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UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY
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TARKWA

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

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KN E
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GE , T X CE
RU TH A N D E

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LECTURE NOTES ON

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INTRODUCTION TO POWER
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GENERATION AND SUPPLY
(EL 131)

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Course Instructor:
ASSOC PROF JOSEPH C. ATTACHIE

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Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Mines and Technology
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Tarkwa

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January 2025

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JESUS IS LORD

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

CHAPTER 1 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER AND GENERATING PLANTS 1

1.1 Introduction to Power Generation 1

1.2 Importance of Electrical Energy 1
1.3 Generation of Electrical Energy 2
1.4 Sources of Energy 3
1.5 Comparison of Energy Sources 8

CHAPTER 2 POWER GENERATING STATIONS/PLANTS 9

2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Akosombo Power Plant 9
2.3 Kpong Power Plant 10
2.4 Takoradi Thermal Power Plant 10
2.5 Bui Power Plant 10
2.6 Emergency Power Generators 10
2.7 Private Energy Generation Plant 10
2.8 Basic A.C. Generators 11
2.9 Thermal Power Stations (Steam Power Plants) 12
2.10 Hydro-Electric Stations (Plants) 14

CHAPTER 3 THE GRID SYSTEM 17

3.1 Introduction 17
3.2 Advantages of the Grid System 17

CHAPTER 4 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 19

4.1 General Introduction 19

4.2 Nature of Transmission and Distribution Systems 19
4.3 General Electrical Layout of the Supply System 20
4.4 Transmission Systems 22
4.5 The Distribution System 22
4.6 The Local Distribution System 26
4.7 Calculations on Distribution Systems 27

CHAPTER 5 POWER SUBSTATIONS 32

5.1 Introduction 32
5.2 Substation Equipment (Components) 32

REFERENCES 37

i
 CHAPTER 1
GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER AND GENERATING PLANTS

1.1 Introduction to Power Generation

Energy is the basic necessity for the economic development of a country. In today’s modern world,
electrical energy has become a necessity of life. In other words, it has become part and parcel of
our life.

The electric energy demand of the world is continuously increasing, and most of the energy is
generated by conventional power plants, which remain the only cost-effective method for
generating large quantities of energy. Power plants utilize energy stored in the earth and convert it
to electrical energy that is distributed and used by customers. This process converts most of the
energy into heat, which increases the entropy of the earth. In this sense, power plants deplete the
earth’s energy supply. Efficient operation becomes increasingly important to conserve energy.
Typical energy sources used by power plants include fossil fuel (gas, oil, and coal), nuclear fuel
(uranium), geothermal energy (hot water, steam), and hydro energy (water falling through a head).

The most common method of generating energy is by means of electric machines generally called
generators or alternators. They either generate direct currents (d.c) or alternating currents (a.c). The
machines are mechanically coupled to prime-movers and convert mechanical energy into electrical.

The increasing use of this form of energy is due to the fact that, it can be converted into any form
easily and quickly. In nature, energy exists in different forms but electrical energy is the most
important form of energy.

1.2 Importance of Electrical Energy

Energy may be needed as heat, as light, as motive power etc. The present-day advancement in
science and technology has made it possible to convert electrical energy into any desired form. This
has given electrical energy a place of pride in the modern world. The survival of industrial
undertakings and our social structures depends primarily upon low cost and uninterrupted supply
of electrical energy. In fact, the advancement of a country is measured in terms of per capita
consumption of electrical energy.

Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy due to the following reasons:

(i) Convenient form: Electrical energy is a very convenient form of energy. It can be easily
converted into other forms of energy. For example, if we want to convert electrical energy into
heat, the only thing to be done is to pass electrical current through a wire of high resistance
e.g., a heater. Similarly, electrical energy can be converted into light (e.g. electric bulb),
mechanical energy (e.g. electric motors) etc.

(ii) Easy control: The electrically operated machines have simple and convenient starting, control
and operation. For instance, an electric motor can be started or stopped by turning on or off a
switch. Similarly, with simple arrangements, the speed of electric motors can be easily varied
over the desired range.

(iii) Greater flexibility: One important reason for preferring electrical energy is the flexibility that
it offers. It can be easily transported from one place to another with the help of conductors.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -1-
(iv) Cheapness: Electrical energy is much cheaper than other forms of energy. Thus it is overall
economical to use this form of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial purposes.

(v) Cleanliness: Electrical energy is not associated with smoke, fumes or poisonous gases.
Therefore, its use ensures cleanliness and healthy conditions.

(vi) High transmission efficiency: The consumers of electrical energy are generally situated quite
away from the centres of its production. The electrical energy can be transmitted conveniently
and efficiently from the centres of generation to the consumers with the help of overhead
conductors known as transmission lines.

1.3 Generation of Electrical Energy

The conversion of energy available in different forms in nature into electrical energy is known as
generation of electrical energy.

Electrical energy is a manufactured commodity like clothing, furniture or tools. Just as the
manufacture of a commodity involves the conversion of raw materials available in nature into the
desired form, similarly electrical energy is produced from the forms of energy available in nature.
However, electrical energy differs in one important respect. Whereas other commodities may be
produced at will and consumed as needed, the electrical energy must be produced and transmitted
to the point of use at the instant it is needed. The entire process takes only a fraction of a second.
This instantaneous production of electrical energy introduces technical and economical
considerations unique to the electrical power industry.

Energy is available in various forms from different natural sources such as pressure head of water,
chemical energy of fuels, nuclear energy of radioactive substances etc. All these forms of energy
can be converted into electrical energy by the use of suitable arrangements. The arrangement
essentially employs (see Fig. 1.1) an alternator coupled to a prime mover. The prime mover is driven
by the energy obtained from various sources such as burning of fuel, pressure of water, force of
wind etc. For example, chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., coal) can be used to produce steam at high
temperature and pressure. The steam is fed to a prime mover which may be a steam engine or a
steam turbine. The turbine converts heat energy of steam into mechanical energy which is further
converted into electrical energy by the alternator. Similarly, other forms of energy can be converted
into electrical energy by employing suitable machinery and equipment.

Energy from R Y B
some Source

Prime
Mover
Alternator

Fig. 1.1 Block Diagram Arrangement for Power Generation

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -2-
1.4 Sources of Energy

The various sources of electrical energy are:

(a) Non-Conventional (or Primary Sources or Renewable Sources): These are the sources
which are not very popular and are not much used for the generation of electrical energy.

Renewable energy is referred to as energy derived from natural and continuous flow of energy
taking place in the immediate environment and is naturally replenished, as it is being consumed.
It is a clean energy source that has little to no adverse effects on the environment during and
after power generation. Energy from renewable resources have the capacity to reduce
greenhouse emissions produced by using fossil fuels for energy generation. Figure 2.1 shows
some major sources of renewable energy including hydro, solar, wind, biomass, and
geothermal. The primary source of energy on earth is the sun, from which all other energy
sources derive their energy. Based on this, it is established that the most abundant energy source
is solar energy, and its technologies have captured large interest worldwide.

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar Energy Marine Energy Geothermal Energy

Solar PV Wave Conductive System

Concentrating Solar Tidal Convective System

Power
Ocean Current Deep Aquifer System
Solar Heating
Salinity Gradient

Ocean Thermal

Wind Energy Hydro Energy Bio Energy

Onshore Run of the River Heat and Electricity

Offshore Reservoir Biofuel

Pump Storage

Figure 2.1 Overview of Renewable Energy Sources

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -3-
(b) Conventional (or Secondary Sources or Non-renewable): (These are very popular and
used for the generation of electrical energy.

1.4.1 Non-Conventional Sources

(a) Solar Power (Photo Voltaic Cell)

The source of the solar energy is the sun. There are basically two methods involve in the generation
of the solar power.

In the first method, sun rays are concentrated over water tank placed at focal length of lens and the
water made to boil to produce steam to be used in steam turbines.

In the Second method, reflectors are used to concentrate sun rays to focal point and they (reflectors)
can be made to turn along with the sun so that sun energy can always be utilized producing steam.

