Non-Destructive Inspection

Practical
NAME :- Amol Rajhans Talekar
ROLL NO. :- 139
NAME OF DEPARTMENT :- Aeronautical Engineering

CONTENT

1. To study Non-Destructive Inspection.

2. To study Visual Inspection.
3. To visualize cracks which are not visible to naked eye using
penetration inspection.
4. To study magnetic inspection.
5. To study NDT by ultrasonic flow detector.
6. To study Eddy current inspection.
7. To study radiography testing.
8. To study acoustic emission testing.
9. To study metallurgical Microscope.
 PRACTICAL-1
AIM: To study Non-Destructive Inspection.
INTRODUCTION:
Defination of NDT: Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a testing and
analysis technique used by industry to evaluate the properties of a
material, component, structure or system for characteristic differences or
welding defects and discontinuities without causing damage to the
original part.
Methods of NDT:
1. Visual Testing
2. Top Testing
3. X-ray Testing
4. Acoustic Emission Testing
5. Magnetic Measurement Testing
6. Ultrasonic Testing
7. Flux Leakage testing
8. Eddy Current Testing
9. Laser interometer testing
10. Replication Testing
11. Acoustic microscopy testing
12. Liquid penetration testing
13. Magnetic Particle testing
14. Thermography testing
15. Microwave testing

Some Uses of NDT methods:

1. Flaw detection and evalution
2. Leak detection
3. Location Determination
4. Dimensional Measurement
5. Structure and microstructure characterization.
6. Estimation at mechanical and physical properties.
 7. Stress and Dynamic response measurement.
8. Material sorting and Chemical composition determination.

NDT Applications:
To artist in Production development.
To sort incoming material.
To monitor improve or control manufacturing process.
To verify proper processing such as heat treating.
To verify proper assembly.
To inspect in service damage.

Most Common NDT Methods:

Visual
Eddy current
Liquid Penetration
Magnetic
Ultrasonic
X-ray

Result: Thus, introduction to NDT has been studied

successfully.
 PRACTICAL-2

AIM: To study visual inspection.

INTRODUCTION:
Visual testing (VT) is also known as visual testing examination, non-
destructive inspection, or non-destructive evaluation or examination.
Visual testing is the most common non-destructive testing method.
Visual testing is a popular NDT method, because it is so easy to perform,
it is a low-cost method, and it requires minimal equipment. VT involves
observing a component with the naked eye to evaluate the presence of
surface discontinuities.
VT can be assisted with optical instruments such as magnifying glasses,
boro-scopes, mirrors, and other computer equipment for remote viewing.
If a component can be viewed, visual testing is the first method of testing
in an NDT examination. Visual testing can be performed on components
that show visible corrosion or degradation such as welds, storage tanks,
piping, boilers, and pressure vessels.
TOOLS USED IN VISUAL INSPECTION:
Optical Aids
Used when direct visual examination is not possible
Microscopes
Borescopes
Fiberscopes
Video Cameras
Mechanical Aids
Micrometers
Calipers
Depth gauges
 Thread pitch gauges
Feeler gauges
Weld gauges

APPLICATION OF VISUAL INSPECTION:

Examining the surface condition of a component
Examining alignment of mating surfaces
Checking presence of leaks
Identification of defects

LIMITATIONS:
Only suitable for surfaces than can be viewed
Usually only larger defects can be detected
Scratches can be misinterpreted for cracks
Quality of inspection influenced by surface condition, physical
conditions, environmental factors and physiological factors.

MATERIAL FACTOR THAT AFFECT VISUAL TESTING:

1) Surface Conditions: Cleanliness, Colour, Texture.
2) Physical Conditions: Specimen condition, shape and size, temperature.
3) Environment Factors: Atmosphere, cleanliness, Humidity, safety.
4) Psychological Factors: Physical comfort, mental health, test item
position.

CONCLUSION: Thus we successfully performed visual inspection testing.

