2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
1 xy 1 x2 + 2 y 2
uy = x  2y = vy = y  2 y + x2 + y 2 =
2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
2 x2 + y 2 xy
ux =  v y except when x = y and vx =  −u y for all x and y
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
u and v do not satisfy C-R equations. Hence f(z) is not analytic.

Example 4.

 x3 (1 + i ) − y 3 (1 − i )
 , if z  0
Prove that the function defined by, f ( z ) =  x2 + y 2 , is not analytic at

0, if z = 0
z = 0 although C-R equations are satisfied at that point.

Page13 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Ans:

f ( z) =
x3 (1 + i ) − y 3 (1 − i )
=
( x3 − y 3 ) + i ( x3 + y 3 ) x3 − y 3  x3 + y 3 
= +i 
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2  x2 + y 2 
 
x3 − y 3 x3 + y 3
u = and v =
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2

Given f ( 0 ) = 0  u ( 0,0 ) + iv ( 0,0 ) = 0  u ( 0,0 ) = 0 and v ( 0,0 ) = 0

 u   u ( x, 0 ) − u ( 0, 0 )  
  u   u ( x, b ) − u ( a , b )  

  = lim      = lim  
 x ( 0,0 ) x→0  x−0   x
  ( a,b )
x →a  x−a 
 x3 − 0 
 2 − 0
= lim  x + 0  = lim  x  = lim 1 = 1
x→0  x  x→0  x  x→0
 
 

 u   u ( 0, y ) − u ( 0,0 )    u   u ( a, y ) − u ( a, b )  

  = lim      = lim  
 y ( 0,0 ) y→0  y−0    y ( a,b ) y→b  y −b  

 0 − y3 
 
 0 + y2  −y
= lim = lim   = lim  −1 = −1
y →0  y  y →0  y  y →0
 
 

Similarly,

 v   v ( x, 0 ) − v ( 0, 0 )   x − 0
  = lim   = lim   =1
 x ( 0,0 ) x→0  x−0  x→0  x 
 v   v ( 0, y ) − v ( 0, 0 )   y − 0
  = lim   = lim   =1
 y ( 0,0 ) y →0  y−0  x →0  y 
 u   v   v   u 
  =1=   and   =1= − 
 x ( 0,0 )  y ( 0,0 )  x ( 0,0 )  y ( 0,0 )

C-R equations are satisfied at the origin.

 x3 (1 + i ) − y 3 (1 − i ) 
 − 0 
 f ( z ) − f ( 0)   x2 + y 2 
f  ( 0 ) = lim   = lim  
z →0  z −0  z →0  x + iy

 

= lim
 3


x (1 + i ) − y 3 (1 − i ) 
= lim 
( ) (
 x3 − y 3 + i x3 + y 3
)  = lim  ( x3 − y3 ) + i ( x3 + y3 ) 
 ( )
z →0  x 2 + y 2 ( x + iy ) 

z →0 
( )
 x + y ( x + iy )
2 2
 y →0  (
 x→0  x 2 + y 2 ) ( x + iy ) 

 z → 0  x → 0 & y → 0

Page14 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Let z → 0 along the line y = mx
x → 0  y → 0

  = lim  x (1 − m ) + ix (1 + m ) 
  x3 − ( mx )3  + i  x 3 + ( mx )3    3 3 3 3


f  ( 0 ) = lim    

x →0
  x 2 + ( mx )2   x + i ( mx )   x →0  x 2 (1 + m 2 )  x (1 + im ) 
       
 (1 − m3 ) + i (1 + m3 )  (1 − m3 ) + i (1 + m3 )
= lim  =
x →0
 (1 + m ) (1 + im )  (1 + m2 ) (1 + im )
2

For different values of m, f’(0) takes different values. Therefore f’(0) is not unique.
f(z) is not analytic at z=0.