Solar energy is one of the primary sources of energy. Sun radiates energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves which include heat and light. Solar energy can be used to make steam which,
in turn, runs steam turbine that operates a generator (Fig. 1.1).

Solar Energy

Steam
Steam
Turbine

Generator

R Y B
Electric Energy
Fig. 1.1 A Sketch of Power Generation from the Sun

When ionized solar radiation is incident on a semi-conductor diode, energy conversion can take place
with a voltage of 0.5 to 1 volt (d.c.) and a current density of 20-40 mA/cm2, depending on the materials
used and the conditions of Sunlight. Area of these solar cells decides the current output. An array of
large number of such diodes (i.e. Solar cells) results into higher d.c. output voltage.

Since, the final form of electrical energy required is generally an alternating current, it is realized from
J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -4-
d.c. using inverters. In order to realize a few hundred kilowatts of power-rating, huge arrays are
accommodated in horizontal as well as vertical stacks, so that land area required is not too vast.
Electrically, they are connected in series and in parallel combinations of cells so that rated voltage and
current are realized.

Just to understand the principle of operation of solar cells, let a semi-conductor diode receive ionized
radiation from Sun, as in Fig. 1.2.

Fig.1.2 Photo Voltaic (Solar Cell)

Typical materials used for these cells are: material doped with boron, cadmium sulphide, gallium-
arsenide, etc. Their choice is mainly decided by conversion efficiency. Best material may lead to
the efficiency being typically 15%. Since solar energy is available free of cost, this low-efficiency does
not matter.

For the development of solar power, the greatest drawback is that, it depends on weather conditions
since it may not be available in required quantities due to cloudy weather or rainy season.
Furthermore, the sun energy is available only during day. Thus, the commercial development of
this energy on a large scale is not possible. Small scale projects can be successful, in which case,
the energy available during the day can be used to charge batteries (solar cells) which will ensure
continuous supply of power during the night.

Main advantages are: (i) no running cost (however, replacements of components may be a bother),
(ii) no pollution, (iii) location can be near the load (hence transportation of power is not required
over long distances) and (iv) since natural source is involved, it is perpetual.

Individual stations using solar cells are in operation with ratings of the order of 250 to 1000
kW. With manufacturing costs of semi-conductor devices going down and with the advent of better
and better quality of cells, which will be available in future, this method of generation has bright
prospects.

The solar energy has poor reliability. Moreover, a solar generating plant will need a very large
space. However, in this method, cost incurred on fuel is negligible as it is freely available. Solar
cooker and solar cell are examples of use of solar energy.

(b) Wind Power (Wind-mills)

This type of power is generated when propulsive power of wind is used to drive multi-bladed
turbine wheel.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -5-
The use of wind as a source of power is not very extensive, but in certain parts of India where the
directions of wind remain constant for a sufficiently long period of the year and where high winds
are a common feature, it is a cheap and common source of power.

The wind energy is also free of cost but it can be used for generation of electrical energy only at
places where the wind pressure is high enough to run a "wind mill" (Fig. 1.2), which in turn, is
coupled to a generator. When the wind pressure is low, the plant has to be shut down.

Fig. 1.3 A Schematic Diagram of Wind-Mills to Generate Wind Power

The hollow blades of about 25 metre diameter are arranged on a tower. The air passes from the
hollow chimney to the hollow blade ends, and due to centrifugal force, the blades rotate. As the air
passes into the tower, it drives the wind turbine to which is coupled an alternator. The speed of the
wind may be of the order of 40 km/hour to 80 km/hour; and an output of the order of 100 kW can
be obtained.

(c) Tidal Power (Sea Waves)

There is a tremendous amount of energy in ocean tides and waves. They possess potential as well
as kinetic energy However, it is very difficult to harness this power for development of electrical
energy.

A small dam with larger gates is made across the mouth of the bay and low head turbines are used
for generation of electrical power. At the time of the tide, the gates are opened and then closed,
trapping some amount of water which is then allowed to pass through water turbine, When the tide
has receded, there will be small working head between the bay and the ocean. When tides are high,
water is stored; water is discharged when tides are low. The potential energy of the stored water can
be used to generate electrical energy.

(d) Geothermal Energy (Terrestrial heat)

This type of heat (thermal energy from hot springs) is generally not available under normal
circumstances. In most parts of the world the vast amount of heat in the earth’s interior is too deep
to be tapped. At places of fresh volcanic activity or in surface vents, the natural stream of water
flows deep into the earth meeting these high temperatures and causing it (water) to change into

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -6-
steam, thus providing natural steam wells which in turn are used to run turbines. Also, at places of
fresh volcanic activities, water pipes are embedded in the earth to change them into steam.

The present utilization is about 500 MW and the total estimated capacity is about 2000 MW.
Because of the lower pressure and temperature, the efficiency is less than with fossil-fuelled plants,
but the capital costs are less and of course the fuel is free. Other basic types of geothermal energy
reservoirs are: hot water; hot dry rock; geo-pressured water, and the normal thermal gradient in the
earth’s crust.
Electricity may be generated as already stated above, from hot-water wells by passing the water
under pressure through a heat exchanger where it causes the vaporization of a volatile liquid such
as Freon. The latter expands through a turbine.

The earth has a molten core. This heat can be used to generate electrical energy.

(e) Fuel Cells

Electricity is produced by the oxidation of a fuel, thus, converting chemical energy directly into
electrical energy. Such cells can be used to supply energy to pump sets in remote areas.

Principle of operation of fuel cells

In fuel cells, negative porous electrode is fed by hydrogen and the positive porous electrode is fed
by oxygen. Both the electrodes are immersed in an electrolyte. The porous electrodes are made of
such a conducting material that both the fuel (oxygen and hydrogen) and the electrolyte can pass
through them. Such a material for electrodes is nickel. The electrolyte is a solution of sulphuric acid
or potassium hydroxide. The electrodes have a catalyst (= platinum or sintered nickel), which
break the fuel compound into more reactive atoms.

Chemical Process (with Acidic Electrolyte)

At Negative Electrode: 2H2 4H+ + 4e

These hydrogen ions enter the solution (=electrolyte) leaving behind electrons which pass through
external circuit to the positive electrode.
At Positive Electrode: 02 + 4H+ + 4e 2H20
Thus, the combination of Hydrogen and Oxygen results into water at the positive electrode.
Water is the waste product of the cell, which is harmless. The process is, thus, pollution free. There
is no source of energy required, since the process is basically "chemical" in nature. The
schematic diagram of such a cell is shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4 Fuel Cell

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -7-
1.4.2 Conventional Sources

Conventional sources are those which have been used for the generation of electrical energy for a
long time.
(a) Coal: Coal is used to make steam. Steam runs turbines which are coupled to a generator. Plants
using coal are known as steam power plants or simply thermal stations.
(b) Water: Water, in the rainy season, is stored in high dams. This water falls on water turbines.
Turbines move and run generators.
(c) Liquid fuels: Diesel power plants are used as "stand by" plants. Diesel (or petrol) engines run
generators. These plants have small size and are used when the regular supply is shut down.
(d) Nuclear: The fission of the uranium nucleus gives a large amount of energy which is used to
convert water into steam which is used to run steam turbines coupled to generators.

1.5 Comparison of Energy Sources

The chief sources of energy used for the generation of electrical energy are water, fuels and nuclear
energy. Their comparison is depicted in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Comparison of Energy Sources
S/N Heading/Particular Hydro-power Fuels Nuclear Energy
1 Initial cost High Low Highest
2 Running cost Less High Least
3 Reserves Permanent Exhaustible Inexhaustible
4 Cleanliness Cleanest Dirtiest Clean
5 Simplicity Simplest Complex Most complex
6 Reliability Less reliable Less reliable More reliable

Assignment 1: Advantages of Solid Fuels over Liquid Fuels.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -8-
 CHAPTER 2
POWER GENERATING STATIONS/PLANTS

2.1 Introduction

The main producer of electric power in Ghana is the Volta River Authority (VRA). The generation
of power is by the use of both hydro plants and thermal plants. VRA was formerly in charge of both
power generation and transmission in the country. But are now solely in charge with only
generation.

