CONTRÔLE NON DESTRUCTIF

CYCLE INGÉNIEUR

CONCEPTION MÉCANIQUE

STEPHANE BALY Bureau IC1 209

JUNIA - HEI Tél : 03 28 38 48 58

16, rue Colson Site Internet : www.junia.com
59046 LILLE Cedex e-mail : stephane.baly@junia.com
Non Destructive Testing Introduction

INTRODUCTION – NON DESTRUCTIVE METHOD

I. Non Destructive Testing

The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a
critical role in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a
reliable and cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and implement tests
that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause planes to
crash, reactors to fail, trains to derail, pipelines to burst, and a variety of less visible, but equally
troubling events. These tests are performed in a manner that does not affect the future usefulness
of the object or material. In other words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and
measured without damaging them. Because it allows inspection without interfering with a
product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and cost-
effectiveness. Generally speaking, NDT applies to industrial inspections. Technologies used in
NDT are similar to those used in the medical industry.

II. Nondestructive Evaluation

Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) is a term that is often used interchangeably with NDT.
However, technically, NDE is used to describe measurements that are more quantitative in
nature. For example, a NDE method would not only locate a defect, but it would also be used to
measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and orientation. NDE may be used to
determine material properties such as fracture toughness, formability, and other physical
characteristics.

III. NDT/NDE Methods

The number of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make measurements is
large and continues to grow. Researchers continue to find new ways of applying physics and
other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT methods. However, there are six NDT methods
that are used most often. These methods are visual inspection, penetrant testing, magnetic
particle testing, Eddy current testing, radiography, and ultrasonic testing.

III.1 Visual and Optical Testing

Visual inspection involves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The inspector may also
use special tools such as magnifying glasses, mirrors, or borescopes to gain access and more
closely inspect the subject area. Visual examiners follow procedures that range from simple to
very complex.

III.2 Penetrant Testing

Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then removed from
the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter, drawing trapped penetrant
out of imperfections open to the surface. With visible dyes, vivid color contrasts between the
penetrant and developer make "bleedout" easy to see. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is
used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thus allowing imperfections to be readily seen.
Non Destructive Testing Introduction

III.3 Magnetic Particle Testing

This NDE method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material and
then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid). Surface and near-
surface imperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrate iron particles near imperfections,
previewing a visual indication of the flaw.

III.4 Electromagnetic Testing or Eddy Current Testing

Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating magnetic
field. The electrical currents are called eddy currents because they flow in circles at and just
below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused by
imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the material's conductive and permeability
properties, can be detected with the proper equipment.

III.5 Radiography
Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or X-radiation to examine parts and
products for imperfections. An X-ray generator or radioactive isotope is used as a source of
radiation. Radiation is directed through a part and onto film or other imaging media. The
resulting shadow graph shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible imperfections are
indicated as density changes on the film in the same manner as a medical X-ray shows broken
bones.

III.6 Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonics use transmission of high-frequency sound waves into a material to detect
imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used ultrasonic
testing technique is pulse echo, wherein sound is introduced into a test object and reflections
(echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from the part's geometrical
surfaces.

III.7 Acoustic Emission Testing

When a solid material is stressed, imperfections within the material emit short bursts of acoustic
energy called "emissions." As in ultrasonic testing, acoustic emissions can be detected by special
receivers. Emission sources can be evaluated through the study of their intensity, rate, and
location.

III.8 Leak Testing

Several techniques are used to detect and locate leaks in pressure containment parts, pressure
vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using electronic listening devices, pressure
gauge measurements, liquid and gas penetrant techniques, and/or a simple soap-bubble test.

Translation
reliable : fiable
a flaw : une imperfection
vivid : vif, éclatant
a dye : une teinture
a bleedout : une coulure
Eddy current method : méthode des courants de Foucault
a leak : une fuite
to flow : s’écouler
Non Destructive Testing Chapter I – Penetrant Method

PENETRANT TESTING METHOD

I. Introduction and History of Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetration inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by
bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the defect. The technique is based on the ability of
a liquid to be drawn into a "clean" surface breaking defect by capillary action. After a period of
time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer applied. This acts as
a "blotter." It draws the penetrant from the defect to reveal its presence. Colored (contrast)
penetrants require good white light while fluorescent penetrants need to be used in darkened
conditions with an ultraviolet "black light".

II. Basic Processing Steps of a Liquid Penetrant Inspection

1. Surface Preparation : One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is
the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that
may prevent penetrant from entering defects. Mechanical operations such as machining, sanding,
can smear the surface of the sample, thus closing the defects.

2. Penetrant Application : Once the surface has been thoroughly cleaned and dried, the
penetrant material is applied by spraying, brushing, or immersing the parts in a penetrant bath.

3. Penetrant Dwell : The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient time to allow as
much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the
total time that the penetrant is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually
recommended by the penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The
times vary depending on the application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the
material being inspected, and the type of defect being inspected. Minimum dwell times typically
range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant dwell time as
long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwell time is often determined by
experimentation and is often very specific to a particular application.