Example 5.
Prove that f(z) = log(z) is analytic and find its derivative.
Ans:
( )
f ( z ) = log z = log rei = log ( r ) + i
 u = log ( r ) and v = 
u 1 u v v
= , = 0, = 0, =1
r r  r 
Clearly u , u , v and v exist and are continuous at all points except z= 0.
r  r 
u 1 1 v v 1 u
= = and =0=−
r r r  r r 
 u and v satisfy the C-R equation(Polar form)
 By sufficient condition, f(z) = logz is analytic except at z=0
Also,
 u v  1  1 1 1
f  ( z ) = e−i  + i  = e −i  + i  0  = e −i = i =
 r r  r  r re z
Note:
y
We can also express f(z)=u(x,y)+i v(x,y), by putting r = x 2 + y 2 and  = tan −1 in (i)
x
Example 6.
Prove that f ( z ) = cosh z is analytic and find its derivative.
Ans:
f ( z ) = cosh z = cosh ( x + iy ) = cosh ( x ) cosh ( iy ) + sinh ( x ) sinh ( iy )
= cosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y
 u = cosh x cos y, v = sinh x sin y
u u v v
= sinh x cos y, = − cosh x sin y, = cosh x sin y, = sinh x cos y
x y x y
Clearly u , u , v and v exist and are continuous at all points
x y x y
u v v u
= sinh x cos y = and = cosh x sin y = −
x y x y
 u and v satisfy the C-R equations
Hence by sufficient condition of analytic functions, f(z) is analytic.

Page15 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 u v
f ( z) = +i = sinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y
x x
= sinh ( x ) cosh ( iy ) + cosh ( x ) sinh ( iy ) = sinh ( x + iy ) = sinh z

2.7.5 Properties of Analytic Functions:

(i) If f(z) = u + i v is an analytic function of z, then u and v are †harmonic functions.
(or) The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are harmonic functions.

Proof:
Let f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) be an analytic function
Then u and v satisfy the C-R equations.
u v v u
 = − − − − (i) and =− − − − − (ii)
x y x y
 2u  2 v
Differentiating (i ) partially w.r.t x, we get , 2 = − − − − − (iii )
x xy
Differentiating (ii ) partially w.r.t y , we get
 2v  2u
=− 2
yx y
 2u  2v  2v   2v  2v 
 = − = − − − − − (iv )  = 
y 2 yx xy  yx xy 
Adding (iii ) and (iv) we get
 2u  2u  2 v  2v
+ = − = 0, which is the Laplace equation
x 2 y 2 xy xy
Therefore, u is a harmonic function.
Similarly, we can prove v is also a harmonic function.

Note.
If f(z) = u + i v is an analytic function of z, then u and v are called conjugate harmonic
functions.

(ii) If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is an analytic function, then the curves u(x, y) = C and v(x, y) = K
where C and K are constants form an ‡orthogonal system.

†
If u(x, y) is a function of the real variables x and y which possess continuous first and second order derivatives and satisfies
 2u  2u
the Laplace equation + = 0 , then u is called a Harmonic Function.
x 2 y 2
‡
Two curves are said to be orthogonal to each other, when they intersect at right angle at each of their point of
intersection.

90°

u(x, y) = C
v(x, y ) = k

Page16 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Proof:
u
−
−u
 = x = x = m1 ( say )
dy
u ( x, y ) = c
dx u uy
y
Similarly,
v
−
−v
 = x = x = m2 ( say )
dy
v ( x, y ) = K
dx v vy
y
We know that dy is the slope of the curve.
dx
−u −v −v y u y
 m1  m2 = x  x =  = −1  By C − R equations
uy vy u y vy
Since the product of the slopes is -1, the curves intersect at right angles.

2.8 Determination of the Conjugate Harmonic Function.

If one of the conjugate functions be given, the other can be found using C-R equations.

2.8.1 Determination of the Imaginary Part ‘v’ when the real part ‘u’ of an analytic function f(z) is
given
Since f(z) = u + iv is analytic, u and v satisfy the C-R Equations ux = vy and vx = -uy.

The total derivative of v is,

v v
dv = dx + dy = vx dx + v y dy
x y
= −u y dx + u x dy  By C-R Equations
Clearly −u y dx + u x dy is an §exact differential equation
v =  −u y dx +  (Terms independent of x in u x ) dy + c
Keeping y
asconstant
2.8.2 Determination of the Real Part ‘u’ when the imaginary part ‘v’ of an analytic function f(z) is
given.