The Hydro Power Stations are:

• Akosombo Power Station

• Kpong Power Station

• Bui Power Station

The Thermal Power Stations are:
• Takoradi Thermal Power Station

• Tema Thermal Power Station

• Asogli Thermal Power Station

2.2 Akosombo Power Plant

The Authority's first hydroelectric station is the Akosombo Generation station. Studies into the
potential for damming the Volta River for electricity generation was started in 1915. The first stage
of the construction began in 1961 when the Volta River project was established and work started
on the Akosombo dam and Power Station. Four units with total installed capacity of 588 MW were
completed in 1965 marking an important step for industrialization and economic growth of the
newly independent state of Ghana. The plant was formally commissioned by Ghana's first
President, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, in January1966.

In 1967, Volta Aluminium Company (VALCO) became the main purchaser of power generation
from Akosombo apart from ECG and the mines. In 1972, the second stage of the project was
completed with the addition of two generating units with installed capacity of 324 MW to the
Akosombo Generating Station bringing the total number of units to six and total generating capacity
to 912 MW at that time. During the Akosombo GS Retrofit Project, which took place between
October 1999 and March 2005, each generating unit was upgraded to a maximum output of 170
MW. Total Plant capacity is therefore 1020 MW.

One of the principal consumers of the VRA electric power is the Volta Aluminium Company
(VALCO). Most of the mining companies such as the Ashanti Goldfiels Corporation (AGC) at
Obuasi, the Prestea Goldfields, the Tarkwa Goldfields, now Goldfields Ghana Limited buy electric
power direct from the VRA at 33 kV. However, other mining companies such as the Teberebie
Goldfields and the Ghana Australia Goldfields (GAG) buy electric power direct from the Electricity
Company of Ghana (ECG) at a voltage of 33 kV and 11 kV.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa -9-
2.3 Kpong Power Plant

Kpong hydroelectric project represents the third stage in the development of the Volta River,
commonly known as the Volta River Project. The first stage began in 1961 when the Volta River
was established and work started on the Akosombo dam and power station. By September 1965 the
first power was flowing from Akosombo, marking an important step in the economic development
of the newly formed Republic of Ghana. The Kpong generating station was completed in 1982. The
total installed capacity at Kpong is about 160 MW. However, if all four units at Kpong are running,
there is a rise in tail water elevation, which limits the output of the generation to about 148 MW.
The combined Akosombo/Kpong system has an installed capacity of 1,180 MW. The Kpong head
pond has minimal storage capacity and is therefore operated in tandem with Akosombo as a run-
of-the-river plant to optimize water use from the Volta Lake. The joint firm energy output from the
Akosombo/Kpong hydroelectric development is about 4,800 GWh. Meanwhile the Long-Term
Average (LTA) capability of the two plants is about 6,100 GWh.

2.4 Takoradi Thermal Power Plant

The Takoradi Thermal Power Station (TTPS) is located at Aboadze, 17 kilometres east of Sekondi
Takoradi in the Western Region of Ghana. The Power Station which started operation in 1997 was
initiated by the Volta River Authority to complement the existing Hydro Plant at Akosombo and
Kpong. TTPS is therefore a facility of strategic importance for meeting Ghana's energy needs.

The current installed capacity of the Takoradi Power Plant is 550 MW and is to be upgraded to 660
MW. The voltage output of the Generators which is 13.8 kV is stepped up by power transformers
to the national grid system voltage of 161 kV.

An 80 MW thermal plant was funded by the mining companies (Newmont Ghana Gold Limited,
AngloGold Ashanti Limited, Golden Star Resources and Goldfields)

2.5 Bui Power Plant

The Bui Dam is a 400 megawatt hydroelectric project in Ghana. It is built on the Black Volta river
at the Bui Gorge, at the southern end of Bui National Park. The project is a collaboration between
the government of Ghana and Sino Hydro, a Chinese construction company. Construction on the
main dam began in December 2009. Its first generator produced power for the grid on May 3, 2013,
with completion expected in 2014.

Bui will be the second largest hydroelectric generating plant in the country after the Akosombo
Dam. The reservoir flooded about 20% of the Bui National Park and impacts the habitats for the
rare black hippopotamus as well as a large number of wildlife species. It required the resettlement
of 1,216 people, and affected many more.

2.6 Emergency Power Generators

The Tema-Osonor power project was instituted as an emergency backup to help the energy needs
of Ghana during power crisis. This project was completed in February 2009 with an installed
capacity of 126 MW.

2.7 Private Energy Generation Plant

The Sunon-Asogli power plant is jointly owned by Shenzhen Energy Ltd and China Africa
Development Fund. This power plant was commissioned in August 2010 with an installed capacity
of 560 MW. It currently has a running capacity of 200 MW.
J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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2.8 Basic A.C. Generators (Synchronous Generators)

The most commonly used machine for generation of electrical power for commercial purpose is the
Synchronous generator. Such a synchronous generator is also referred to as an alternator since it
generates alternating voltage.
Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc or ac, depend upon the principle of magnetic
induction. An emf is induced in a coil as a result of (1) a coil cutting through a magnetic field, or
(2) a magnetic field cutting through a coil. As long as there is relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the conductor. That part of a generator that
produces the magnetic field is called the field. That part in which the voltage is induced is called
the armature. For relative motion to take place between the conductor and the magnetic field, all
generators must have two mechanical parts — a rotor and a stator. The ROTor is the part that
ROTates; the STATor is the part that remains STATionary. In a dc generator, the armature is always
the rotor. In alternators, the armature may be either the rotor or stator
In a synchronous generator, the armature winding is placed on the stator slots. ‘The rotor carries
the field poles which produce the required magnetic lines of force.
A synchronous machine works as a generator when its rotor carrying the field system is rotated by
a prime over. The same machine will work as a synchronous motor when three-phase voltage is
applied across the armature winding placed on the stator slots.
Q1. Magnetic induction occurs when there is relative motion between what two elements?

2.8.1 Types of Alternators

Alternators or synchronous generators can be classified in many ways depending upon their
application and design. According to application these machines are classified as;
1) Automotive type - used in modern automobile
2) Diesel electric locomotive type - used in Diesel Electric Multiple Unit
3) Marine type - used in marine
4) Brush less type - used in electrical power generation plant as main source of power
5) Radio alternators - used for low brand radio frequency transmission.

The three-phase AC generator.

Rotor B
3-Phase Supply to Load

Rf
Stator

Prime R
Mover
Slip
Y

Alternator
DC Exciter

Fig. 2.1 A Practical Basic Circuit Arrangement of a Three-Phase A.C. Generator

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 11 -
The stator has three windings which are physically displaced form one another to obtain the 1200
electrical phase displacement which is needed between the phase voltages. In a practical machine,
the windings are distributed around the inside surface of the stator bore rather than being
concentrated as shown in the Fig. 2.1.

The magnetic field system produced by an electromagnetic on the rotor, is driven round by a prime
mover; the prime mover may be one of a number of sources of mechanical power including a
turbine, a diesel engine, a water wheel etc.

A direct current flows in the rotor winding which is obtained from a d.c. generator known as an
exciter; the current being fed to the rotor windings via (through) brushes and slip rings. The exciter
is usually mechanically coupled to the shaft of the alternator

When the alternator is started up, the d.c. exciter begins to self-excite under the influence of the
residual magnetism in its magnetic system. This causes the current in the rotor windings to increase,
and with it the output voltage from the alternator stator increases. Steady operating conditions are
achieved when the d.c. generator output voltage becomes steady, at which time, the r.m.s. value of
the stator voltage also becomes steady.
The frequency of the a.c. output from the alternator depends not only on the number of magnetic
poles on the machine but also on the speed at which the rotor is driven. To maintain a constant
frequency, it is vital to maintain the rotor speed constant within very close limits.
The r.m.s. value of the output voltage is controlled by adjusting the resistance of the field regulator
(Rf) which regulates the rotor winding current; in turn, this current controls the flux produced by
the stator windings.
Both frequency and voltage must be maintained constant within very close limits and large
alternators have both frequency and voltage regulating systems which are usually electronically
controlled.
In summary, the process of obtaining electrical energy involves a series of transformation of one
kind of energy into another. Basically, there are three main requirements for electrical energy
generation.
These are:
a. Mechanical energy
b. Conductors
c. Magnetic flux

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1. Describe with the aid of a suitable diagram the principle of operation of the 3-phase
generator.
2. Describe the construction and operation of a simple AC generator.

