BTH 202: Principles of Plant Biotechnology

PLANT DNA :

DNA "the blueprint of life"

DR. SULAIMAN MOHAMMED

The Genetic Material: Genome
FGenome word is a blend of the words: gene
and chromosome.
FThe genome consists of DNA (or RNA in RNA
viruses).
FThe genome includes both the genes (the
coding regions), the non-coding DNA and the
genomes of the mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 What is chromosome?
Chromosome is a thread-like structures, it is consisted of DNA
molecule packed tightly and coiled around a specific proteins
called histones.

DNA
Double helix

DNA
&
Histones

chromosome
Genome structure - Chromosomes
s Chromosomes are located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
s Each chromosome is a single DNA molecule.
s Plant cells (diploid: flowering) have 24 chromosomes: then
the somatic cells of the plant each contain 24 chromosomes
(12 maternal and 12 paternal).
s In preparation for normal cell division (mitosis),
chromosomes are replicated, but remain joined at their
centromere (prophase).
s This gives the chromosomes their “X” shape. Both
“halves” of the X are called (sister) chromatids.
Each chromosome consists of two identical copies
– two copies are called sister chromatids.
– attached to one another at a region called the
centromere.
– When not dividing, chromosomes exists as a grainy
material called chromatin (DNA + protein).
 The structure of the Chromosome

Telomere

• A chromosome has two arms

separated by a centromere. Short arm

Centromere

• The ends of the arms are

called telomeres.
Long arm

• The arms are divided in two, and

each part is known as a chromatid.

Chromatids
 Genome structure - Chromatin

Chromatin is a complex of DNA and proteins that

forms chromosomes within the nucleus of plant cells.
F DNA is packed into chromosomes in a hierarchical way:
F DNA double helix is coiled around histone octamers.
About 165 nucleotides wrap around a single octamer
(wrapping 2.85 times). These “beads” are separated by
50nt long spacer sequence.
F Histone beads pack into 30 nm fibers
F Fibers are tied up into scaffolds
F Condensed scaffolds make up the macroscopic form of
chromosomes.
DNA stands for...

DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
What is DNA?
F Genetic material located in cells’ nucleus.
F Scientists describe DNA as containing a code. A code is
a set of rules and symbols used to carry genetic
information.
F DNA contains the information needed to build an
individual.
F DNA contains the information of heritable traits in all cells.
F Hereditary information is encoded in the sequence of
nucleotides.
F DNA is replicated before a cell divides.

To understand how DNA functions, you first need to learn

about the structure of the DNA molecule.
 DNA STRUCTURE
D Nucleic acids are polymers
D deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
D DNA is coiled and a double helix – this makes DNA look like
a “twisted ladder”.
D Chains are anti-parallel (i.e in opposite directions).
D Each molecule of DNA is composed of a “backbone” on the
outside and bases that point towards the middle of the
molecule.
D The two sides of the ladder are made of sugars and
phosphate groups.
DNA monomer --- nucleotides

}}
s Nucleotide has 3 parts:
s Nitrogenous bases
s Purines
s Pyrimidines
s Sugar Nucleoside
s Ribose
s Deoxyribose Nucleotide
s Phosphates

s The bases in nucleotides are paired, or complementary.

s Diameter and periodicity are consistent
s 2.0 nm
s 10 bases/ turn
s Width is consistent because of pyrimidine / purine pairing
Sugar:
• RNA – ribose (OH)
• DNA – deoxyribose (H)

Bases:
• Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G),
Thymine (T)
• RNA uses Uracil (U) instead of thymine
 DNA Bases
• Purines – double-ringed molecule
– Adenine and Guanine
• Pyrimidines – single-ringed molecule
– Cytosine and Thymine
 Complementary Base-pairing Rules
DNA is built following the complementary
base-pairing rules.
• These state that:
– A always pairs with T
– T always pairs with A
– C always pairs with G
– G always pairs with C
• In RNA, adenine (A) pairs with uracil
The Bases

PYRIMIDINES

PURINES
Sugar
Sugar
Adenine (A) Thymine (T)

Sugar
Sugar

Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

 C G
5 end
C G Hydrogen bond
3 end
G C
G C T A

3.4 nm
T A

G C G C
C G

A T

1 nm C G
T A
C G
G C
C G A T

A T 3 end
A T
0.34 nm
T A 5 end

(c) Space-filling model

(a) Key features of DNA structure (b) Partial chemical structure
Advantages of DNA Double Helix
• Stability; protects bases from attack by H2O soluble
compounds and H2O itself.
• Provides easy mechanism for replication.

G-C Content
• A = T, G = C, but AT ≠ GC
• Generally GC~50%, but extremely variable
• Example.
– Slime mold~22%
– Mycobacterium~73%
• Distribution of GC is not uniform in genomes
w Genes are segments of DNA that relate to a
certain trait.
w The code in the nucleotide order has information
about which proteins the cells should build.
w The types of proteins that your body makes help
determine your traits.
Many scientists from all over the world contributed
to our understanding of DNA.
o

Some scientists discovered the chemicals that

make up DNA, and others learned how these
chemicals fit together.
o

Still others determined the three-dimensional

structure of the DNA molecule.

ASSIGNMENT
 Role of the genetic material
“A genetic material must carry out two
jobs: duplicate itself and control the
development of the rest of the cell in a
specific way.”
-Francis Crick
 How the Code Works
The combination of A, T, G, C determines what
traits you might have, for example

C A T C A T = red flower

T A C T A C = yellow flower
 Make a group of 5-7 people

Discuss in 5-7 min, 5 marks

1. Genetic material is located in cells’ ________.

2. DNA code is a set of _________ and _________ used to carry genetic
information.
3. Mention the general function of DNA and shape.
4. Differentiate between Nucleoside and Nucleotide.
5. Each molecule of DNA is composed of a “backbone” on the _______
and ______ that point towards the middle of the molecule.
6. The two sides of the ladder are made of _______ and ________
groups.