The total derivative of u is,

u u
du = dx + dy = u x dx + u y dy
x y
= v y dx − vx dy  By C-R Equations
Clearly v y dx − vx dy is an exact differential equation
v =  v y dx −  (Terms independent of x in v x ) dy + c
Keeping y
asconstant

§
Equations of the form M dx + N dy = 0 is an exact differential equation if M = N and its solution is
y x

 M dx +  (Terms independent of x in N ) dy = c
Keeping y
constant

Page17 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

2.8.3 Examples.

Example 1.
Prove that u = 2x – x3 + 3x y2 is harmonic and determine its harmonic conjugate.
Ans:

u = 2x – x 3 + 3xy 2
u x = 2 − 3 x 2 + 3 y 2 and u xx = −6 x
u y = 6 xy and u yy = 6 x
u xx + u yy = −6 x + 6 x = 0  u is a harmonic function
We know that, dv = vx dx + v y dy = −u y dx + u x dy

( )
 dv = −6 xy dx + 2 − 3x 2 + 3 y 2 dy , which is an exact differential equation

v =  −6 xy dx +  ( 2 − 3x2 + 3 y 2 ) dy + c
Keeping y Terms
as constant independent
of x

x2 y3
 v = -6y + 2y + 3 + c
2 3
= y3 + 2 y − 3x 2 y + c
3 2 3
(
Therefore, the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv = 2x – x + 3xy + i y + 2 y − 3x y + c
2
) ( )
Example 2.
Show that u = e
−2 xy
( )
sin x 2 − y 2 is harmonic and find its harmonic conjugate.
Ans:
(
u = e−2 xy sin x 2 − y 2 )
u x = e−2 xy cos ( x 2 − y 2 )  2 x + sin ( x 2 − y 2 )  e −2 xy  ( −2 y )

= 2e−2 xy  x cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) − y sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) 

 
e

−2 xy
 ( 2
) 2
( 2
)
 x  − sin x − y  2 x + cos x − y 1 − y cos x − y  2 x  +
2
( )  2 2 

u = 2 
( ) ( )
xx
  x cos x − y − y sin x − y  e
2 2
2
−2 y  2 −2 xy
   

= 2e −2 xy  ( ) (
 −2 x sin x − y + cos x − y − 2 xy cos x − y 
2 2 2 2
) 2
( )
2 2

− 2 xy cos ( x − y ) + 2 y sin ( x − y ) 
 2 2 2 2 2
 
= 2e −2 xy

2
( 2
) (
2 2
) 2
(
 −2 x sin x − y + cos x − y − 4 xy cos x − y + 2 y sin x − y 
) 2
( 2
) 2 2 2

u y = e−2 xy cos ( x 2 − y 2 )  ( −2 y ) + sin ( x 2 − y 2 )  e −2 xy  ( −2 x )

= −2e−2 xy  y cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) + x sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) 

 

Page18 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

   ( ) ( ) ( )
e −2 xy  y  − sin x 2 − y 2  ( −2 y ) + cos x 2 − y 2 1 + x cos x 2 − y 2  ( −2 y )  + 
 
u yy = −2  

  ( ) (  )
 y cos x 2 − y 2 + x sin x 2 − y 2  e −2 xy  −2 x 


( ) ( ) (
 2 y 2 sin x 2 − y 2 + cos x 2 − y 2 − 2 xy cos x 2 − y 2 
= −2e −2 xy 
)
− 2 xy cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) − 2 x 2 sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) 

 
= −2e −2 xy  2 y 2 sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) + cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) − 4 xy cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) − 2 x 2 sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) 
 
u xx + u = 2e
yy
−2 xy
 ( ) (
2 2
) (
 −2 x sin x − y + cos x − y − 4 xy cos x − y + 2 y sin x − y 
2 2
)2
( ) 2 2 2 2 2

− 2e
 ( 2 2
) ( 2
) (
 2 y sin x − y + cos x − y − 4 xy cos x − y − 2 x sin x − y 
−2 xy 2
) 2
( ) 2 2 2 2 2

=0
Therefore, u is harmonic.