2.9 Thermal Power Stations (Steam Power Plants)

2.9.1 Introduction

The generating stations which use solid fuels (such as coal) are known as Thermal Power Stations.
In other words, they employ steam (obtained from water) turbines which are coupled to generators
(alternators) for the generation of electrical power.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 12 -
The design of steam power stations require wide experience since the subsequent operation and
maintenance are greatly affected by its design. The most efficient design consists of properly sized
components, designed to operate safely and conveniently along with it’s auxiliaries and controls. A
compact and a well arranged power station can be very efficient and at the same time a source of
pride and pleasure; while the power station with poor layout, inadequate and unsafe controls can
prove to be a loss to a supply undertaking. The satisfactory design consists of the following steps:
(a) Selection of the Site;
(b) Capacity of power station;
(c) Selection of boilers and it’s auxiliaries;
(d) Selection of turbines;
(e) Selection of condensing units;
(f) Design of cooling system;
(g) Selection of electrical generator;
(h) Design of control and instrumentation

2.9.2 Line Diagram of Thermal Power Stations

Fig. 2.2. represents the line diagram of the thermal generating station. The scheme of generation is
divided into two phases:
(a) Formation of steam in the boiler house; and
(b) Generation of electrical power in the generator room.
Chimney

Hot Air Air

Air Forced Draught
Preheater Fan

Flue Gases

Coal Boiler Economiser

Electrical
Power
Flue Gases

Ash Turbine
Suoer Heater Generator
Disposal
Dry Air
Flue Gases

Exhaust
To
Steam
Economiser

Condenser

Cooling Water

River

Fig. 2.2 Line Diagram of a Thermal Power Station

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 13 -
Basically, the main elements/components of a steam power plant (Fig 2.2) are:

a. Coal/ash handling arrangement f. Steam turbine

b. Boiler g Condenser
c. Superheater h. Generator
d. Economiser i. Cooling arrangement
e. Preheater j. Water treatment arrangement

2.9.3 Uses of Water in Coal Fired Thermal Power Station

In a coal fired thermal station, water performs the following distinct functions:
1) It produces steam in the boiler
2) It condenses steam in the condenser
3) It is used to wash coal in order to reduce its ash content.
2.9.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants

Advantages
a) The fuel (coal) used in steam power plants is cheaper as compared to nuclear and diesel
plants
b) The initial cost is less
c) The cost of generation and maintenance is also not very high
d) It needs lesser space as compared to hydro stations.

Disadvantages
a) The atmosphere is polluted as it gives out smoke and fumes- However, anti-pollution
devices can be installed.
b) Running cost is higher as compared to hydro plants.

2.10 Hydro-Electric Stations (Plants)

2.10.1 Introduction

The hydroelectric stations convert the energy stored in water into electric power by the use of water
turbines coupled with generators. The water stored at higher altitudes is allowed to impinge on the
blades through penstocks, thus the potential energy (difference of level called head) and kinetic
energy (energy due to motion) of water is first transformed into mechanical energy and then to
electrical energy. Hence the continuous availability of water throughout the year is an absolute
necessity for proper operation of hydro-electric stations. The analysis of availability of electric
power also includes the study of rainfall, run off and stream flow, available head and it’s limitations
and facilities for storage.

In view of the above stated considerations, it is clear that the location of such plants is possible only
in non-mountainous areas. Generally, such schemes have multipurpose i.e. they can be used for
power generation as well as for irrigation purposes.

Hydro plants use the cheapest fuel, i.e., water. As coal, uranium and diesel are in short supply,
hydro plants are, therefore, becoming popular. Water is collected in high dams. which, on release,
strikes the blades of a turbine, thus converting P.E. of water into mechanical energy as said earlier
on. The generator, coupled to the turbine, converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.
J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 14 -
The main components of a hydro plant are:
a) Reservoir
b) Dam
c) Spill way (sluice gate)
d) Surge tank
e) Pen stock
f) Water turbine
g) Tail race
h) Generator.

The schematic arrangement of hydro-power plant is depicted in Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.3 The Schematic Arrangement of Hydro-Power Plant

2.10.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Power Stations

The Advantages are as follows;

a) The plant is simple in construction, robust and requires low maintenance;
b) It can be put in the service instantly;
c) It can respond to changing of loads without any difficulty;
d) There are no stand-by losses i.e. no losses are incurred when at a standstill;
e) The running charges are very small;
f) No fuel is burnt;
g) The efficiency of the plant does not decrease with time provided proper maintenance
is carried out;
h) A single unit of very high output can be used;
i) No smoke, no ash, no atmospheric pollution The plant is quite neat and clean;
j) The water can be used for irrigation and other purpose after running the turbines;
k) It needs water as fuel, which is cheaper and easily available.
l) Due to the use of water as fuel, running charges are also small.
m) Such a plant can be switched on instantly whereas a steam plant takes starting time.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 15 -
The Disadvantages of the hydro-electric stations are:
a) The capital cost of generators, civil engineering work, etc., are enormously high;
b) High cost of transmission lines since it is built away from the load centre.
c) Long dry seasons may affect the delivery of power.

Assignment: Study and make notes Nuclear Power Stations (Plants). Consider the basic
concepts, schematic arrangement, advantages and disadvantages

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 16 -
 CHAPTER 3

THE GRID SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction

The grid system refers to the nature of transmission and distribution system. It is the name given to
that part of a power system, which consists of the substations and transmission lines at various
voltages. The grid system is a network of alternating current interconnected system between
generating stations and the main load centres. With the grid system, the whole country is linked by
a common extra high voltage network; supplies to consumers throughout the country becomes
standardized so that not only is there a reduction in generating costs, but there is also a reduction in
the cost of manufacturing consumer’s equipment.

In order to cater for increasing demands and transfer of bulk power over long distance the Super
Grid system is required. This consists of transmission lines of 275 kV, 400 kV and beyond.

By transmission, is normally implied the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links between main
load centres.

Large amounts of power are transmitted from the generating stations to the load-centre substations
at higher voltage (e.g. 161 kV in Ghana; 400 kV and 275 kV in Britain).

The Network formed by these very high-voltage lines is sometimes referred to as super grid. Most
of the large and efficient stations feed through transformers directly into this network. This grid in
turn feeds a sub-transmission network at 33 kV in Ghana, 132 kV in Britain and 115 kV in U.S.A.

Some of the older and less efficient stations feed into this system which in turn supplies network
which are concerned with distribution to consumers in a given area.

In Britain, these networks operate at 33 kV, 11 kV or 6.6 kV equivalent to that in Ghana, and supply
the final consumer feeders at 415 V three phase giving 240 V per phase.

A typical part of a supply network is shown in Fig. 3.1.

3.2 Advantages of the Grid System

1. The whole county is linked by a common High – voltage (H.V) network;

2. Best use is made of large, highly efficient generating stations built upon the most
advantageous sites;

3. Load flow is under a centralized control enabling generating plant to be operated at its
highest efficiency.

4. Small and inefficient stations are eliminated;

5. Standby plant and spares are kept to a minimum;
6. Supply frequency and voltage can be standardized;
7. Loss of supply due to breakdown is minimized;
8. Electricity is more readily available to isolated communities.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 17 -
Assignment: Make notes on Microgrids
Large high-efficiency station

G G G
  

161 kV
Generator T1 T2 T3 To Loads
transformers
T8
CB
To rest of
system

T9

1. T6 T7

Distribution
T4 T5 voltage

To Loads
Via(through) lower
voltage network Load-efficiency Station (local
generator)

Fig.3.1 A Typical Part of a Power System

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 18 -
 CHAPTER 4
POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

4.1 General Introduction

An electric power system consists of three major parts:

i) Generation
ii) Transmission and
iii) Distribution.
After the generation of electrical energy, transmission is the most efficient method of transmitting
power over long distances.

