DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING | MODULE1: INTRODUCTION BEC502

Module 1
INTODUCTION

1.1 SIGNALS, SYSTEMS, AND SIGNAL PROCESSING

A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space, or any other
independent variable or variables. Mathematically, we describe a signal as a function
of one or more independent variables. For example, the functions
1-Dimensional signals mostly have time as the independent variable. For example,

𝑆1 (𝑡) = 5𝑡
𝑆2 (𝑡) = 20𝑡 2

2-Dimensional signals have two independent variables. For example, image is a 2-D
signal whose independent variables are the two spatial coordinates (x, y)

𝑆(𝑡) = 3𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 10𝑦 2

Video is a 3 – dimensional signal whose independent variables are the two spatial
coordinates, (x, y) and time (t).
Similarly, a 3 -D picture is also a 3- D signal whose independent variables are the three
spatial coordinates (x,y,z).
Signals 𝑆1 (𝑡), 𝑆2 (𝑡) and S (t) belong to a class that are precisely defined by specifying
the functional dependence on the independent variables.

Natural signals like speech signal, ECG, EEG, images, videos, etc. belong to
the class which cannot be described functionally by mathematical expressions.

System
A system is a physical device that performs an operation on a signal. For example,
natural signals are generated by a system that responds to a stimulus or force.
For eg., speech signals are generated by forcing air through the vocal cords. Here, the
vocal cord and the vocal tract constitute the system (also called the vocal cavity). The
air is the stimulus.
The stimulus along with the system is called a signal source.
An electronic filter is also a system. Here, the system performs an operation on the
signal, which has the effect of reducing the noise and interference from the desired
information – bearing signal.
When the signal is passed through a system, the signal is said to have been processed.

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Properties of a System

On this course, we shall be particularly interested in signals with certain

properties:
Causal: a system is causal if the output at a time, only depends on input values
up to that time.
Linear: a system is linear if the output of the scaled sum of two input signals is
the equivalent scaled sum of outputs.
Time-invariance: a system is time invariant if the system’s output is the same,
given the same input signal, regardless of time.

Processing
The operation performed on the signal by the system is called Signal Processing. The
system is characterized by the type of operation that it performs on the signal. For
example, if the operation is linear, the system is called linear system, and so on.

Digital Signal Processing

Digital Signal Processing of signals may consist of a number of mathematical

operations as specified by a software program, in which case, the program represents
an implementation of the system in software.
Alternatively, digital processing of signals may also be performed by digital hardware
(logic circuits). So, a digital system can be implemented as a combination of digital
hardware and software, each of which performs its own set of specified operations.

Basic elements of a Digital Signal Processing System

Most of the signals encountered in real world are analog in nature. i.e., the signal value
and the independent variable take on values in a continuous range. Such signals may
be processed directly by appropriate analog systems, in which case, the processing is
called analog signal processing. Here, both the input and output signals are in analog
form.

These analog signals can also be processed digitally, in which case, there is a need for
an interface between the analog signal and the Digital Signal Processor. This interface

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is called the Analog – to – Digital Converter (ADC), whose output is a digital signal
that is appropriate as an input to the digital processor.
In applications such as speech communications, that require the digital output of the
digital signal processor to be given to the user in analog form, another interface from
digital domain to analog domain is required. This interface is called the Digital – to –
Analog Converter (DAC).
In applications like radar signal processing, the information extracted from the radar
signal, such as the position of the aircraft and its speed are required in digital format.
So, there is no need for a DAC in this case.

Block Diagram Representation of Digital Signal Processing

Advantages of Digital Signal Processing over Analog Signal Processing

1. A digital programmable system allows flexibility in reconfiguring the digital

signal processing operations simply by changing the program.
2. Reconfiguration of an analog system usually implies a redesign of the
hardware followed by testing and verification.
3. Tolerances in analog circuit components and power supply make it
extremely difficult to control the accuracy of analog signal processor.
4. A digital signal processor provides better control of accuracy requirements
in terms of word length, floating – point versus fixed – point arithmetic,
and similar factors.
5. Digital signals are easily stored on magnetic tapes and disks without
deterioration or loss of signal fidelity beyond that introduced in A/D
conversion. So, the signals become transportable and can be processed
offline.
6. Digital signal processing is cheaper than its analog counterpart.
7. Digital circuits are amenable for full integration. This is not possible for
analog circuits because
8. inductances of respectable value (μH or mH) require large space to generate
flux.
9. The same digital signal processor can be used to perform two operations by
time multiplexing, since digital signals are defined only at finite number of
time instants.