 PRACTICAL-3

AIM: To visualize cracks which are not visible with naked eyes, using
liquid penetration inspection.
DIAGRAM:

INTRODUCTION:
Liquid penetrant testing (PT) is a one of non-destructive test, which
can detect surface-breaking defects-such as hairline cracks, surface
porosity, leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks. It can change
invisible defects to visible defect by using liquiddye.
Mechanism of this test is based on capillary action. Low-tension
liquid penetrant is applied into clean and dry surface-breaking
defects to spread. After appropriate time has gone, remove excess
penetrant and draw out it by developer. Then it is appeared the
defects visibly.
Liquid penetrant testing (PT) can be applied to non-metal materials
which are not porous it, however, it is impossible to detect inner
defects.
It shall be selected proper method depending on test piece
immersing of liquid dye, removing excess it, drawing out it by
developer.
PENETRANT METHOD: Because of the vast difference among
applications for penetrant inspection it has been necessary to define
and develop the two types of penetrants into four basic method to
accommodate the wide variation:
1. Surface condition of the workpiece being inspected.
2. Characteristics of flaws to be detected.
3. Time & place of inspection.
4. Sensitivity required.
The four methods are broadly classified by-
1. Method water washable.
2. Method post emulsifable lipophilic.
3. Method solvent removable.
4. Method ; post emulsifable hydrophilic.

BASIC PROCESSING STEPS:

The exact procedure for liquid penetrant testing can vary from case to
case depending on several factors such as the penetrant system being
used, the size and material of the component being inspected, the
type of discontinuities being expected in the component and the
condition and environment under which the inspection is
performed. However, the general steps can be summarized as
follows:
1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid
penetrant testing is the surface preparation. The surface must be free
of oil, grease, water, or other contaminants that may prevent
penetrant from entering flaws. The sample may also require etching if
mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting
have been performed. These and other mechanical operations can
smear metal over the flaw opening and prevent the penetrant from
entering.
2. Penetrant Application: Once the surface has been thoroughly
cleaned and dried, the penetrant material is applied by spraying,
brushing, or immersing the part in a penetrant bath.
3. Penetrant Dwell: The penetrant is left on the surface for a sufficient
time to allow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn or to seep
into a defect. Penetrant dwell time is the total time that the penetrant
is in contact with the part surface. Dwell times are usually
recommended by the penetrant producersor required by the
specification being followed. The times vary depending on the
application, penetrant materials used, the material, the form of the
material being inspected, and the type of discontinuity being
inspected for. Minimum dwell times typically range from 5 to 60
minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer penetrant
dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal
dwell time is often determined by experimentation and may be very
specific to a particular application.
4. Excess Penetrant Removal: This is the most delicate step of the
inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed
from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as
possible from defects.
Depending on the penetrant system used, this step may involve
cleaning with a solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treating the
part with an emulsifier and then rinsing withwater.
5. Developer Application: A thin layer of developer is then applied to
the sample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface
where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that
may be applied by dusting (dry powders), dipping, or spraying (wet
developers).
6. Indication Development: The developer is allowed to stand on the
part surface for a period of time sufficient to permit the extraction of
the trapped penetrant out of any surface flaws. This development
time is usually a minimum of 10 minutes. Significantly longer times
may be necessary for tightcracks.
7. Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting
to detect indications from any flaws which may be present.
8. Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean
the part surface to remove the developer from the parts that were
found to be acceptable.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:

The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other
NDT methods are:
Advantages
High sensitivity (small discontinuities canbe detected). Few
material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and
nonmagnetic,
and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected).
Rapid inspection of large areas and volumes.
 Suitable for parts with complex shapes.
Indications are produced directly on the surface of the part and
constitute a visual
representation of the flaw.
Portable (materials are available in aerosol spray cans)
Low cost (materials and associated equipment are relatively
inexpensive).

Disadvantages
Only surface breaking defects can bedetected.
Only materials with a relatively nonporous surface can be
inspected.
Pre-cleaning is critical since contaminants can mask defects.
Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor
blasting must be removed.
The inspector must have direct access to the surface being
inspected.
Surface finish and roughness can affect inspection sensitivity.
Multiple process operations must be performed and controlled.
Post cleaning of acceptable parts or materials is required.
Chemical handling and proper disposal is required.