Transmission system can be classified as:

i) Primary transmission (275 kV and above),
ii) Secondary transmission (220 kV to 66 kV),
depending upon the level of voltage used for transmission.

Similarly, distribution system can be further classified as:

i) Primary distribution (33 kV and above)
ii) Secondary distribution (11kV/6.6kV/3.3 kV)
iii) Tertiary distribution (400 V, 3 phase)
depending upon the voltage of distribution.

Although electrical power can be transmitted and distributed by either ac. or dc, but in practice 3-
phase 3 wire system is universally adopted for transmission of large blocks of power and 3 phase
4-wire ac system is usually adopted for distribution of electrical power. The distribution system
may be divided into feeders, distributors and service mains.

4.2 Nature of Transmission and Distribution Systems

Electrical energy is generated at generating stations. The generating stations are located in remote
area. Therefore the problem of making energy available at the door of every consumer arises. For
this purpose, conductors carrying energy are run from the station to consumers. This network of
conductors is known as the transmission and distribution.

By transmission, is normally implied, the bulk transfer of power by high voltage links between
main loads centres. That is it is the system of carrying bulk power from the power station to
substations. Distribution on the other hand, is mainly concerned with the conveyance of this power
to consumers by means of lower voltage networks.

The machines usually generate voltage in the range 11-25 kV which is increased by transformers
to the main transmission voltage. At substations, the connections between the various components
of the systems, such as lines and transformers, are made and the switching of these components
carries out.

Transmission networks deliver to wholesale outlets at 132 kV and above, sub transmission networks
deliver to retail outlets at voltages from 115 kV or 132 kV and distribution networks deliver to final
step-down transformers at voltages below 132 kV.

Electric power may be transmitted by two methods:

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 19 -
 i) By overhead system or,
ii) By underground cables system -this being especially suited for densely populated areas,
though it is somewhat costlier than the first method.
In overhead system, power is conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminium, which are strung
between wooden or steel poles erected at convenient distances along a route. The bare copper or
aluminium wire is fixed to an insulator, which is itself fixed onto a cross-arm on the pole. The number
of cross-arms carried by a pole depends on the number of wires it has to carry. Line supports consists
of:
(i) Pole structures and
(ii) Towers.
Poles that are made of wood, reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV, where as steel towers
are used for higher voltages. The underground system employs insulated cables, which may be
single, double or triple core etc.

4.3 General Electrical Layout of the Supply (Transmission and Distribution) System
A typical layout of the system is shown in fig.4.1. Where CS represents the central station where
power is generated by 3-phase alternators at 6.6 kV or 11 kV or 13.2 kV or even 33 kV. The voltage
is then stepped up by suitable 3-phase transformers for transmission purposes. Taking the generated
voltage as 11 kV, the 3-phase transformers step it up to 132 kV as shown.
The 3-phase, 3-wire overhead high-voltage transmission line next terminates in step-down
transformers in a substation known as receiving station (RS) which usually lies at the out skirts of a
city because it is not safe to bring high-voltage overhead transmission lines into thickly-populated
areas. Here, the voltage is stepped down to 33 kV. It must be noted here that, for ensuring continuity
of service, transmission is always by duplicate lines.
From the receiving station, power is next transmitted at 33 kV by underground cables (and
occasionally by over-head lines) to various sub-stations (SS) located at various strategic points in the
city. This is known as secondary or low-voltage transmission. From here then begins the primary
and secondary distribution.
CS G Generator

11/132 kV Step-up Transformer

Primary
Transmission
Step-down Transformer
132/33 kV
Secondary Receiving Station (RS)
Transmission
Step-down Transformer
Substation

Primary
Distribution
3.3 kV
Distribution transformer
Secondary
Distribution 440/230 V

Consumers’s Connections

Fig. 4.1 A Layout of a Generation, Transmission and Distribution Network

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 20 -
At the sub-station, voltage is reduced from 33 kV to 3.3 kV (or 11 kV) 3-wire for primary
distribution. Consumers whose demands exceed 50 kVA are usually supplied from SS by special
3.3 kV feeders.

The secondary distribution is done at 400 V/230 V for which purpose voltage is reduced from 3.3
kV to 400 V at the distribution substations. Feeders radiating from distribution substation supply
power to distribution networks in their respective areas. If the distribution network happens to be at
a great distance from the substations then they are supplied from the secondaries of distribution
transformers which are either pole-mounted or else housed (indoored) or outdoored at suitable points
of the distribution networks.

A typical generation, transmission and distribution network in Ghana is shown in figure 4.2.
Akosombo Power Generating Kpong Power Generating Stations
Stations (Four Generators)
(Six Generators)

14.5 kV/161 kV 13.8 kV/161 kV

Aboadzi
To the Thermal Plant
National Grid 161 kV/33 kV
33 kV 33 kV
To the
To Large
National Grid
Industries
33 kV/11 kV
11 kV
11 kV
To Small 11 kV/3.3 kV
Industries 11 kV/415 kV

Industries
Domestic Consumers

Fig.4.2 Typical Generation, Transmission and Distribution Network in Ghana

4.3.1 Other Forms of Single Line Representation of Power System

Fig.4.3 Single Line Representation of Power System

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 21 -
 Fig.4.4 Single Line Representation of Power System

4.4 Transmission Systems

4.4.1Various Transmission systems

Though in practice 3-phase 3-wire ac system is universally used for transmission and 3-phase 4-wire
a.c. system is used for distribution of electric power, but for other purposes, other systems may also
be used. The various systems for power transmission are tabulated in Fig. 4.5.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

DC System AC System

DC DC DC
2 wire 2 wire with 3wire
mid-pt
earthed

Single phase Two phase Three phase

11 ph
ph 1 ph 1 ph 2 ph 2 ph 3 ph 3 ph
2 wire
2 wire 2 wire 3wire 3wire 4 wire 3 wire 4 wire
with
mid- pt
earthed Fig. 4.5 Various Transmission Systems

N.B: In practice, the 3 phase 3 wire AC system is universally adopted for transmission.

4.5 The Distribution System

Distribution is mainly concerned with the conveyance of this power to consumers by means of low
voltage networks.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 22 -
The distribution system begins either at the substation where power is delivered over-by
transformers or in some cases at the generating station itself.

4.5.1 Classification of Distribution Systems

(a) According to voltage: the distribution system may be, primary or secondary. The
primary distribution is done at 11 kV and the secondary, at 440 V.
(b) According to the kind of currents: it may be carrying DC or AC.
(c) According to service: it may serve a house (domestic) or an industry.
(d) According to construction: it may go along roads with poles, insulators, etc, or
underground in trenches.
(e) According to number of wires: it may be 2 wire (DC or AC single phase), 3 wire (DC
or AC 3 phase) or wire (AC 3 phase with neutral).

(f) According to connection schemes: the distribution scheme may be of three types:

i) Radial scheme
ii) Ring main scheme
iii) Interconnected scheme.

Primary Distribution
Transmission lines or interconnections terminate at large main substations from which the power is
distributed to small secondary substations scattered throughout the load area, which may be only a
few square miles. The voltage may lie between 132 kV and 3.3 kV. Frequently, the primary
distribution may comprise two or even sections at different voltages.

Secondary Distribution
This comprises the low-voltage network laid along the streets or over the fields and from which
services connections are tapped off to individual domestic consumer. The standard circuit in Britain
is 415 V 3-ph, 4-wire, 50 Hz, from which the consumer may take a 415 V 3-ph or 240 V 1-ph
supply. European practice favours 380 V/220 V 50 Hz systems and American a 220 V/120 V 60
Hz system.