4. Excess Penetrant Removal : This is a most delicate part of the inspection procedure
because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as
little penetrant as possible from defects. Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may
involve cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and
then rinsing with water .

5. Developer Application : A thin layer of developer is then applied to the sample to

draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in
a variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powdered), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).

6. Indication Development : The developer is allowed to stand on the part surface for a
period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of the trapped penetrant out of any surface
flaws. This development time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes and significantly longer times
may be necessary for tight cracks.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter I – Penetrant Method

7. Inspection : Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect

indications from any defects which may be present.

8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surface to
remove the developer from the parts that were found to be acceptable.

III. Common Uses of Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Liquid penetrant inspection is one of the most widely used nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which are its relative ease of use
and its flexibility. Liquid penetrant inspection can be used to inspect almost any material
provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonly
inspected using by this method include the following:
- Metals (aluminum, copper, steel, titanium, etc.) ;
- Glass ;
- Many ceramic materials ;
- Rubber, Plastics.

IV. Advantages and Disadvantages of Penetrant Testing

Primary Advantages
- The method has high sensitive to small surface discontinuities.
- The method has few material limitations, i.e. metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected.
- Large areas and large volumes of parts/materials can be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
- Parts with complex geometric shapes are routinely inspected.
- Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and constitute a visual
representation of the defect.
- Penetrant materials and associated equipment are relatively inexpensive.
Primary Disadvantages
- Only surface breaking defects can be detected.
- Only materials with a relative nonporous surface can be inspected.
- Precleaning is critical as contaminants can mask defects.
- The inspector must have direct access to the surface being inspected.
- Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
- Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
- Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
- Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

Translation :
a blotter : un buvard
a flaw : un défaut, une imperfection
to bleedout : faire couler
a dye : une teinture
to smear : salir
to rinse : rincer
Non Destructive Testing Chapter I – Penetrant Method

ULTRASONIC TESTING
I. Introduction
Ultrasonic Testing uses high frequency sound energy to conduct examinations and make
measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensional
measurements, material characterization, and more.
A typical ultrasonic Testing inspection system consists of several functional units. A
pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulse. Driven by
the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a
discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from
the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed into electrical signal by the transducer
and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected signal strength is displayed versus
the time from signal generation to when a echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly
related to the distance that the signal travelled. From the signal, information about the reflector
location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

II. Physics of Ultrasound

II.1. Wave propagation

In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the direction of wave
propagation. In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse
to the direction of propagation.

Longitudinal wave Shear wave

II.2 Modes of sound waves

Surface or Rayleigh waves travel the surface of a relative thick solid material penetrating to a
depth of one wavelength. The particle movement has an elliptical orbit as shown in the image
and animation below. Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects and since they will follow the surface around, curves can also be used to inspect areas
that other waves might have difficulty reaching.

Modes shape
Lamb wave dispersion curves
Non Destructive Testing Chapter I – Penetrant Method

II.3 Acoustic impedance

The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of density ( in kg/m3) and
acoustic velocity (C in m/s) of that material.
Z=C.
The acoustic impedance is important in
1. the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two
materials having different acoustic impedance ;
2. the design of ultrasonic transducers ;
3. assessing absorption of sound in a medium.

We can compare two materials and "see" how they reflect and transmit sound energy. The
reflected energy is the square of the difference divided by the sum of the acoustic impedances of
the two materials:

4 Z1 Z 2 ( Z 2  Z1 ) 2
T  R 
( Z1  Z 2 ) 2 ( Z1  Z 2 ) 2

We can also determine the magnitude of the reflected and transmitted wave.

2Z 2 Z 2  Z1
T12  R1 2 
Z1  Z 2 Z1  Z 2

II.4 Refraction and Snell's Law

When an ultrasound wave passes through an interface between two materials at an oblique angle,
and the materials have different indices of refraction, it produces both reflected and refracted
waves.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

 Liquid-liquid interface case

Angles determination Liquid-liquid slowness curves

Snell-Descartes's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities of the
waves. Snell-Descartes's law equates the ratio of material velocities VL1 and VL2 to the ratio of
the sine's of incident 1 and refraction 2 angles, as shown in the following equation.

sin 1 sin  2
 ,
VL1 VL2

Where VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1 and VL2 is the longitudinal wave
velocity in material 2.

 Solid-solid interface case

Angles determination
Liquid-liquid slowness curves

sin 1 sin  2 sin  3 sin  4

  
VL1 VL2 VS1 VS2
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

Example

III. Equipment and transducers

The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned
mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active
element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and
vice versa. The active element is basically a piece polarized material (i.e. some parts of the
molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with
electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the
material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in
induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of
molecules will cause the material to change dimensions.

Transducer description

The active element of most acoustic transducers used today is a piezoelectric ceramics. The
thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the transducer. The
higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the active element. It is also important to
understand the concept of bandwidth, or range of frequencies, associated with a transducer. The
frequency noted on a transducer is the central or centre frequency and depends primarily on the
backing material. Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and below the
central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer with high resolving power.
Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency range, poorer resolving power, but
greater penetration.