CONCLUSION: Thus we have successfully performed liquid

penetration.
 PRACTICAL-4
AIM: To study magnetic particle inspection.

INTRODUCTION:
What is Magnetic Particle Inspection?
Magnetic particle inspection (often abbreviated MT or
MPI) is a nondestructive inspection method that provides
detection of linear flaws located at or near the surface of
ferromagnetic materials. It is viewed primarily as a surface
examination method.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) is a very effective

method for location of surface breaking and slight sub-
surface defects such as cracking, pores, cold lap, lack of
sidewall fusion in welds etc in magnetic materials.

There are many different techniques. The most versatile

technique is using a 110v AC hand held electromagnetic
yoke magnet, a white strippable paint as contrast
background and a magnetic "ink" composed of iron
powder particles in a liquid carrier base.
The area is magnetised with the yoke magnet. In the event
of a surface or slightly sub surface defect being present, the
lines of magnetic force will deform around the defect.

The magnetic ink is applied and the iron powder particles

will bridge the gap caused by the defect and give a visible
indication against the white contrast background.

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) provides very good

defect resolution and is used extensively on:
Welded fabrications in magnetic material, Castings,
Locating fatigue cracks in items subject to cyclical stress.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION IS PERFORMED
IN FOUR STEPS:

Induce a magnetic field in the specimen

Apply magnetic particles to the specimen's surface
View the surface, looking for particle groupings that are
caused by defects
Demagnetize and clean the specimen

ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE

INSPECTION

1. Can find both surface and near sub-surface defects.

2. Some inspection formats are extremely portable and
low cost.
3. Rapid inspection with immediate results.
4.Indications are visible to the inspector directly on the
specimen surface.
5. Can detect defects that have been smeared over.
6.Can inspect parts with irregular shapes (external
splines, crankshafts, connecting rods, etc.)

LIMITATIONS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE

INSPECTION
 1. The specimen must be ferromagnetic (e.g. steel, cast
iron).
2. Paint thicker than about 0.005" must be removed
before inspection.
3. Post cleaning and post demagnetization is often
necessary.
4.Maximum depth sensitivity is typically quoted as
0.100" (deeper under perfect conditions).
5. Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is
important.

CONCLUSION: Thus we successfully performed magnetic

particle inspection.
 PRACTICAL-5
AIM: To study NDT by ultrasonic flow detector.

INSTUMENTS:
1. IIW type reference block(calibration purpose).
2. Ultrasonic flow detector.

INTRODUCTION:
Ultrasonic non-destructive testing, also known as
ultrasonic NDT or simply UT, is a method of
characterizing the thickness or internal structure of a test
piece through the use of high frequency sound waves. The
frequencies, or pitch, used for ultrasonic testing are many
times higher than the limit of human hearing, most
commonly in the range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz.
In industrial applications, ultrasonic testing is widely used
on metals, plastics, composites, and ceramics. The only
common engineering materials that are not suitable for
ultrasonic testing with conventional equipment are wood
and paper products. Ultrasonic technology is also widely
used in the biomedical field for diagnostic imaging and
medical research.

TYPES OF EQUIPMENT:
Ultrasonic Transducers
In the broadest sense, a transducer is a device that
converts energy from one form to another. Ultrasonic
transducers convert electrical energy into high
frequency sound energy and vice versa.

There are five types of ultrasonic transducers

commonly used in flaw detection applications:

- Contact Transducers -- As the name implies, contact

transducers are used in direct contact with the test
piece. They introduce sound energy perpendicular to
the surface, and are typically used for locating voids,
porosity, and cracks or delaminations parallel to the
outside surface of a part, as well as for measuring
thickness.