We know that dv = vx dx + v y dy = −u y dx + u x dy

 ( )
 dv = − −2e −2 xy  y cos x 2 − y 2 + x sin x 2 − y 2  dx
  ) (
+ 2e −2 xy  x cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) − y sin ( x 2 − y 2 )  dy , which is an exact differential equation
 
v =  − −2e −2 xy  y cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) + x sin ( x 2 − y 2 )  dx +
 
Keeping
y as
constant

 ( )
2e −2 xy  x cos x 2 − y 2 − y sin x 2 − y 2  dy
  ( )
Terms
independet
of x

=  ( )
2e−2 xy  y cos x 2 − y 2 + x sin x 2 − y 2  dx + 0
  ( )
Keeping
y as
constant

=   (
e−2 xy  2 y cos x 2 − y 2  dx +
 )  (
2e −2 xy x sin x 2 − y 2 dx )
Keeping Keeping
y as y as
constant constant

e −2 xy  e −2 xy 
(
= 2 y cos x 2 − y 2  )
−2 y
−   2 y  − sin x 2 − y 2  2 x  
 (
  −2 y 

 dx +  2e

)
−2 xy
x sin x 2 − y 2 dx ( )
( ) ( )
= −e −2 xy cos x 2 − y 2 −  2e −2 xy x sin x 2 − y 2 dx +  2e −2 xy x sin x 2 − y 2 dx ( )
= −e −2 xy cos ( x 2 − y 2 )

( ) (
 f ( z ) = u + iv = e −2 xy sin x 2 − y 2 − ie −2 xy cos x 2 − y 2 )
= e−2 xy sin ( x 2 − y 2 ) − i cos ( x 2 − y 2 ) 
 

Page19 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Example 3.
Show that v = e x ( x cos y − y sin y ) can be the imaginary part of an analytic function and
determine its harmonic conjugate and the analytic function.
Ans:
v = e x ( x cos y − y sin y )
vx = e x cos y + ( x cos y − y sin y ) e x
vxx = e x cos y + ( x cos y − y sin y ) e x + e x cos y
= 2e x cos y + e x x cos y − e x y sin y
v y = e x  − x sin y − ( y cos y + sin y ) 

v yy = e x  − x cos y − ( − y sin y + cos y + cos y )  = −e x x cos y + e x y sin y − 2e x cos y

( ) (
vxx + v yy = 2e x cos y + e x x cos y − e x y sin y + −e x x cos y + e x y sin y − 2e x cos y )
=0
Therefore, v is harmonic.
du = u x dx + u y dy = v y dx − vx dy

= e x  − x sin y − ( y cos y + sin y )  dx − e x cos y + ( x cos y − y sin y ) e x  dy ,

 
which is an exact differential equation

u =  e x  − x sin y − ( y cos y + sin y )  dx −  e x cos y + ( x cos y − y sin y ) e x  dy

 
Keeping Terms
y as independet
constant of x

= − sin y  x e x dx − ( y cos y + sin y )  e x dx − 0

= − sin y  xe x − e x  − ( y cos y + sin y ) e x + c

 
= − xe x sin y + e x sin y − ye x cos y − e x sin y + c
= −e x ( x sin y + y cos y ) + c
 f ( z ) = u + iv = −e x ( x sin y + y cos y ) + ie x ( x cos y − y sin y ) + c

2.9 Construction of analytic function by Milne Thomson Method.

2.9.1 Real part u(x, y) is given.

We shall construct the analytic function f(z) = u + i v given the real part u(x, y)

f ( z ) = u + iv
u v u u
 f ( z) = +i = −i  By C − R Equations
x x x y
u u
Put = 1 ( x, y ) , and = 2 ( x, y )
x y
 f  ( z ) = 1 ( x, y ) − i 2 ( x, y )
Put x = z and y = 0, we get
f  ( z ) = 1 ( z, 0 ) − i 2 ( z , 0 ) , which is a function of z alone.

Page20 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Integrating w.r.t z ,

 f  ( z ) dz =  ( z, 0 ) dz − i   ( z, 0 ) dz + c
1 2

 f ( z ) =   ( z , 0 ) dz − i   ( z , 0 ) dz + c
1 2

2.9.2 Imaginary part v(x, y) is given

We shall construct the analytic function f(z) = u + i v given the imaginary part v(x, y)

f ( z ) = u + iv
u v v v
 f ( z) = +i = +i  By C − R Equations
x x y x
v v
Put =  1 ( x, y ) , and =  2 ( x, y )
y x
 f  ( z ) =  1 ( x , y ) + i 2 ( x , y )
Put x = z and y = 0, we get
f  ( z ) =  1 ( z , 0 ) + i 2 ( z , 0 ) , which is a function of z alone
Integrating w.r.t z ,

 f  ( z ) dz =  ( z, 0 ) dz + i  ( z, 0 ) dz + c
1 2

 f ( z ) =  ( z , 0 ) dz + i  ( z , 0 ) dz + c
1 2

2.9.3 Examples.

Example 1.