Interconnection
Where two or more generating stations exist in the same area, considerable operating and economic
advantages can be achieved by interconnecting them. The main advantages are
(i) A reduction in the amount of spare plants required since one station can assist the other
at times of emergencies.
(ii) Operating economies since one station can be shut down at times of light load, also if
steam and hydro stations are interconnected each can be operated in the most economical
manner, e.g. the steam stations supply the base load and hydro stations the peak load.
Interconnection is commonly extended from connection between adjacent systems and even
across national frontiers; France, for instance, has over twenty interconnections with systems in
adjacent countries. The voltages of interconnecting, lines are similar to that of bulk transmission
lines, i.e. 132-400 kV.

The distribution system may be sub-divided into:

a. feeders
b. distributors;
c. sub-distributors and
d. service mains

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 23 -
(a) A feeder is a conductor, joining a sub-station with the locality, where power is to be distributed.
The conductor, used as a feeder, should have the required current carrying capacity.

(b) A distributor is a conductor from which tapings are taken for supplying power to individual
consumers. Therefore, it causes voltage drop and the current varies throughout the length of the
distributor. For designing a distributor, voltage drop is the main consideration.

(c) A service line is a piece of small conductor, which joins the energy meter of a consumer with
the distributor. A typical distribution system (Fig.4.6) has a sub-station (S), feeders (F) SA, SC,
SD, and distributors (D) AB, BC, CD and DA. From the distributors, tapping are taken out as
service lines to consumers.

Fig. 4.6 Typical Distribution System

4.5.2 The Distribution System Connection Schemes

The distribution scheme may be of three types:

i. Radial scheme
ii. Ring main scheme
iii. Interconnected scheme.

i. Radial scheme/system

A radial system for the distribution of electrical energy is shown in Fig.4.7. A substation
supplies consumers C through radial distributors which fan out from the substation. A fuse or
circuit breaker protects each distributor. Some distributors have subsidiary fuses which are of
lower rating than the main fuse somewhere along their length. In the event of a fault on the
feeder, the relevant fuse clears leaving all consumers on that section without a supply. In the
figure, a fault F1 would cause fuse Q to clear leaving two consumers without a supply. A fault
at F2 would cause fuse P to clear leaving all four consumers without a supply. Since there is no
alternative method of supply to this consumer, thus consumers are dependent on single feeder;
repairs to the line have to be carried out before they can be reconnected.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 24 -
 C C
Feeders Q
P F1 C
F2 C
C
C
Substation
Fuse or C
C = Consumer Circuit Breaker
C
Fig. 4.7 Layout of Radial Distribution Systems

Advantages:
a) The radial scheme is useful when the sub-station is located at the centre of the load.
b) It is a simple and economical scheme.
c) Fault finding is relatively simple since tests need only be done on the cleared section.

Disadvantages:
(a) The consumers are connected with one feeder and one distributor. In the case of a
fault, all the consumers suffer. There is no alternative for maintaining the supply.
Thus offering a poor security of supply.
(b) The consumers, at the end of the distributor, suffer from a heavy voltage drop as the
load on that distributor increases and to minimize this, the cross-sectional area of the
conductors should be large.
(c) It is only used for short distances.

ii. Ring main scheme/system

The disadvantage of the radial system is overcome by the ring system in which each consumer
is supplied via two feeders. Addition of further substations feeding the other ends of the radial
feeders shown in Fig.4.8 effectively converts the system into a ring. This substantially reduces
the voltage drops along the distributors and enables savings in conductor cross-sectional areas
and cost to be made.
R Substation
C C C2
Q
P F1
C1
C
C C
Substation
Fuse or C Substation
Circuit Breaker

C = Consumer

Fig. 4.8 Layout of a Ring Distribution System

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 25 -
 In the ring system, if there is a fault, on feeder at the point F1, the section between C1 and C2
can be switched out without interrupting the supply to any consumer.

At 11 kV, a ring system employing isolators at each load point enables greater security of supply
to be achieved. In Fig. 4.9, a fault F1 can be cleared by opening isolators I2 and I3 and no other
section need be disconnected provided that a second fault does not occur. Interconnection of
two points on the ring makes the system more versatile while reducing voltage drops and cable
losses. This however, increases the cost of the system.
C

I1 I2
CB I3
Substation
C
F1
I4

CB

I8 I7 I6 I5

C C

Fig. 4.9 Layout of a Ring System with Isolators

Advantages of the ring scheme

(a) The voltage fluctuation is less as compared to the radial scheme;

(b) The reliability of supply is more as each consumer is supplied from two feeders. The
arrangement is equivalent to two feeders in parallel on different routes;
(c) Less copper is required as each part carries lesser current than in the radial system.

Assignment:
Read on the Interconnected scheme/system. Consider typical network of such a system; it’s
advantages and disadvantages.

4.6 The Local Distribution System

The local distribution system consists basically of a step-down (eg. 33/11 kV) on-load tap-changing
transformer at a bulk supply point feeding a number of lines which can vary in length from a few
hundred meters to several kilometres.

A series of step-down 3 – phase transformers e.g. 11 kV/415 kV are spaced along routes and from
these are supplied to the consumer 3 – phase to houses and similar loads.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 26 -
 From Transmission System
T 11 kV Duplicate
Bus- Bar

33 kV T T
Capital-substation

To Main
To Main Substation
Substation

T T T Main-substation

11 kV
11 kV Feeders to
Open Rings

T T T T 415/240 V

Transformer Chamber Fuse

Supplying Distribution
Network
Service to Buildings etc.
Fig.4.10 A Typical Local Distribution System

The structure of the network varies with location. In rural areas, radial feeders are often used
(usually overhead lines), whereas in urban areas a well – defined low – voltage area or block is fed
from the higher voltage network. For security reasons such areas are similar areas which are fed
from different feeders. In such systems the network has essentially a topology or structure of a loop
nature.

The most common system for secondary distribution is 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. The
single-phase residential lighting load is connected between any one line and the neutral, whereas 3-
phase 400 V (or 415 V) motor load is connected across 3-phase line directly.

4.7 Calculations on Distribution Systems

4.7.1 Radial Distribution System

A single resistive load being fed from a 240 V supply using a single line representation diagram can
be drawn as shown below. The resistance marked is that of both go and return conductors.

VS = 240 V R = 0.2  VL = 235.8 V

I = 21 A
J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 27 -
The load voltage = VS – IR = 240 – 21x0.2 = 235.8 V

The method of calculation is suitable for both d.c. and single phase a.c. where resistance only is
considered. When the loads or lines have inductance or capacitance, there are phase angles to
consider and arithmetic addition and subtraction of voltages gives incorrect results.

Let’s first consider the radial distribution where supply is fed at one end as example 1.

231 V 228.6 V 226.6 V

A 0.1  B 0.06  C 0.2  D
V = 240 V
(10+ 30+50) A (10 + 30) A 10 A

50 A 30 A 10 A
Fig. 4.11 Radial Distribution System

In the radial distribution system in Fig.4.11, determine:

a. The load voltages
b. The power loss in the cable
c. The power developed by each load
d. The efficiency of the system.

Solution:

a. Applying Kirchoff’s first law to each load point:

The current in each section CD of the feeder = 10 A

Section BC carries load currents C and D = 30 + 10 = 40 A
Section AB carries the total load currents = 40 + 50 = 90 A
The voltage drop between A and B = IAB x RAB = 90 x 0.1 = 9 V.
Voltage at load B = 240 -9 = 231 V.

b. Power loss in section AB = (IAB)2 RAB = 902 x 0.1 = 810 W

Power developed by load B = VBIB = 231x50 = 11550 W.

Repeat for section BC:

Voltage drop from B to C = 40 x 0.06 = 2.4 V
Voltage at load C = 231 – 2.4 = 228.6 V
Power loss in section BC = 402 x 0.06 = 96 W
Power developed by load C = 228.6 x 30 = 6858 W

Repeat for section CD:

Voltage drop from C to D = 10 x 0.2 = 2 V
Voltage at load D = 228.6 – 2 = 226.6 V
Power loss in section CD = 102 x 0.2 = 20 W
Power in load D = 226.6 x 10 = 2266 W

Total load power = 2266+6858+11550 = 20674 W

Total losses = 20+96+810 = 926 W

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
UMaT, Tarkwa - 28 -
 Total power in loads 20674
d. Efficiency = = = 0.957 p.u = 95.7 %
Total power input 20674 + 926
Note that, total power input can also be calculated as P = VI = 240 x 90.