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Disadvantages of Digital Signal Processing over Analog Signal Processing

1. Digital signal processors have increased complexity.

2. Signals having extremely wide bandwidths require fast – sampling – rate
ADCs. Hence the frequency range of operation of DSPs is limited by the
speed of ADC.
3. In analog signal processor, passive elements are used, which dissipate very
less power.

In digital signal processor, active elements like transistors are used, which dissipate
more power.
The above are some of the advantages and disadvantages of digital signal processing
over analog signal processing.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

The methods we use in processing a signal or in analyzing the response of a system

to a signal depend heavily on the characteristic attributes of the specific signal,
There are techniques that apply only to specific families of signals.

Multi-channel signal
The signal which is generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors and are
represented in vector form is called as multichannel signal.
Example: Earth quake generated wave,
In electrocardiography. for example, 3-lead and 12-lead electrocardiograms (E C G)
are often used in practice, which result in 3-channel and 12-channel signals.

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Multidimensional Signals
The signal which is a function of more than one independent variable are called as
multidimensional signal.
Example: f (x, y) =𝑥 2 + 2y+3

NOTE: - If the signal is a function of a single independent variable. the signal is called
a one-dimensional signal. On the other hand. a signal is called M-dimensional if its
value is a function of M independent variables.

Continuous time signals or Analog signals

The signal which can be defined for every value of time in an interval is called as
continuous time signal. Mathematically these signals can be described by functions of
a continuous variable
Example 𝑥1 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋𝑡

Discrete-time signals
The signals which are defined only at certain specific values of time. These time
instants need not be equidistant. but in practice they are usually taken at equally spaced
intervals for computational convenience and mathematical tractability.
Example

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Continuous valued signal:

The signal which takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range is called
as continuous valued signal.

Discrete valued signal:

The signal which takes on values from a finite set of possible values is called as
discrete-valued signal.

NOTE: -A discrete-time signal having a set of discrete values is called a digital

signal.

Deterministic Signal
Any signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical expression,
a table of data, or a well-defined rule is called deterministic. This term is used to
emphasize the fact that all past, present. and future values of the signal are known
precisely, without any uncertainty.
Example: Sinusoidal signal

Random Signals
The signals that either cannot be described to any reasonable degree of accuracy by
explicit mathematical formulas or any such description.
Signals evolve in time in an unpredictable manner
Example: seismic signals, speech signal.

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1.3 THE CONCEPT OF FREQUENCY IN CONTINUOUS-TIME AND

DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
The concept of frequency is closely related to concept of time.
1. The nature of frequency is affected by nature of time (continuous or
discrete).
2. Frequency is an inherently positive physical quantity, but for mathematical
convenience we use +ve and –ve frequency.
3. Frequency range for analog sinusoids is -∞ <F< ∞.
4. Frequency range for discrete sinusoidal is -1/2 < f <1/2.

1.3.1 Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

A simple harmonic oscillation is mathematically described by the following
continuous-time sinusoidal signal:
𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑡 + ϴ), −∞ < 𝐭 < ∞ …………………………………1
The subscript a used with x(t) denotes an analog signal. This signal is completely
characterized by three parameters: A is the amplitude of the sinusoid.  is the
frequency in radians per second (radians), and ϴ is the phase in radians. Instead of ,
we often use the frequency F in cycles per second or hertz (Hz).
Where
=2πF
In terms of F. The equation can be written as
𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2πF𝑡 + ϴ), −∞ < 𝐭 < ∞

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The analog sinusoidal signal in above eqn is characterized by the following properties:
1. For every fixed value of the frequency F, x,(r) is periodic. Indeed. it can easily
be shown, using elementary trigonometry, that where T, = 1/F is the
fundamental period of the sinusoidal signal.
2. Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with distinct (different) frequencies are
themselves distinct.
3. Increasing the frequency F results in an increase in the rate of oscillation of the
signal, in the sense that more periods are included in a given time interval.