- Angle Beam Transducers -- Angle beam transducers

are used in conjunction with plastic or epoxy wedges
(angle beams) to introduce shear waves or
longitudinal waves into a test piece at a designated
angle with respect to the surface. They are commonly
used in weld inspection.
- Delay Line Transducers - Delay line transducers
incorporate a short plastic waveguide or delay line
between the active element and the test piece. They
are used to improve near surface resolution and also
in high temperature testing, where the delay line
protects the active element from thermal damage.

- Immersion Transducers - Immersion transducers

are designed to couple sound energy into the test
piece through a water column or water bath. They
are used in automated scanning applications and also
in situations where a sharply focused beam is needed
to improve flaw resolution.
- Dual Element Transducers - Dual element
transducers utilize separate transmitter and receiver
elements in a single assembly. They are often used in
applications involving rough surfaces, coarse grained
materials, detection of pitting or porosity, and they
offer good high temperature tolerance as well.
BASIC APPROCH FOR INSPECTION:
Ultrasonic flaw detection is basically a comparative
technique. Using appropriate reference standards along
with a knowledge of sound wave propagation and
generally accepted test procedures, a trained operator
identifies specific echo patterns corresponding to the echo
response from good parts and from representative flaws.
The echo pattern from an test piece may then be compared
to the patterns from these calibration standards to
determine its condition.
- Straight Beam Testing
Straight beam testing utilizing contact, delay line, dual
element, or immersion transducers is generally employed
to find cracks or delaminations parallel to the surface of
the test piece, as well as voids and porosity.
It utilizes the basic principle that sound energy traveling
through a medium will continue to propagate until it
either disperses or reflects off a boundary with another
material, such as the air surrounding a far wall or found
inside a crack.
An acoustically significant echo that precedes the backwall
echo implies the presence of a laminar crack or void.
Through further analysis, the depth, size, and shape of the
structure producing the reflection can be determined.
Sound energy will travel to the far side of a part, but reflect
earlier if a laminar crack or similar discontinuity is
presented.

- Angle Beam Testing

Cracks or other discontinuities perpendicular to the
surface of a test piece, or tilted with respect to that surface,
are usually invisible with straight beam test techniques
because of their orientation with respect to the sound
beam. Such defects can occur in welds, in structural metal
parts, and many other critical components.
To find them, angle beam techniques are used, employing
either common angle beam (wedge) transducer assemblies
or immersion transducers aligned so as to direct sound
energy into the test piece at a selected angle. The use of
angle beam testing is especially common in weld
inspection.
Minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the
use of shear waves, since at a given frequency, the
wavelength of a shear wave is approximately 60% the
wavelength of a comparable longitudinal wave.
Typical angle beam assembly

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES:

Advantages of ultrasonic inspection as a method of Non-
Destructive Examination are:

1. Internal defects can be detected and sized when a

validated procedure is applied
2. Thick specimens take no more time to examine than
thin ones, assuming correct instrumentation set up
3. Access to only one side of the component is needed
4. There is no radiation hazard in ultrasonic
examination, and hence no disruption of work as
there is with radiography
5. Volumetric and crack like defects can be detected,
irrespective of their orientation.
Disadvantages of ultrasonic inspection as a method of
Non-Destructive Examination are:

1. A high degree of operator skill and integrity is

needed. Hence, the need for trained and certified
NDT personnel
2. In most examinations, there is no permanent record
of the inspection as there is in radiography, however
more recent equipment does offer this facility
3. In certain materials, like austenitic steel, the large
grain size found in welds can cause attenuation and
this may mask defects
4. Spurious indications, and the misreading of signals,
can result in unnecessary repairs, which is why a
validated procedure should be applied when
carrying out any ultrasonic examination.

CONCLUSION:
Ultrasonic flaw detection is a comparative method.
Although some analog-based flaw detectors are still being
produced, most modern instruments employ digital signal
processing to promote enhanced stability and accuracy.
 PRACTICAL-6

AIM: To study Eddy Current inspection.

BASIC PRINCIPLE:
Eddy current testing uses the principle of electromagnetic
induction to detect flaws in conductive materials. An
excitation coil carrying current is placed in proximity to
the component to be inspected. The coil generates a
changing magnetic field using an alternating current,
which interacts with the component generating eddy
currents.