4.7.2 Distributor Fed at Both Ends (Ring System)

A 0.1  B 0.06  C 0.2  D 0.1  V

V = 240 V = V = 240 V
I1 A (I1 – 50) A (I1 – 80) A (I1 – 90) A

50 A 30 A 10 A
Fig.4.12

Re-calculate (a) to (d) in example 1 with the supply reinforced as shown in Fig.4.12.

In this case, we firstly have to determine how much current is supplied from each end of the feeder.

Consider a current I1 to be entering from the left hand end.

The current in the section AB = I1 A

The voltage drop between A and B = I1 x 0.1 V
At point B a load current of 50 A is supplied so that the current flowing in section BC
must be = (I1 – 50) A;
The voltage drop from B to C = (I1 – 50) x 0.06 V.

Similarly,
the current in section CD = (I1 – 50) – 30 = (I1 – 80) A and
the voltage drop from C to D = (I1 – 80) x 0.2 V.

In section DE the currents is (I1 – 90) A and the volt drop from D to E = (I1–90) x 0.1 V.
The voltage at A minus all the voltage drops along the line = voltage at E.

This is as in Example 1, except in this case, we know the voltage at E = 240 V.

Therefore,
240 − (I 1  0.1) − (I 1 − 50)  0.06 − (I 1 − 80  0.2) − (I 1 − 90)  0.1 = 240

Multiply out the brackets:

240 − 0.1I 1 − 0.06 I 1 + 3 − 0.2 I 1 + 16 − 0.1I 1 + 9 = 240

Hence, I1 = 60.86 A

Now redraw the diagram as shown in Fig.4.13.

I1 A 20 A (I1 – 80) A (I1 – 90) A

A 0.1  B 0.06  C 0.2  D 0.1  E
V = 240 V V = 240 V
60.86 A 10.86 A 19.14 A 29.14 A

50 A 30 A 10 A

Fig.4.13
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 In section BC, we have (60.86 – 50) A = 10.86 A.
In section CD, we have (60.86 – 80) A = - 19.14 A.
The negative sign indicates a reversal of current direction from that shown in original diagram and
this is seen to be logical since the 30 A load receives 10.86 from end A and 19.14 A from end E.

Voltage at B = 240 – 60.86 x 0.1 = 233.9 V

Power loss in section AB = (60.86)2 x 0.1 = 370.4 W.
Power in the load B = 233.9 x 50 = 11695 W
Voltage at C = 233.9 – 10.86 x 0.06 = 233.25 V
Power loss in section BC = (10.86)2 x 0.06 = 7.08 V
Power in load C = 233.25 x 30 = 6997.5 W.

Finding voltage at point D:

Since current flows from D to C, the voltage at D must be greater than that at C. The
minimum voltage on the distributor is at load C and currents flow from both ends to this
point.
Hence, voltage at D = 233.25 + 19.14 x 0.2 = 237.08 V
Power loss in section CD = (19.14)2 x 0.2 = 73.26 W
Power in load D = 237.08 x 10 = 2370.8 W

We know that, the voltage at point E is 240 V. Let us check the calculations by adding the volt drop
from E to D to the voltage at D:
i.e. 237.08 +29.14 x 0.1 = 240 V

Power loss in section DE = (29.14)2 x 0.1 = 84.91 W

Total load powers = 11695 + 6997.5 + 2370.8 = 21063 W
Total losses = 370.4 + 7.08 + 73.26 + 84.91 = 53.65 W

21063.3
Efficiency = = 0.975 p.u.
21063.3 + 535.65

Notice that, by feeding the system at both ends each of the load voltages has been increased. The
cable losses have been reduced to increase the efficiency from 0.957 to 0.975 p.u.

EXERCISE

From the ring main distribution system shown below, determine the current in each section of the
transmission and the minimum load voltage at each tapping point.
Take the resistance of 100 m of single conductor = 0.05 .
30 A
20 A
B 200 m
A 60 m C
0.06  0.2 
100 m 100 m
300 A 0.1  50 A 0.1 
O D 40 A
0.05 
50 m 100 A 0.15 
150 m
F 0.075  E
75 m
60 A

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 4.8.4 Requirements of a Good Distribution Scheme

(a) Reliability of supply should be maintained, if there is a breakdown, it should be for the
lesser possible time.
(b) The voltage drop, at any consumer terminal, should remain within  6% of the declared
voltage.
(c) The efficiency of the system should not be less than 90%.
(d) The insulation resistance of the system should be high, so that there is no leakage.
(e) The system should be economical.

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 CHAPTER 5
POWER SUBSTATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The creation of huge power houses is the present need to meet the drastically increasing power
demands. Usually large power-generating stations are built far away from load centres. Long
transmission lines are necessary to transmit the bulk amount of power at higher voltage levels. In
between the generating station and last customer end, a number of transformation and switching
stations have to be installed. These are generally known as substations.

Therefore, a substation can be defined as a part of an electrical generation, transmission and

distribution system, where voltage is transformed from high to low or vice versa. Substations are
locations where transmission lines are tied together. They fulfill a number of functions such as:

(a) They allow power from different generating stations to be fed into the main transmission
corridors.
(b) They provide a terminus for interconnections with other systems.
(c) They provide a location where transformers can be connected to feed power into the sub
transmission or distribution systems.
(d) They allow transmission lines to be segmented to provide a degree of redundancy in the
transmission paths.
(e) They provide a location where compensation devices such as shunt or series reactors or
capacitors can be connected to the transmission system.
(f) They provide a location where transmission lines can be de-energized, either for
maintenance or because of an electrical malfunction involving the line.
(g) They provide a location for protection, control, and metering equipment.

5.2 Substation Equipment (Components)

There are a number of designs used for substations. However, there are elements common to all:

Bus is the given name given to the electrical structure to which all lines and transformers are
connected. Buses are of two generic types: open air and enclosed. Enclosed buses are used when
substations are located in buildings or outdoors where space is at a premium. They involve the use
of an insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) to allow reduced spacing between energized
phases. Bus structures are designed to withstand the large mechanical forces that can result from
fields produced by high short-circuit currents. These forces vary with the third power of the current.
A bus section is the part of a bus to which a single line or transformer is connected.

Protective relays are devices that continuously monitor the voltages and currents associated with
the line and its terminals to detect failures or malfunctions in the line/equipment. Such failures are
called faults and involve contact between phases or between one or more phases and ground. The
relays actuate circuit breakers.

Circuit breakers are devices that are capable of interrupting the flow of electricity to isolate either
a line or a transformer. They do so by opening the circuit and extinguishing the arc that forms using
J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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a variety of technologies such as oil, vacuum, air blast or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6). Breakers may
be in series with the line or transformer or may be installed on both sides of the bus section where
the line connects. They allow individual lines or transformers to be removed from service (de-
energized) automatically when equipment (protective relays) detects operating conditions outside
a safe range. They must be capable of interrupting the very high currents that occur during fault
conditions and are rated by the amount of current they can interrupt. These fault current levels can
be 20 or 30 times larger than the current flow under normal operating conditions, that is, thousands
of amperes. To minimize the impact of electrical “shocks” to the transmission system, minimizing
the total time for the relay to detect the condition and the circuit breaker to open the circuit is a
critical design issue. Circuit breakers also allow lines or transformers to be removed from service
for maintenance. Circuit breakers normally interrupt all three phases simultaneously, although in
certain special applications, single-phase circuit breakers can be employed, which will open only
the phase with a problem.