1.3.2 Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

A discrete-time sinusoidal signal may be expressed as
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(ωn + ∅ ), −∞ < 𝐧 < ∞
where n is an integer variable called the sample number. A is the amplitude of the
sinusoid. ω is the frequency in radians per sample. and ∅ is the phase in radians.
If instead of ω, we use the frequency variable f defined by
ω =2πf
the relation becomes
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠(2πfn + ∅ ), −∞ < 𝐧 < ∞
The frequency f has dimensions of cycles per sample
1
Figure shows a sinusoid with frequency ω = π /6 radians per sample (f = &
√12
cycles per sample) and phase ∅ = π/3.

In contrast to continuous-time sinusoids. the discrete-time sinusoids are

characterized by the following properties:

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2.1 DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

A discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of an independent variable that is an integer.
It is important to note that a discrete-time signal is not defined at instants between
two successive samples. Also, it is incorrect to think that x(n) is equal to zero if n is
not an integer. Simply, the signal x(n) is not defined for non-integer values of n.
REPRESENTATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
There are following four ways of representing discrete-time signals:
1. Graphical representation
2. Functional representation
3. Tabular representation
4. Sequence representation
1.2.1 Graphical Representation

Consider a single x (n) with values X (-2) = -3, x(-1) = 2, x(0) = 0, x(1) = 3, x(2) = 1
and x(3) = 2 This discrete-time single can be represented graphically as shown in
Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Graphical representation of a discrete-time signal.

Besides the graphical representation of a discrete-time signal or sequence
as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. there are some alternative representations that are
often more convenient to use. These are:

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2.1.1 Some Elementary Discrete-Time Signals

There are several elementary signals which play vital role in the study of signals and
systems. These elementary signals serve as basic building blocks for the construction
of more complex signals. In fact, these elementary signals may be used to model a
large number of physical signals, which occur in nature. These elementary signals are
also called standard signals.
The standard discrete-time signals are as follows:
1. Unit step sequence
2. Unit ramp sequence
3. Unit parabolic sequence
4. Unit impulse sequence
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5. Sinusoidal sequence
6. Real exponential sequence
7. Complex exponential sequence

Unit Step Sequence

The step sequence is an important signal used for analysis of many discrete-time
systems. It exists only for positive time and is zero for negative time. It is equivalent
to applying a signal whose amplitude suddenly changes and remains constant at the
sampling instants forever after application. In between the discrete instants it is zero.
If a step function has unity magnitude, then it is called unit step function.
The usefulness of the unit-step function lies in the fact that if we want a sequence to
start at n = 0, so that it may have a value of zero for n < 0, we only need to multiply
the given sequence with unit step function u (n).
The discrete-time unit step sequence u (n) is defined as:

The shifted version of the discrete-time unit step sequence u(n – k) is defined as:

It is zero if the argument (n – k) < 0 and equal to 1 if the argument (n – k)>0.

The graphical representation of u (n) and u (n – k) is shown in Figure 2.2 [(a) and (b)].

Figure 2.2 Discrete–time (a) Unit step function (b) Shifted unit step function

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Unit Ramp Sequence

The discrete-time unit ramp sequence r (n) is that sequence which starts at n = 0 and
increases linearly with time and is defined as:

or r(n) = nu(n)
It starts at n = 0 and increases linearly with n.
The shifted version of the discrete-time unit ramp sequence r(n – k) is defined as:

Or r(n – k) = (n – k) u(n – k)
The graphical representation of r(n) and r(n – 2) is shown in Figure 2.3[(a) and (b)].

Figure 2.3 Discrete–time (a) Unit ramp sequence (b) Shifted ramp sequence

Unit Impulse Function or Unit Sample Sequence

The discrete-time unit impulse function (n), also called unit sample sequence, is
defined as:

This means that the unit sample sequence is a signal that is zero everywhere, except
at n = 0, where its value is unity. It is the most widely used elementary signal used for
the analysis of signals and systems.
The shifted unit impulse function (n – k) is defined as:

The graphical representation of (n) and (n – k) is shown in Figure 2.4 [(a) and (b)].

Figure 2.4 Discrete–time (a) Unit sample sequence (b) Delayed unit sample sequence.