Variations in the phase and magnitude of these currents

are monitored either by using a second coil, or by
measuring changes to the current flowing in the excitation
coil. The presence of any flaw will cause a change in the
eddy current field and a corresponding change in the
phase and amplitude of the measured signal. In the case of
nondestructive testing (NDT), these are displayed on an
eddy current flaw detector as a distinct change in signal.
The eddy currents have very unique and interesting properties
such as:
They are induced currents that exist only in electrically
conducting materials
 They are always in closed loops, usually parallel to the coil
winding .
They are distorted by defects such as cracks and corrosion
wall loss and by
discontinuities such as edge-effect, end-effect.
They attenuate with depth (also axially or laterally)
Their intensity depends on material properties,
electromagnetic coupling (lift-off/fillfactor) and excitation
frequency, but maximum on the surface

DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. General EC test procedure for detection of defects involves
calibration of EC instrument using reference standard
defects in a material with similar chemical composition
and geometry as that of the actual component.
 2. Artificial defects such as saw cuts, flat bottom holes,
electro-discharge machining (EDM) notches are used
while well characterised natural defects, cracks in failed or
withdrawn components are always preferred.
3. Instrument test parameters such as excitation frequency,
gain, phase angle etc. are optimised for a desired
performance.
4. In general, signal phase is rotated such that it is parallel to
lift-off or wobble axis and phase separation between ID
and OD defects is nearly 90 degrees.
5. A suitable EC signal parameter, e.g. signal peak-to-peak
amplitude or phase angle is identified and an appropriate
threshold is determined for incorporating accept/reject
criterion.
6. When defect sizing is required, a calibration graph
between signal parameter and defect size is generated and
used .
7. During actual testing, any region that produces EC signals
with parameter greater than the threshold is recorded
defective, while its equivalent size is determined using the
calibration graph.
8. Similar procedure is followed for material sorting,
conductivity measurement, microstructure
characterisation, and coating thickness measurement.
ADVANTAGES:
The main advantages of eddy current inspection include:

Provides a faster scanning speed than conventional

ultrasonic testing (UT)
 Unlike UT, requires no fluid couplant
The surfaces need minimal preparation
Eddy current testing can be used through several
millimeters of coating
Can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of
the material
Physically complex geometries can be investigated
The testing devices are portable
Provide immediate feedback
The probe does not necessarily have to be in contact
with the test object
LIMITATION:
Applicability to only electrically conducting (metallic)
materials
Inspection of installed ferromagnetic components with
the exception of tubes can be
inspected by remote field EC technique
Difficulty to separate the influence of one desired
variable in the combined presence
(at the same location beneath the probe) of several other
disturbing variables such as
stress, microstructure, texture, anisotropy etc. that
simultaneously change conductivity
and permeability.
15
 Inability to identify circumferential location of a defect
when encircling or bobbin
coils are used.
Difficulty in detection of a small defect under a large
defect
Inability to detect defects at the centre of rods using
encircling coils
Need for skilled personnel for interpretation of signals
and results
CONCLUSION:
Successful testing requires selection of proper instrument
and probes, optimisation test frequency and use of
reference calibration standards. When appropriate
standards are used, not only detection of defects but also
their sizing is possible using eddy current technique.
 PRACTICAL-7
Aim: To study radiographic testing.

Introduction to radiography:
This technique is suitable for the detection of internal
defects in ferrous and non ferrous metals and other metals.
X-ray generated electrically and gamma rays emitted from
radio-active isotopes are penetrating radiation which is
differentially which is absorbed by the material through
which it passes. The greater the absorption X and gamma
rays also have the property like light of partially
converting silver halide crystals in a photographic film to
metallic silver in proportion to the intensity of the
radiation reaching the film and therefore coming a latent
image. This can be developed and fixed in a similar way to
romal photographic film.