IV. Field of pressure

Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

Field of pressure

There are extensive fluctuations near the source, known as the near field. These high and low
pressure areas are generated because the crystal is not a point source of sound pressure, but
rather a series of high and low pressure waves which are joined into a uniform front at the end of
the near zone. Because of acoustic variations within a near field, it can be extremely difficult to
accurately evaluate flaws in materials when they are positioned within this area.
The ultrasonic beam is more uniform in the far field, where the beam spreads out in a pattern
originating from the centre of the transducer. The transition between these zones occurs at a
distance, N, and is sometimes referred to as the "natural focus" of a planer transducer. The
near/far distance, N, is significant because amplitude variations that characterize the near field
change to a smoothly declining amplitude at this point. This area just beyond the near field is
where the sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore, optimal detection
results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.
Beam spread is greater when using a low frequency transducer than when using a high frequency
transducer. As the diameter of the transducer increases the beam spread will be reduced.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

Acoustic focus zone definition

Planer transducer Focus transducer

Length focus zone f ac

Near/far field limit : f ac  l0  D 2 / 4 Focus factor g  with l0  D 2 / 4
l0
2 Length focus zone
Start at Z1  l0 , end at Z 2  2l0 2
3 7  f ac 
Width focus beam at –6 dB z  7  
tan 2   D 
Acoustic focus near/far field limit :
  0.25D z / l0  1.75 g 2 if g  0.6
Acoustic focus in the far field : z / l0  4 / 3g 2 if g  1
l 1  4g 1
  0.25 D Start at Z1 / l0 
l0 2
Beam spreading in the far field End at Z 2 / l0  g  g 2

sin   1.22 Width focus beam at –6 dB
D D f 
Diameter :   g  ac
4 D

IV. Measurements

IV.1 Normal beam

Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity in a part or
structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect from the back or the surface of a
discontinuity, and be returned to the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a few
microseconds or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the
down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test material. The result
is expressed in the well-known relationship.

IV.2 Angle beam

Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted shear wave into
the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam to come in from the side, thereby
improving detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

IV.3 Coupling
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic energy from
the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic
impedance mismatch between air and solids, such as the test specimen, is large and, therefore,
nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material. In
immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer and the structure are immersed in the couplant,
which is typically water.

V. Advantages and Disadvantages of Ultrasonic testing

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method.

Primary Advantages
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used.
It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape.
Minimal structure preparation required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.

Primary Disadvantages
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous
are difficult to inspect.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

Exercise 1 : Snell Descartes law - critical angles

Let us consider a water-steel interface and a longitudinal wave with an angle of incidence equal
to 10°.
1 – Determine the critical angles for such interface ;
2 – Which are the reflected and transmitted waves and then determine the different angles ;
3 – Same exercise with a steel-water interface and a shear wave having an angle of incidence
equal to 15°.
4 – We want to use a Plexiglas wedge in order to generate some shear waves in steel. What must
be the angle wedge in order to generate a shear wave at 45° in the steel. Is there a longitudinal
wave generated ?

Exercise 2 : Magnitude of ultrasound

An ultrasound wave is generated with a magnitude 1 Volt. Calculate the magnitude of the front
face and back face echoes in the cases of a steel plate and an aluminium plate. The media of
propagation of the incident wave is water. We assume that only plane waves are present and we
overlook the attenuation effect.

Exercise 3 : Magnitude and attenuation of ultrasound

A structure has to be controlled by ultrasound immersed method. This multilayered structure is

made of one layer of Plexiglas 1 cm thick stick on an aluminium plate 2 cm thick. The glue
thickness is overlooked. The set-up is made of a planner transducer, 2 MHz central frequency
perpendicularly positioned at 5 cm from the plate surface, Plexiglas face.

1 – Firstly the attenuations are not taken into account. Calculate the magnitude and position of all
echoes between the emission and t=85 s. In such configuration, the echo magnitude on a perfect
reflector is 1 Volt.
2 – The Plexiglas attenuation is equal to 500 dB/m at 2 MHz and can be considered as
insignificant in water and aluminium. Determine the magnitude of the echoes.

Exercise 4 : Non destructive weld testing

We want to control by ultrasound method a non flush weld (see below). We’ve got three angle
transducers (45°, 60° and 70°) and a planner one.

1 – Which transducer should we choose in order to control the weld ?

2 – Determine the maximal displacement of the probe in order to control the weld ;
3 – Calculate the maximal length of the ultrasonic wave path ;
4 – During the weld control, a peak is detected on the screen of the oscilloscope at 120 mm
corresponding to a probe position l=110 mm. The horizontal axis of the oscilloscope has been
calibrated in distance single way covered. Determine the defect position in the weld (the distance
l is given with respect to the y axis).
Non Destructive Testing Chapter II – Ultrasonic testing

Exercise 5 : Weld control by an immersed method

We want to control a weld by an immersed method under normal incidence. The distance
between the weld bead centre and the incident interface is h=20 mm.