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Properties of discrete-time unit sample sequence

Sinusoidal Sequence
The discrete-time sinusoidal sequence is given by
X(n) = A sin (𝜔𝑛+ ∅)
Where A is the amplitude, is angular frequency, is phase angle in radians and n is an
integer.
The period of the discrete-time sinusoidal sequence is:
2π
N= 𝑚
ω
Where N and m are integers.
All continuous-time sinusoidal signals are periodic, but discrete-time sinusoidal
sequences may or may not be periodic depending on the value of.
For a discrete-time signal to be periodic, the angular frequency must be a rational
multiple of 2. The graphical representation of a discrete-time sinusoidal signal is
shown in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Discrete-time sinusoidal signal

Real Exponential Sequence
The discrete-time real exponential sequence an is defined as:
X(n) = 𝑎𝑛 for all n
Figure 2.6 illustrates different types of discrete-time exponential signals.
When a > 1, the sequence grows exponentially as shown in Figure 2.6(a).
When 0 < a < 1, the sequence decays exponentially as shown in Figure 2.6 (b).
When a < 0, the sequence takes alternating signs as shown in Figure 2.6 [(c) and d]

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Figure 2.6 Discrete-time exponential signal an for (a) a > 1 (b) 0 < a < 1 (c) a < -1
(d) -1 < a < 0.

Complex Exponential Sequence

When the parameter a is complex valued. it can be expressed as
a = r𝑒 𝑗𝜃
where r and 𝜃 are now the parameters. Hence, we can express x(n) as
x(n) = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑛
= 𝑟 𝑛 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑛 + 𝑗𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛)

For |a| = 1, the real and imaginary parts of complex exponential sequence are
sinusoidal.
For |a| > 1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence exponentially grows as shown
in Figure 2.7(a).
For |a| < 1, the amplitude of the sinusoidal sequence exponentially decays as
shown in Figure 2.7(b).

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Figure 2.7 complex exponential sequence x(n) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒 𝑗 (𝜔0𝑛+∅) for (a)a > 1 (b) a < 1.

BASIC OPERATIONS ON SEQUENCES

When we process a sequence, this sequence may undergo several manipulations
involving the independent variable or the amplitude of the signal.
The basic operations on sequences are as follows:
1. Time shifting
2. Time reversal
3. Time scaling
4. Amplitude scaling
5. Signal addition
6. Signal multiplication

The first three operations correspond to transformation in independent variable n of

a signal. The last three operations correspond to transformation on amplitude of a
signal.

Time Shifting
The time shifting of a signal may result in time delay or time advance. The time shifting
operation of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be represented by
y(n) = x(n – k)
This shows that the signal y (n) can be obtained by time shifting the signal x(n) by k
units. If k is positive, it is delay and the shift is to the right, and if k is negative, it is
advance and the shift is to the left.

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An arbitrary signal x(n) is shown in Figure 2.8(a). x(n – 3) which is obtained by shifting
x(n) to the right by 3 units (i.e. delay x(n) by 3 units) is shown in Figure 2.8(b). x(n +
2) which is obtained by shifting x(n) to the left by 2 units (i.e. advancing x(n) by 2
units) is shown in Figure 2.8(c).

Figure 2.8 (a) Sequence x(n) (b) x(n – 3) (c) x(n + 2)

Time Reversal

The time reversal also called time folding of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be obtained
by folding the sequence about n = 0. The time reversed signal is the reflection of the
original signal. It is obtained by replacing the independent variable n by –n. Figure
2.9(a) shows an arbitrary discrete-time signal x(n), and its time reversed version x(–n)
is shown in Figure 2.9(b).

Figure 2.9 (a) Original signal x(n) (b) Time reversed signal x(-n) (c) Time reversed and
delayed signal x(-n+3) (d) Time reversed and advanced signal x(-n-3).
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Figure 2.9[(c)&(d)] shows the delayed and advanced versions of reversed signal x(–n).
The signal x(–n + 3) is obtained by delaying (shifting to the right) the time reversed
signal x(–n) by 3 units of time. The signal x(–n – 3) is obtained by advancing (shifting
to the left) the time reversed signal x(–n) by 3 units of time.

Figure 2.10 shows other examples for time reversal of signals

Figure 2.10 Time reversal operations.