Find the analytic function f ( z ) if v = x4 − 6x2 y 2 + y 4

Ans:
v = x4 − 6 x2 y 2 + y 4
 vx = 4 x3 − 12 xy 2 v y = −12 x 2 y + 4 y 3
u v
f ( z) = +i
x x
v v
= + i  By C − R Equations
y x
=  1 ( x, y ) + i 2 ( x, y )
=  1 ( z , 0 ) + i 2 ( z , 0 ) − − − − − − ( i )
 1 ( x, y ) = v y = −12 x 2 y + 4 y 3  1 ( z , 0 ) = 0
 2 ( x, y ) = vx = 4 x 3 − 12 xy 2  2 ( z , 0 ) = 4 z 3

 From ( i ) , f  ( z ) = 0 + i 4 z 3
f ( z ) =  i 4 z 3dz + C = i z 4 + c

Page21 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 Example 2.
Find the analytic function f ( z ) , if v = x 2 − y 2 + 2
x
x + y2
Ans:

x
v = x2 − y 2 +
x2 + y 2

v
= 2x +
(
x2 + y 2 − x  2x )
= 2x +
− x2 + y 2
x
( ) ( )
2 2
x +y
2 2
x2 + y 2
v −1 2 xy
= −2 y + x   2 y = −2 y −
y
( x2 + y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 )
2 2

u v
f ( z) = +i
x x
v v
= + i  By C − R Equations
y x
=  1 ( x, y ) + i 2 ( x, y )
=  1 ( z , 0 ) + i 2 ( z , 0 ) − − − − − − ( i )
2 xy
 1 ( x, y ) = v y = −2 y −  1 ( z , 0 ) = 0
(x )
2
2
+y 2

− x2 + y 2 − z 2 + 02 1
 2 ( x, y ) = v x = 2 x +  2 ( z , 0 ) = 2 z + = 2z −
( x2 + y 2 ) ( z 2 + 02 )
2 2
z2

From ( i )
 1   1 
f  ( z ) = 0 + i  2z − 2  = i  2z − 2 
 z   z 
 1 
 f ( z ) = i   2 z − 2  dz
 z 
 z2 1   1
= i  2  +  + c = i  z2 +  + c
 2 z  z
 

Example 3.
Find the analytic function f ( z ) , if u = e x ( cos y − sin y )
Ans:
u = e x ( cos y − sin y )
u u
= e x ( cos y − sin y ) , = e x ( − sin y − cos y )
x y
u v
f ( z) = +i
x x
u u
= −i  By C − R Equations
x y

Page22 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 =  1 ( x, y ) − i  2 ( x , y )
= 1 ( z,0 ) − i 2 ( z,0 ) − − − − − − ( i )
u
 1 ( x, y ) = = e x ( cos y − sin y )  1 ( z , 0 ) = e z ( cos 0 − sin 0 ) = e z
x
u
 2 ( x, y ) = = e x ( − sin y − cos y )  2 ( z , 0 ) = e z ( − sin 0 − cos 0 ) = −e z
y
From ( i )

( )
f  ( z ) = e z − i −e z = (1 + i ) e z

 f ( z ) =  (1 + i ) e z dz + c = (1 + i ) e z + c

2.9.4 Given a linear combination u and v of the form au + bv, where u and v are the real and
imaginary part of the analytic function f(z).

Examples.

Example 1.
Find the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv , given that u + v = x
x2 + y 2
Ans:

f ( z ) = u + iv − − − − − − (a)
i  ( a )  i f ( z ) = iu − v − − − − − − ( b )
( a ) + ( b )  (1 + i ) f ( z ) = ( u − v ) + i ( u + v ) − − − ( c )
Put (1 + i ) f ( z ) = F ( z ) , ( u − v ) = U and u + v = V
 From ( c )
F ( z ) = U + iV

Now find the analytic function F ( z ) = U + iV , where V = u + v = 2

x
x + y2
V ( x + y ) 1 − x  2 x
2 2
y2 − x2 V −1 −2 xy
= = , = x 2y =
x ( x2 + y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 ) y ( x2 + y 2 ) ( x2 + y 2 )
2 2 2 2