Material with internal voids show as darkened areas,

where more radiation has reached the film on a clear
background. The principal is the same on a clear
background for both X and gamma radiography.

In X-radiography the penetrating power is determined by

the number of volts applied to the X-ray tube in steel
approximately 1000 volts the inch thickness is necessary.
In Gamma radiography the isotope governs the
penetrating power and is unalterable in each isotope. Thus

steel.

In X-radiography the intensity and therefore the exposure

at time is usually expressed in terms of milliampere
minutes with Gamma rays the intensity of the radiation is
set at the time of supply of the isotope. The intensity of

reduces over a period of time. The time taken to decay half

the amount of curies is the half life of Iridium 192 is 74
days, and Caesium 134 is 2.1 years. The exposure factor is
product of the number of curies and time usually
expressed in curie hours.

As the isotope is continuously emitting radial ion is must

be housed in a container of detected uranium or similar
dense shielding material whilst not exposed to protect the
environment and personnel.

Various radiographic and photographic accessories are

necessary including such items as radiation monitors, film
makers, image quality indicators darkroom equipment etc.
where the last is concerned there are many degree of
sophistication including fully automatic processing unit.
These accessories are the same per both X and gamma
radiography systems.

Also required are such consumable items as radiographic

film and processing chemicals.

Recent development in radiography permit real time

diagnosis such techniques as computerised tomography
yield much important inco. though these methods may be
suitable for only investigative purposes and not generally
employed in production quality control.
Advantages of Radiography:
Information is presented pictorially.
A permanent record is provided which may be viewed
at a time and place distant from the test.
Useful for thin sections.
Sensitivity declared on each film.
Suitable for any material.

Disadvantages of Radiography:
Generally, an inability to cope with thick sections
Possible health hazard.
Need to direct the beam accurately for 2 dimensional
defects.
Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary as
is an exposure compound.
No suitable for automation, unless, the system
incorporates fluoroscopy with an image intensifies on
other electronic aids.
No suitable for surface defects.
No indication of depth of the defect below the surface.

Conclusion: We can successfully perform radiographic

testing method.
 PRACTICAL-8
Aim: To study acoustic emission testing.

Basic Principle:
Acoustic emission may be defined as a transient elastic
wave generated by the rapid release of energy within a
material. When a structure is subjected to an external
stimulus, ionized sources trigger the release of energy in
the form of stress waves which propagate to the surface
and are recorded by sensors. This occurs when a small
surface displacement of a material is produced.

Testing Process:

emission equipment you can listen to the sound of cracks

growing, fibres breaking and many other modes of active
damage in the stressed material.
1. Detection of AE: Sources of AE include many different
mechanisms of deformation and fracture whilst the
detection process remains the same. As when the AE wave
front arrives at the surface of a test specimen minute
movements of molecules occur. the function of AE sensors
is to detect this mechanical movement and convert it into a
visible electric signal.
2. Process of AE Symbols: The small vortex generated by
the sense is amplified and the rail ratio frequency (RF)
signal is transferred to the computer based on use defined
characteristics. The RF symbol is split into discrete wave
firms. These wave forms are then prescribed by
characteristics sucha s amplityde. Rise time absolute
energy based on a user defined threshold.

3. Displaying AE signals: The collected waveforms can

then be displayed in 2 ways. One function of waveform
parameter. Two as the collected waveform itself. Most of
the tests currently only collected waveform mainly due to
the large amount of computing money it uses.

4. Locating AE Signals: the automated source location

capability of AE is perhaps its most significant attraction
as a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique. The
predominant between the arrival of individuals AE signals
at different sensors in an army.

AE Source Location Technique:

Locating the source of significant acoustic emissions is
often the main goal of an inspection.
1. Multiple Channel source Location Technique:
AE systems are capable of using multiple
sensors/channels during testing, allowing them to record
a hit from a single AE event. By properly spacing the
sensors in its manner it is possible to inspect an entire
structure with relatively few sensors.