Amplitude Scaling
The amplitude scaling of a discrete-time signal can be represented by
y(n) = ax(n)
where a is a constant.
The amplitude of y(n) at any instant is equal to a times the amplitude of x(n) at that
instant. If a > 1, it is amplification and if a < 1, it is attenuation. Hence the amplitude
is rescaled. Hence the name amplitude scaling.
Figure 2.11(a) shows a signal x(n) and Figure 2.11(b) shows a scaled signal y(n) =
2x(n).

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Time Scaling
Time scaling may be time expansion or time compression. The time scaling of a
discrete- time signal x(n) can be accomplished by replacing n by an in it.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

y(n) = x(an)

When a > 1, it is time compression and when a < 1, it is time expansion.

Let x(n) be a sequence as shown in Figure 2.12(a). If a = 2, y(n) = x(2n). Then

y(0) = x(0) = 1
y(–1) = x(–2) = 3
y(–2) = x(–4) = 0
y(1) = x(2) = 3
y(2) = x(4) = 0
and so on.
So to plot x(2n) we have to skip odd numbered samples in x(n).

We can plot the time scaled signal y(n) = x(2n) as shown in Figure 2.12(b). Here the
signal is compressed by 2.

If a = (1/2), y(n) = x(n/2), then

y(0) = x(0) = 1
y(2) = x(1) = 2
y(4) = x(2) = 3
y(6) = x(3) = 4
y(8) = x(4) = 0
y(–2) = x(–1) = 2
y(–4) = x(–2) = 3
y(–6) = x(–3) = 4
y(–8) = x(– 4) = 0

We can plot y(n) = x(n/2) as shown in Figure 1.16(c). Here the signal is expanded by
2. All odd components in x(n/2) are zero because x(n) does not have any value in
between the sampling instants.

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Figure 2.12 Discrete–time scaling (a) Plot of x(n) (b) Plot of x(2n) (c) Plot of x(n/2)
Time scaling is very useful when data is to be fed at some rate and is to be taken out
at a different rate.

Signal Addition
In discrete-time domain, the sum of two signals x1(n) and x2(n) can be obtained by
adding the corresponding sample values and the subtraction of x2(n) from x1(n) can
be obtained by subtracting each sample of x2(n) from the corresponding sample of
x1(n) as illustrated below.
If x1(n) = {1, 2, 3, 1, 5} and x2(n) = {2, 3, 4, 1, –2}
Then x1(n) + x2(n) = {1 + 2, 2 + 3, 3 + 4, 1 + 1, 5 – 2} = {3, 5, 7, 2, 3}
and x1(n) – x2(n) = {1 – 2, 2 – 3, 3 – 4, 1 – 1, 5 + 2} = {–1, –1, –1, 0, 7}

Signal multiplication
The multiplication of two discrete-time sequences can be performed by multiplying
their values at the sampling instants as shown below.
If x1(n) = {1, –3, 2, 4, 1.5} and x2(n) = {2, –1, 3, 1.5, 2}
Then x1 (n) x2 (n) = {1 × 2,- 3 ×-1, 2 × 3, 4 × 1.5, 1.5 × 2}
= {2, 3, 6, 6, 3}

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CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

The signals can be classified based on their nature and characteristics in the time
domain. They are broadly classified as: (i) continuous-time signals and (ii) discrete-
time signals.
The signals that are defined for every instant of time are known as continuous-time
signals. The continuous-time signals are also called analog signals. They are denoted
by x (t). They are continuous in amplitude as well as in time. Most of the signals
available are continuous-time signals.
The signals that are defined only at discrete instants of time are known as discrete-
time signals. The discrete-time signals are continuous in amplitude, but discrete in
time. For discrete- time signals, the amplitude between two time instants is just not
defined. For discrete-time signals, the independent variable is time n. Since they are
defined only at discrete instants of time, they are denoted by a sequence x (nT) or
simply by x(n) where n is an integer.
Figure 2.13 shows the graphical representation of discrete-time signals. The discrete-
time signals may be inherently discrete or may be discrete versions of the continuous-
time signals.