U V
F( z) = +i
x x
V V
= +i  By C − R Equations
y x
=  1 ( x , y ) + i 2 ( x , y )
=  1 ( z , 0 ) + i 2 ( z , 0 ) − − − − − − ( i )
V −2 xy
 1 ( x, y ) = =  1 ( z , 0 ) = 0
y
( )
2
x +y
2 2

V y 2 − x2 0 − z2 −1
 2 ( x, y ) = =  2 ( z , 0 ) =
x
( ) ( )
2 2
x2 + y 2 z2 + 0 z2

Page23 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

 From ( i )
1 1
F  ( z ) =  1 ( z , 0 ) + i 2 ( z , 0 ) = 0 − i = −i
z2 z2
F ( z) = − i 
1
2
dz + c =
i
z
+c  (1 + i ) f ( z ) =
i
z
+c  (1 + i ) f ( z ) = F ( z )
z
1 i 
 f ( z) =  + c
1+ i  z 

Example 2.
Find the analytic function f ( z ) = u + iv , given that 2u + v =
2sin 2 x
e 2y
+ e −2 y − 2 cos 2 x
Ans:

f ( z ) = u + iv − − − − − − (a)
2  ( a )  2 f ( z ) = 2u + i 2v − − − − − − ( b )
i  ( a )  i f ( z ) = iu − v − − − − − − ( c )
( b ) − ( c )  ( 2 − i ) f ( z ) = ( 2u + v ) + i ( 2v − u ) − − − ( d )
Put ( 2 − i ) f ( z ) = F ( z ) , ( 2u + v ) = U and 2v − u = V
 From ( d )
F ( z ) = U + iV

Now find the analytic function F ( z ) = U + iV , where U = 2u + v =

2sin 2 x
e 2y
+ e −2 y − 2 cos 2 x

U  e +e
= 2
(
 2 y −2 y
) 
− 2 cos 2 x  2 cos 2 x − 4sin 2 x  sin 2 x 

x
( )
2
 e 2 y + e−2 y − 2 cos 2 x 
 
(
−4sin 2 x e2 y − e −2 y )
2( )=
U −1 −2 y
= 2sin 2 x 2e 2y
− 2e
y
( e2 y + e−2 y − 2 cos 2 x ) ( e2 y + e−2 y − 2 cos 2 x )
2

U V
F( z) = +i
x x
U U
= −i  By C − R Equations
x y
=  1 ( x, y ) − i 2 ( x , y )
=  1 ( z , 0 ) − i 2 ( z , 0 ) − − − − − − ( i )

 1 ( x, y ) =
U  e +e
= 2
(
 2 y −2 y
) 
− 2 cos 2 x  2 cos 2 x − 4sin 2 x  sin 2 x 

x
( )
2
 e2 y + e−2 y − 2 cos 2 x 
 
 (1 + 1 − 2 cos 2 z )  2 cos 2 z − 4sin 2 z  sin 2 z   4 (1 − cos 2 z ) cos 2 z − 4sin 2 2 z 
 1 ( z, 0 ) = 2   = 2 
 (1 + 1 − 2 cos 2 z ) 2

 
 4 (1 − cos 2 z )
2


Page24 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology

  cos 2 z − cos 2 2 z − sin 2 2 z   cos 2 z − 1   1 − cos 2 z 
= 2  = 2  = −2  
 (1 − cos 2 z )2   (1 − cos 2 z )2   (1 − cos 2 z )2 
−2 −2
= = = −coesc 2 z
1 − cos 2 z 2sin z 2

 2 ( x, y ) =
U
=
(
−4sin 2 x e 2 y − e −2 y )
y
( )
2
e2 y + e −2 y − 2 cos 2 x
−4sin 2 z (1 − 1)
 2 ( z, 0 ) = =0
(1 + 1 − 2 cos 2 z )2
From ( i )
F  ( z ) =  1 ( z , 0 ) − i 2 ( z , 0 )
= −coesc 2 z − i  0 = −coesc 2 z
 F ( z ) =  −coesc 2 z dz
= cot z + c
 ( 2 − i ) f ( z ) = cot z + c  ( 2 − i ) f ( z ) = F ( z )
1
 f ( z) = ( cot z + c )
2−i

Page25 Jayachandran V, Assistant Professor, College of Science and Technology