We’ve got a focus transducer with a central frequency at f=5 MHz. The diameter of the
piezoelectric element is D=20 mm. This transducer has a Plexiglas lens which has a curvature
radius equal to R=50 mm.
1 – Calculate the optical focal distance in water ;
2 – Calculate the length and the diameter of the focal spot ;
3 – Determine the distance L between the transducer front face and the face of incidence in order
to obtain the focal spot centre of the in the weld bead centre.
4 – The visualization time reference has been calibrated on a full range equivalent to 600 mm
steel (1cm=60 mm of steel). Which are all the visible echoes on the screen if there’s a defect at
the weld centre and what are the positions with regard to the origin of the time base ?
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

RADIOGRAPHY
I. Physics of radiography

I.1 Nature of Penetrating Radiation

X-rays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveforms as are
light rays, microwaves, and radio wave, but x-rays and gamma rays cannot been seen, felt, or
heard. They possess no charge and no mass and, therefore, are not influenced by electrical and
magnetic fields and will always travel in straight lines. They can be characterized by frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. Wavelength of visible light is of the order of 6000 angstroms while the
wavelength of X-rays is in the range of one angstrom and that of gamma rays is 0.0001
angstrom. This very short wavelength is what gives x-rays and gamma rays their power to
penetrate materials that light cannot. These electromagnetic waves are of a high energy level and
can break chemical bonds in materials they penetrate.
X-rays and gamma rays differ only in their source of origin. X-rays are produced by an x-ray
generator while Gamma radiation is the product of radioactive atoms. Depending upon the ratio
of neutrons to protons within its nucleus, an isotope of a particular element may be stable or
unstable. Over time the nuclei of unstable isotopes spontaneously disintegrate, or transform, in a
process known as radioactive decay. Various types of ionizing radiation may be emitted from the
nucleus and/or its surrounding electrons. Nuclides which undergo radioactive decay are called
radionuclides. Any material which contains measurable amounts of one or more radionuclides is
a radioactive material.
The degree of radioactivity or radiation producing potential of a given amount of radioactive
material is measured in Curies (Ci). The curie which was originally defined as that amount of
any radioactive material which disintegrates at the same rate as one gram of pure radium. The
curie has since been defined more precisely as a quantity of radioactive material in which
3.7.1010 atoms disintegrate per second. The International System (SI) unit for activity is the
Becquerel (Bq), which is that quantity of radioactive material in which one atom is transformed
per second.

I.2 Isotope Decay Rate

Gamma-rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted by the disintegration of a radioactive isotope
and have energy from about 100 keV to well over 1 MeV, corresponding to about 0.01 to 0.001
Å. The most useful gamma-emitting radioactive isotopes for radiological purposes are found to
be cobalt (Co60), iridium (Ir192) and cesium (Cs137).
Number of radioactive kernel : N( t )  N 0 exp(at )
Half life radio element : T1 / 2  ln(2) / a
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

I.3 Concept

I.4 Newton's Inverse Square Law

Any point source which spreads its influence
equally in all directions without a limit to its range
will obey the inverse square law. This comes from
strictly geometrical considerations. The intensity of
the influence at any given radius (r) is the source
strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being
strictly geometric in its origin, the inverse square
law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources of
gravitational force, electric field, light, sound, or
radiation obey the inverse square law.
As one of the fields which obey the general inverse
square law, a point radiation source can be
characterized by the diagram above whether you
are talking about Roentgens, rads, or rems. All
measures of exposure will drop off by the inverse
square law. For example, if the radiation exposure is 100 mR/hr at 1 cm from a source, the
exposure will be 0.01 mR/hr at 100 cm.

I.5 Absorption
Absorption characteristics of materials are important in the development of contrast in a
radiograph. Absorption characteristics will increase or decrease as the energy of the X-ray is
increased or decreased. A radiograph with higher contrast will provide greater probability of
detection of a given discontinuity. An understanding of the relationship between material
thickness, absorption properties, and photon energy is fundamental to producing a quality
radiograph. An understanding of absorption is also necessary when designing X-ray and gamma
ray shielding, cabinets, or exposure vaults. The Beer’s absorption law is I  I 0 exp(Z) a linear
absorption is with  linear absorption coefficient. (cm-1).
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

I.6 Geometry and X-ray resolution

Source to film distance, object to film distance, and source size directly affect the degree of
penumbra shadow and geometric unsharpness of a radiograph. Codes and standards used in
industrial radiography require that geometric unsharpness be limited.
The three factors controlling unsharpness are source size, source to object distance, and object to
detector distance. The source size is obtained by referencing manufacturers specifications for a
given X-ray or gamma ray source. A balance must be maintained between duty cycle,
killovoltage applied, and source size. X-ray sources may be reduced to sizes as small as microns
for special applications. As the source size is increased or decreased, distance to the object can
be increased or decreased and geometric unsharpness will remain constant. Source to object
distance is primarily dependent on source size. Object to film distance is maintained as close as
the particle. If the object is suspended above the film an increase in unsharpness will result.
Another result of the object being some distance from the film is geometric enlargement. This
technique is used on small components.