Transformers are devices that are used to connect facilities operating at two different voltage levels.
For example a transformer would be used to connect a 138 kV bus to a 13 kV bus. The transformer
connects to all three phases of the bus. Physically the transformers can include all three phases
within one tank or there can be three separate tanks, one per phase. Larger capacity units may have
three separate tanks because their size and weight may be a limiting factor because of transportation
issues.
Transformers can be designed with two mechanisms to adjust the voltage ratio. One mechanism is
the provision of more than one fixed tap position on one side of the transformer. For example, a
transformer might have a nominal turns ratio of 345/138, with fixed taps on the 345 kV winding of
327.8, 336.7, 345, 353.6 and 362.3. The transformer must be deenergized to adjust the fixed tap
ratio. Another mechanism is called tap changing under load (TCUL). In this mechanism the ratio
can be adjusted while the transformer is energized, providing greater operating flexibility.

Some transformers have both types of mechanisms; with a fixed tap adjustment in the high voltage
winding and the TCUL adjustment in the low voltage winding.

Another type transformer is an autotransformer, which is used when facilities at nearly the same
voltage are to be connected, for example, 138 kV to 115 kV. Rather than having two separate paths
for the electricity, connected only by the magnetic flux through the transformer as in a conventional
unit, the winding of autotransformer involves a tap on the higher voltage winding which supplies
the lower voltage.

All larger transformers have mechanisms to remove the heat generated within the tank involving
some manner of circulating the transformer insulating/cooling oil through an external heat
exchanger involving fins mounted on the side of the transformer and fans to circulate air across the
fins to maximize heat dissipation.

Disconnect switches are used to open a circuit when only “charging” current present is due. These
would be used primarily to connect or disconnect circuit breakers or transformers which are not
carrying load current. They are also used in conjunction with circuit breakers to provide another
level of safety for workers by inserting a second opening between station equipment out of service
for work and the still energized section of line or bus.

Lightning arrestors are used to protect transformers and switchgear from the effects of high voltage
due to lightning stroke or a switching operation. They are designed to flashover when the voltage
at the transformer exceeds a pre-selected level which is chosen by the station design engineers to
coordinate with the basic insulation level of the transformer (BIL).

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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Metering equipment is provided to measure line and transformer loadings and bus voltages so
operating personnel can ensure that these facilities are within acceptable limits. Metering equipment
also is provided at some locations to measure the flow of energy for the billing that is required for
sales and purchases of energy between various participants in the electric energy market.

SCADA is an acronym for system or supervisory control and data acquisition. It reflects the
improvements in measurement, telecommunications and computing technologies that allow more
and more automation of substation operation.

Depending on the electrical characteristics of a particular part of the transmission system, other
equipment that may be located at a substation are:

Shunt reactors (reactors connected from the energized bus to ground) are installed to control high
voltages that occur especially at night due to the capacitive effect of lightly loaded transmission
lines. These reactors can be energized always or they can be energized only at specific times. Shunt
reactors are also used to reduce or control the high voltages that can occur when a sudden loss of a
block of customer load occurs. The windings, insulation and the external tank are similar to those
used for transformers.

Series reactors are installed in a transmission line to increase the impedance of the line, to decrease
current levels in the event of short circuits, or to reduce its loading under various operating
conditions.

Shunt capacitors are installed to provide mVArs to the system to help support voltage levels.

Series capacitors are installed to reduce the effective impedance of a transmission line. These
would be installed in very long transmission lines to effectively reduce the electrical angle between
the sending and the receiving parts of the system, enabling more power to flow over the line and
increasing stability limits.

Phase angle regulating transformers are installed to control power flow through a transmission
line, causing more or less power to flow over desired lines. They use a variant on the design of a
normal transformer, in which, due to the specialized way they are wound, they electrically inject an
angular phase shift into the line. The angle can be made to either increase or decrease power flow
on the line. Since they are expensive, they are often used on cable systems where, because of cost
and limited capacity of cables, maximum utilization of all parallel cable capacity was essential.

In recent years, some of them are being installed in overhead transmission lines to control parallel
path flow, when power flows over paths in other systems not involved in transactions, or do not
have adequate capacity.

FACTS (Flexible ac Transmission Systems) is a generic name used for a variety of devices intended
to dynamically control voltage, impedance or phase angle of HVAC lines.

These devices mirror and extend the benefits of the fixed series and shunt inductors and capacitors
previously discussed in that the FACTS devices allow rapid and precise adjustments. Depending
on the device, these FACTS devices provide a number of benefits: increased power transfer
capability, rapid voltage control, improved system stability, and mitigation of sub-synchronous
resonance (a condition experienced in a number of regions in the United States, where oscillations
occur caused by interaction of generator control systems and the capacitance of long transmission
distances). There are many devices by many manufacturers, some of which are in the development

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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stage and a few of which are in service. The names of the devices vary somewhat, depending on
the manufacturer. The following lists some of the devices:

(a) Static VAr Compensators (SVCs) - These devices employ fixed banks of capacitors,
controlled with thyristors, which can switch them on and off rapidly. In many instances,
there are also thyristor-switched inductors to prevent system resonance.

(b) Thyristor Controlled Series Compensators (or Series Capacitors) (TCSCs) - A thyristor
controlled reactor is placed in parallel with a series capacitor, allowing a continuous and
rapidly variable series compensation system.

(c) Static Compensators (STATCOMs) are gate turn-off type thyristors (GTO) based SVCs.
They are solid-state synchronous voltage generators that consist of multi-pulsed, voltage
sourced inverters connected in shunt with transmission lines. They do not require capacitor
banks and shunt reactors but rely on electronic processing of voltage and current waveforms
to provide inductive or capacitive reactive power. They have the added advantage that their
output is not seriously impacted by low system voltage.

(d) Unified Power Flow Controllers (UPFC) - These devices have shunt connected STATCOM
with an additional series branch in the transmission line supplied by the STATCOM’s dc
circuit. These devices are comparable to phase shifting transformers. They can control all
three basic power transfer parameters: voltage, impedance and phase angle.

(e) SVC Light4 (STATCOM) - Are based on voltage source converter technology equipped
with Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) a power switching component. They
provide reactive power as well as absorption purely by means of electronic processing of
voltage and current waveforms.

5.3 Types of Substations

Substations may be classified as follows depending upon their purpose:

1. Generating Substations: These are also known as step-up substations. These are associated with
the generating stations. It is economical to generate the power at low value of voltage and to
transmit at higher values. Generating units are connected to the step-up transformers to increase
the voltage up to transmission voltage levels.

2. Grid Substations: These substations are located in the intermediate points between the generating
stations and load centres to provide connections of low-voltage lines.

3. Secondary Substations: These substations are connected with secondary transmission lines.
These substations are located at the load points where the voltage is further stepped down to sub-
transmission and primary distribution voltage.

4. Distribution Substations: These substations are located where the sub-transmission or primary
distribution voltage is stepped down to supply voltage. These substations supply the power to
the actual consumers through distributors and service lines.

Depending upon the constructional features, the substations may be further sub-divided into:

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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1. Outdoor Substations: From the economy and safety point of view, the outdoor substations are
used for 11 kV and above voltage levels. All equipment except control and monitoring
equipment installed in open air.

2. Indoor type: These substations are preferred in the big cities when the load centre line in the
heart of cities. The operating voltages are normally 400 V and 11 kV.

3. Pole mounted: These substations are mounted on the poles. These substations are very simple in
construction and economic as there is no need of any building.

4. Underground type: Whole substation is made underground. These substations are used where
the space is not available.

A substation comprises of several transformers and several incoming and outgoing lines.

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 REFERENCES
Breeze, P. (2019), Power Generation Technologies, Newnes Publication, United States of America,
3rd Edition, 462 pp.

Subbanna, S. R. and Rao, B. L. (2019), Electric Power Transmission and Distribution, Notion
Press, Chennai, India, 324 pp.

Mousa, A. (2018), The Electric Power System: Generation, Transmission & Distribution Made
Simple, Lulu Publication, Morrisville, United States of America, 2nd Edition, 300 pp.

Sallam, A. A. and Malik, O. P. (2018), Electric Distribution Systems, Wiley-IEEE Press, Hoboken,
United States of America, 2nd Edition, 624 pp.

J. C. Attachie (2025), Course Material on Introduction to Power Generation and Supply, Electrical and Electronic Eng. Dept.,
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