2. Linear Location Technique:

One of the commonly used computed source location
techniques is the linear location led struts on truss bridges.
When the source is located at the midpoint, the time of the
arrived difference for the wave and the two sensors is zero.

3. Zonal Location Technique: As the name implies zonal

location aims to treat the waves to a specific zone as region
around a sensor. Zones can be lengths, areas of volumes
depending on the dimensions of the array. The source can
be assumed to be within the region and less than halfway
between sensors. When additional sensors are applied,
arrival times and amplitudes help
pinpoint the source zone.

4. Point Location: In order for point location to be

justified, signals must be detached to a minimum number
if sensors, two for the linear three for planar, four for
volumetric accurate arrival times must also be available.
The velocity of wave propagation and exact position of the
sensors are necessary criteria.

Instrumentation:
Typical AE apparatus consists of the following
components:
Sensors used to detect AE events prospicient amplifies
initial signal. Typical amplification gain is 40 or 60 dB.
Cables transfer signals a distance up to 200 m to AE
devices. Cables are typically of coaxial type. Data
acquisition device performs filtration signals parameters
evaluation data analysis and charting.

Applications:
1. Weld monitoring
2. Bucket truck integrating evaluation.

3. Bridges: Bridges certain many welds joints and

connecting and a combination of load.
4. Aerospace structures: Most aerospace structure
consists of complex assemblies of components that have
been designed to carry significant loads.

5. Petrochemical and chemical: Strong tanks, reaction

vessels, offshore platforms, drill pipe, pipelines, valves,
hydro treater etc.

6. Electric Utilities: Nuclear reactor, vessel, piping, etc.

am generators, ceramic insulators, transportation, aerial
devices.

Advantages:
1. High sensitivity
2. Early and rapid detection of defects, flaws, cracks, etc.
3. Real time monitoring.
4. Cost Reduction.
5. Minimization of plant downtime for inspection no
need for scanning the whole structural surface.
Result: We have successfully perform acoustic emission
testing.
 PRACTICAL-9

Aim: Metallurgical microscope

Metallurgical Process:
1. Casting defects:
Casting of metal involving focusing of an injection of
molten metal into a cavity of a particular shape where it is
allowed to solidify.

The cavity as mould may be of an intact shape so that

when the metal is solidified a part is produced which with
or without further preparation may be used for its
designed purpose.

The solidification farm liquid at pouring temperature to

the solid at non temperature occurs in three stages:
1. Contraction of liquid material
2. Liquid to solid contraction
3. Contraction of the solid to room temperature

The glass which be formed during the solidification

process are discussed as follows:
 Non-metallic inclusion:
Non metallic inclusion is a general form applied to sand,
slag, oxide etc. trapped in casting most of the non-metallic
generally lighter than the molten metal manages to move
the top of the ingot they did not have sufficient time to
reach the surface before the molten metal above them
solidifies.
Porosity: Porosity is caused by the lertrapped gas in
the molten which gets trapped in the solid casting. The
size and amount depends on the gas content of the metal
and rale of solidification of the casting.
Blow holes: Blow holes are the gas hole cause by
trapping of arc mould and gases and water vapour in the
casting during solidification.

Shrinkage Flows: These are the cavities formed during

liquid to solid contraction various form of the cavities can
occur in a casting they are:
Macro-shridge (piping defects): Molten material often
it is powered into the molten state the cool and solidify the
solidification process starts from the surface and progress
towards the centre of the ingot.
Centre line shrinkage (Filamentary shrinkage):
Whenever the solidification cannot be correctly captured
and is not directional a cause forms a shrinkage may
occurs.
 Micro shrinkages:
Shrinkage cavity may also be produced an microscale
during later stage of solidification the channel between the
growing arm because progressive narrow

Cold Shut:
Cold shut is caused by the failure of the stream of
molten to unite with a confident stream are with solid
metal such as paring splash, internal chapter.

Crack:
Thus, it is discontinuity which is due to fracture of

caused by stresses which develop near the solidification

temperature when the material has lowest strength.

Conclusion:
Thus, we can successfully study metallurgical microscope.