X-ray resolution

The greater the focus film distance, the less noticeable the heel effect due to the smaller cone of
radiation used to cover a given area. Heel effect is less significant on small films. This is due to
the fact that the intensity of an x-ray beam is much more uniform near the central ray.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

I.7 Geometric blur

II. Equipment and materials

II.1 X-ray Sources

X-rays are just like any other kind of electromagnetic radiation. They can be produced in parcels
of energy called photons, just like light. There are two different atomic processes that can
produce X-ray photons. One is called Bremsstrahlung and is a German term meaning "braking
radiation." The other is called K-shell emission. They can both occur in the heavy atoms of
tungsten. Tungsten is often the material chosen for the target or anode of the x-ray tube.

II.2 Gamma sources

Emitted gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. It is the most energetic
form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength of less than one-tenth of a nano-
meter. Gamma rays are essentially very energetic x-rays emitted by excited nuclei. They often
accompany alpha or beta particles, because a nucleus emitting those particles may be left in an
excited (higher-energy) state.
Advantages of gamma ray sources include portability and the ability to penetrate thick materials
in a relativity short time. As can be noted above cobalt will produce energies comparable to a
1.25 MeV x-ray system. Iridium will produce energies comparable to a 460 kV x-ray system.
Not requiring electrical sources the gamma radiography is well adapted for use in remote
locations. Disadvantages include shielding requirements and safety considerations.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

II.3 Radiographic Film

X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatine containing a radiation
sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base. The emulsion is different from
those used in other types of photography films to account for the distinct characteristics of
gamma rays and X-rays, but X-ray films are sensitive to light. Usually, the emulsion is coated on
both sides of the base in very thin layers. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the
amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the film speed. The emulsion
layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying can be accomplished in a reasonable
time. A few of the films used for radiography only have emulsion on one side which produces
the greatest detail in the image.

II.4 Film Selection

The selection of a film when radiographing any
particular component depends on a number of
different factors. Listed below are some of the
factors that must be considered when selected a film
and developing a radiographic technique.

1. the composition, shape, and size of the part

being examined and, in some cases, its weight
and location
2. the type of radiation used, whether x-rays from
an x-ray generator or gamma rays from a
radioactive source.
3. the voltages available with the X-ray equipment
or the intensity of the gamma radiation
4. the relative importance of high radiographic
detail or quick and economical results..

III. Techniques and Calibrations

III.1 Image Considerations

The most common detector used in industrial radiography is film. The high sensitivity to
ionizing radiation provides excellent detail and sensitivity to density changes when producing
images of industrial materials. Image quality is determined by a combination of variables:
radiographic contrast and definition. The film contrast is determined by parameters like grain
size or type of film, time of development, temperature and higher density will provide greater
contrast. The definition is driven by some geometric factors like :
- Focal spot size, which is the point of origin of the radiation should be nearly a point
source as possible
- Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part should be held
at a minimum.
- Specimen to part distance. The specimen and film should be in intimate contact.
- Abrupt changes in specimen thickness may cause distortion on the radiograph.
- Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the
radiograph.
or by Film graininess, and screen mottling
- The speed of film will dictate the definition of the radiograph.
- Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength
shortens and penetration increases, the apparent graininess of the film will increase.
- Increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the radiograph.

III.2 Viewing Radiographs

Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

Film viewers should provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat
from viewers can cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will
allow only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of 4.0 will allow
only 0.01 percent of the incident light to pass. With such low levels of light passing through the
radiograph the delivery of a good light source is important.

III.3 Contrast
The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is radiographic contrast.
Essentially, radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference between adjacent areas on a
radiograph.
It is entirely possible to radiograph a particular subject and, by varying factors, produce two
radiographs possessing entirely different contrast levels. With an x-ray source of low voltage, we
see an illustration of extremely high radiographic contrast, that is, density difference between the
two adjacent areas (A and B) is high. It is essential that sufficient contrast exist between the
defect of interest and the surrounding area. There is no viewing technique that can extract
information that does not already exist in the original radiograph.

III.4 Radiographic Density

Film speed, gradient, and graininess are all responsible for the performance of the film during
exposure and processing. As these combine with processing variables a final product or the
radiograph is produced. In viewing the radiograph, requirements have been established for
acceptable radiographs in industry. The density of a radiograph in industry will determine if
further viewing is possible.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter III – Radiography

Exercise 1 : X-ray and -Ray attenuation radiation

1 - Let us consider a 1 mm thick steel plate and a X-Ray 100 keV source. Determine the intensity
decrease coefficient I0/I, knowing that x1/2=1.8 mm for steel.
Same question for 50 mm of lead  ray from a 60Co source, knowing that x1/2=1.8 mm for lead.
2 – Determine the intensity decrease coefficient I 0/I in the case of a steel plate (weight 1 kg and
surface 2 dm2) and X-Ray 100 KeV source.
3 – Same question for an alloy Fe - 15% Al.
Density Fe=7.874 g/cm3 and Al=2.698 g/cm3
Linear attenuation coefficient Fe=3.85 cm-1 and Al=0.405 cm-1

Exercise 2 : Radiography of a steel plate

A steel plate, thickness 13 mm, has to be controlled by X-Ray.

1 – Determine the voltage range ;
2 – The distance between the source and the film is 90 cm. Determine the exposure in order to
obtain a density d=2 with a film II ;
3 – Determine the geometric blur relation. Application for a source diameter 50 mm.
4 – What is the source diameter for a blur equal to 0.5 mm ?

Exercise 3 :Defect detection by radiography

A steel plate, thickness 25 mm, has to be controlled by X-Ray. The Film used is type II and the
distance between the source and the film is 51 cm.
1 – Determine the voltage range ;
2 – Determine the relation between the source-film distance and the exposure ;
3 – V=200 kV. Determine the exposure in order to obtain a density d=2 ;
4 – A density spot d=3 is observed. Determine the defect size.

Exercise 4 : Detection of an interface defect

We are looking for cracks located at the interface of a multilayered plate made of one aluminium
layer 50 mm thick and one steel layer 13 mm. The X-Ray generator has a voltage V=180 kV and
the diameter is 7.6 mm.

1 – The geometric blur must be less than 0.5 mm. Determine the minimal source-film distance ;
2 - Taking into account that the maximum source film distance is D=50 cm, determine the
geometric blur on the cracks ;
3 – The radiography is done with a film II. The average density is d=2 and we observe on the
negative an area where d=2.4. Determine the defect size.

Exercise 5 : A wedge testing

A wedge of steel has to be controlled with X-Ray. The thickness varies from 6.3 mm to 9.5 mm.
We expect a density between 2 and 3.3. Which kind of film (I, II or III) should we use ?
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

EDDY CURRENT
I. Physics

I.1 Introduction
Eddy current inspection is one of several NDT methods that use the principal of
“electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting examinations. Eddy currents are created through
a process called electromagnetic induction. When alternating current is applied to the conductor,
such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the conductor. This magnetic field
expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to
zero. If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic
field, current will be induced in this second conductor. Eddy currents are induced electrical
currents that flow in a circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when a
liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles when conditions are right.

I.2 Induction
In 1824 Oersted discovered that current passing though a coil created a magnetic field capable of
shifting a compass needle. Seven years later Faraday and Henry discovered just the opposite.
They noticed that a moving magnetic field would induce current in an electrical conductor. This
process of generating electrical current in a conductor by placing the conductor in a changing
magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction or just induction. It is called induction because
the current is said to be induced in the conductor by the magnetic field.
Faraday also noticed that the rate at which the magnetic field changed also had an effect on the
amount of current or voltage that was induced. Faraday's Law for an uncoiled conductor states
that the amount of induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux lines cutting the
conductor. Faraday's Law for a straight wire is shown below.

I.3 Inductance
When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is called
inductance, L. Self-inductance, or simply inductance is the property of a circuit whereby a
change in current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit. When one circuit induces
current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance. When an AC current is
flowing through a piece of wire in a circuit, an electromagnetic field is produced that is
constantly growing and shrinking and changing direction due to the constantly changing current
in the wire. This changing magnetic field will induce electrical current in another wire or circuit
that is brought close to the wire in the primary circuit. The current in the second wire will also be
AC and in fact will look very similar to the current flowing in the first wire. An electrical
transformer uses inductance to change the voltage of electricity into a more useful level. In
nondestructive testing, inductance is used to generate eddy currents in the test piece.

I.4 Self inductance

The property of self-inductance is a particular form of electromagnetic induction. Self inductance
is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire when the current in the wire
itself is changing. In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current
in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit. Therefore, the voltage is self-induced.
The term inductor is used to describe a circuit element possessing the property of inductance and
a coil of wire is a very common inductor. In circuit diagrams, a coil or wire is usually used to
indicate an inductive component. Taking a closer look at a coil will help understand the reason
that a voltage is induced in a wire carrying a changing current. The alternating current running
through the coil creates a magnetic field in and around the coil that is increasing and decreasing
as the current changes. The magnetic field forms concentric loops that surrounds the wire and
joins up to form larger loops that surround the coil as shown in the image below. When the
current increases in one loop the expanding magnetic field will cut across some or all of the
neighboring loops of wire, inducing a voltage in these loops. This causes a voltage to be induced
in the coil when the current is changing.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

I.5 Maxwell’s equations

r r r
Gauss’ law for an electric field  S
D.dS    v dV
r r
V
divD  v
r
Gauss’ law for a magnetic field  S
B.dS  0
r
divB  0
r
r r r D r r r D
Ampere’s theorem C H .dl  S ( J  t )dS rotH  J 
r t
r r r r
Faraday’s law C E .dl  


t S
BdS r
rotE  
B
t

I.6 Depth of penetration

Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the
magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to the area
of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an
excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the image.
Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin
effect.

The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a material is affected by the frequency of the
excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the specimen. The
depth of penetration decreases with increasing frequency and increasing conductivity and
magnetic permeability. The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about
37% of the surface density, is called the standard depth of penetration (d). The word 'standard'
denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample (conditions which are
rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy currents penetrate deeper than one standard depth of
penetration they decrease rapidly with depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2d), eddy
current density has decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3d)
the eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at the
defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy currents at this location. When
attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected flaw depth
within one standard depth of penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy
currents will be sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to
measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that it produces
three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to assure that the eddy
currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that changes in the material thickness
will not affect the eddy current measurements.
1

 f 
=Standard Depth of Penetration (m) f = Test Frequency (Hz)
 = Magnetic Permeability (H/m)  = Electrical Conductivity (-1m-1)
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

I.7 Phase lag

Phase lag is a parameter of the eddy current signal that makes it possible to obtain information
about the depth of a defect within a material. Phase lag is the shift in time between the eddy
current response from a disruption on the surface and a disruption at some distance below the
surface. The generation of eddy currents can be thought of as a diffusion process meaning that
the eddy currents below the surface take a little longer to form than those at the surface.
Therefore, subsurface defects will be detected by the eddy current instrument a little later in time
than surface defects. Both the signal voltage and current will have this phase shift or lag with
depth, which is different from the phase angle discussed earlier. (With the phase angle, the
current shifted with respect to the voltage.)
Phase lag is an important parameter in eddy current testing because it makes it possible to
estimate the depth of a defect and with proper reference specimens, determine the rough size of a
defect. The signal produced by a flaw depends on both amplitude and phase of the eddy currents
being disrupted. A small surface defect and large internal defect can have a similar effect on the
magnitude of test coil impedance. However, because of the increasing phase lag with depth, there
will be a characteristic difference in the test coil impedance vector.
Y
Impédance magnitude : Z n  X 2  Y 2 Phase  : tg 
X
L R  R0
Inductive component : Y  Resistive component : X 
L0 L0
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

II. Instrumentation

II.1 Eddy current source

The most basic eddy current testing instrument consists of an alternating current source, a coil of
wire connected to this source, and a voltmeter to measure the voltage change across the coil. An
ammeter could also be used to measure the current change in the circuit instead of using the
voltmeter.
While it might actually be possible to detect some types of defects with this type of an
equipment, most eddy current instruments are a bit more sophisticated.

II.2 Resonant circuit

Every circuit containing capacitance and inductance has a resonant frequency that is inversely
proportional to the square root of the product of the capacitance and inductance.
1
f resonance 
2 LC
II.3 Probes
Eddy current probes are available in a large variety shapes and sizes. In fact, one of the major
advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed for a wide variety of
applications. Eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation of
the test coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are
packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example of different configurations of
probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted into a piece of pipe to inspect from the inside
out, versus encircling probes, in which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the
outside in. The mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with
the test equipment. The mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories:
Absolute, differential, reflection and hybrid.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

some absolute and differential type eddy current probes.

Absolute Probes
Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents and
sense changes in the eddy current field. As discussed in the physics section, AC is passed
through the coil and this sets-up a expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the
coil. When the probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the changing magnetic field
generate eddy currents within the material. The generation of the eddy currents take energy from
the coil and this appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy currents
generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the
inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil,
much information can be gained about the test material.
Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff measurements
and thickness measurements. They are widely used due to their versatility. Since absolute probes
are sensitivity to things such as conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be
taken to minimize these variables when they are not important to the inspection being performed.
It is very common for commercially available absolute probes to have a fixed "air loaded"
reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.
Differential Probes
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they could be
wound in addition with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test
sample, there is no differential signal developed between the coils since they are both inspecting
identical material. However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good material, a
differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being very sensitive to defect yet
relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature
variations. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. There are also
disadvantages to using differential probes. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret.
For example, if a flaw is longer than the spacing between the two coils, only the leading and
trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.

II.3 Probes configurations

Surface Probes
Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are intended to be used in contact with
the test surface. Surface probes generally consist of a coil of very fine wire encased in a
protective housing. The size of the coil and shape of the housing are determined by the intended
use of the probe. Most of the coils are wound so that the axis of the coil is perpendicular to the
test surface. This coil configuration is sometimes referred to as a pancake coil and is good for
detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented perpendicular to the test surface.
Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that are in a parallel plane to the test surface will likely
go undetected with this coil configuration.
Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large defects. They sample a
relatively large area and allow for deeper penetration. Since they do sample a large area, they are
often used for conductivity tests to get more of a bulk material measurement. However, their
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

large sampling area limits their ability to detect small discontinuities. Pencil probes have a small
surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing to permit inspection in restricted spaces.
They are available with a straight shaft or with a bent shaft, which facilitate easier handling and
use in applications such as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes are prone to
wobble due to their small base and sleeves are sometimes used to provide a wider base.
Bobbin Probes
Bobbin probes are inserted into hollow products, such as a pipe, to inspect from the inside out.
The bobbin probes have a housing that keep the probe centered in the product and the coil(s)
orientation somewhat constant relative to the test surface. The coils are most commonly wound
around the circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects an area around the entire
circumference of the test object at one time.
Encircling Coils
They are similar to bobbin probes except that the coil(s) encircle the material to inspect from the
outside in. Encircling coils probes are commonly used to inspect solid products, such as bar.

III. Example - Thickness coating

The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the
effect of liftoff on impedance. This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint
and plastic coatings. The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive
surface. As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy
current field strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with base
metal. Thickness between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower
values and 4% for higher values. Contributions to impedance changes due to conductivity
variations should be phased out, unless it is known that conductivity variations are negligible, as
normally found at higher frequencies.

IV. Pro and Cons

Eddy current inspection is used in a variety of industries to find defects and make measurements.
One of the primary uses of eddy current testing is for defect detection when the nature of the
defect is well understood. In general the technique is used to inspect a relatively small area and
the probe design and test parameters must be established with a good understanding of the flaw
that is trying to be detected. Since eddy currents tend to concentrate at the surface of a material,
they can only be used to detect surface and near surface defects.

In thin materials such as tubing and sheet stock, eddy currents can be used to measure the
thickness of the material. This makes eddy current a useful tool for detecting corrosion damage
and other damage that causes a thinning of the material. The technique is used to make corrosion
thinning measurements on aircraft skins and in the walls of tubing used in assemblies such as
heat exchangers. Eddy current testing is also used to measure the thickness of paints and other
coatings.

One of the major advantages of eddy current as an NDT tool is the variety of inspections and
measurements that can be performed. In the proper circumstances, eddy currents can be used for
- Crack detection ;
- Material thickness measurements ;
- Coating thickness measurements ;
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

- Conductivity measurements for material identification.

Some of the advantages of eddy current inspection include:
- Sensitive to small cracks and other defects ;
- Detects surface and near surface defects ;
- Inspection gives immediate results ;
- Equipment is very portable ;
- Method can be used for much more than flaw detection ;
- Minimum part preparation is required ;
- Test probe does not need to contact the part ;
- Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials.
Some of the limitation of eddy current inspection include:
- Only conductive materials can be inspected ;
- Surface must be accessible to the probe ;
- Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques ;
- Surface finish and and roughness may interfere ;
- Reference standards needed for setup ;
- Depth of penetration is limited.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

Exercise 1 : Normalized diagram of impedance

We have to control a rod, diameter D=35 mm, non magnetic with a sensor made of a simple
encircling coil (characteristic R0=0 , L0=1.35 H - see the normalized diagram of impedance).
1 – The measure of the coil induction in presence of the rod to be controlled gives us L=0.38 H.
Assuming that the control is done at frequency f=120 kHz and =1, determine the conductivity
of the material ?
2 – The rod radius locally decreases so that the impedance point is now =0.81.
What is the new value of the coefficient =k.a ?
What can we say about the size of the detected defect ?

Exercise 2 : Non magnetic pipe testing

We control by Eddy currents method a non magnetic steel pipe (internal radius R i=65 mm,
thickness e=4 mm, conductivity = 0.14 107 S.m-1. A differential sensor M.F. (frequency 45 kHz)
made of encircling coils is used (length 16.5 mm).
1 – Do we need to use an internal probe in order to increase the sensitivity ?
2 – Study of the influence of an artificial defect, diameter 1 mm
Determine the resistance of a stripe 1 mm width.
Evolution of the resistance with the defect.
Calculate the relative variation of the conductivity around the defect.

Exercise 3 : Steel pipe control by Eddy current

We have to control by Eddy currents method a ferromagnetic pipe with the following
characteristics : internal diameter Di=90 mm, thickness e=30 mm, conductivity = 2.1 106 S.m-1
and the relative permeability r is a function of the magnetic field H as described below :

The device is made of an encircling coil (see below for the diagrams) and the probe radius is
75 mm.

1 – Which method will you choose in order to obtain a control not influenced by magnetic
parameters ?
2 – Using this method then determine the frequency assuming that we want to control the
structure by measuring a maximum variation of the system probe/sample resistance.
3 – Some previous microstructural studies have shown an important ratio of defects in the pipe.
In that condition, which kind of control should we use ?
4 – We are looking for the influence of an artificial defect, a ring depth  and width l located on
the external surface the pipe.
Non Destructive Testing Chapter IV – Eddy current

In presence of this defect the impedance point moves and  has a new value ’=45. Report on
the graphs 1 and 2 how the impedance point moves taking into account the geometrical
modifications. Which are the measurable dimensions of the defect ?

5 – How will change the impedance point if the previous defect is now on the internal surface of
the pipe ? Which are the limits of the process and how to improve it ?

6 – When the probe scans the two previous artificial defects, the impedance point follows the
curves as bellow

Analyse the global shape of the curves. From a practical point of view, could we be able to
distinguish defects similar to the artificial ones ?