Figure 2.13 Discrete-time signals

Both continuous-time and discrete-time signals are further classified as follows:

1. Deterministic and random signals

2. Periodic and non-periodic signals
3. Energy and power signals
4. Causal and non-causal signals
5. Even and odd signals

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Deterministic and Random Signals

A signal exhibiting no uncertainty of its magnitude and phase at any given instant of
time is called deterministic signal. A deterministic signal can be completely represented
by mathematical equation at any time and its nature and amplitude at any time can be
predicted.
Examples: Sinusoidal sequence x(n) = cos n, Exponential sequence x(n) = 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 ramp
sequence x(n) = n.
A signal characterized by uncertainty about its occurrence is called a non-deterministic
or random signal. A random signal cannot be represented by any mathematical
equation. The behavior of such a signal is probabilistic in nature and can be analyzed
only stochastically. The pattern of such a signal is quite irregular. Its amplitude and
phase at any time instant cannot be predicted in advance. A typical example of a non-
deterministic signal is thermal noise.

Periodic and Non-periodic Signals

A signal which has a definite pattern and repeats itself at regular intervals of time is
called a periodic
signal, and a signal which does not repeat at regular intervals of time is called a non-
periodic or
aperiodic signal.
A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition
x(n) = x(n + N) for all integers n.
The smallest value of N which satisfies the above condition is known as fundamental
period. If the above condition is not satisfied even for one value of n, then the
discrete-time signal is aperiodic. Sometimes aperiodic signals are said to have a period
equal to infinity.
The angular frequency is given by
2𝜋
𝜔=
𝑁
2𝜋
Fundamental period N =
ω
The sum of two discrete-time periodic sequence is always periodic.

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Figure 2.14 Example of discrete-time: (a) Periodic and (b) non-periodic signals

Problem Show that the complex exponential sequence x(n) =𝑒 𝑗𝜔0 𝑛 is periodic.

Energy Signals and Power Signals

Signals may also be classified as energy signals and power signals. However, there are
some signals which can neither be classified as energy signals nor power signals.
The total energy E of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as:

and the average power P of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as:

A signal is said to be an energy signal if and only if its total energy E over the interval
(– ∞, ∞) is finite (i.e., 0 < E < ∞). For an energy signal, average power P = 0. Non-
periodic signals which are defined over a finite time (also called time limited signals)
are the examples of energy signals. Since the energy of a periodic signal is always either
zero or infinite, any periodic signal cannot be an energy signal.

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A signal is said to be a power signal, if its average power P is finite (i.e., 0 < P < ∞).
For a power signal, total energy E = ∞. Periodic signals are the examples of power
signals. Every bounded and periodic signal is a power signal. But it is true that a power
signal is not necessarily a bounded and periodic signal.

Both energy and power signals are mutually exclusive, i.e. no signal can be both energy
signal and power signal.

The signals that do not satisfy the above properties are neither energy signals nor
power signals. For example, x(n) = u(n), x(n) = nu(n), x(n) = n2 u(n).
These are signals for which neither P nor E are finite. If the signals contain infinite
energy and zero power or infinite energy and infinite power, they are neither energy
nor power signals.
If the signal amplitude becomes zero as |n| → ∞, it is an energy signal, and if the
signal amplitude does not become zero as |n| → ∞, it is a power signal.

Causal and Non-causal Signals

A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be causal if x(n) = 0 for n < 0, otherwise the
signal is non-causal.
A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be anti-causal if x(n) = 0 for n > 0.

A causal signal does not exist for negative time and an anti-causal signal does not exist
for positive time.
A signal which exists in positive as well as negative time is called a non-casual signal.
u(n) is a causal signal and u(– n) an anti-causal signal, whereas x(n) = 1 for – 2 ≤ n ≤
3 is a non-causal signal.

Even and Odd Signals

Any signal x(n) can be expressed as sum of even and odd components. That is
x(n) = 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) + 𝑥𝑜 (𝑛)
where 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) is even components and 𝑥𝑜 (𝑛) is odd components of the signal.

Even (Symmetric) signal

A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an even (symmetric) signal if it satisfies the

condition:
x(n) = x(–n) for all n
Even signals are symmetrical about the vertical axis or time origin. Hence, they are
also called symmetric signals: cosine sequence is an example of an even signal. Some

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even signals are shown in Figure 2.15 (a). An even signal is identical to its reflection
about the origin. For an even signal 𝑥𝑜 (𝑛)= 0.

Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal

A discrete-time signal x(n) is said to be an odd (anti-symmetric) signal if it satisfies the
condition:
x(–n) = –x(n) for all n
Odd signals are anti-symmetrical about the vertical axis. Hence, they are called anti-
symmetric signals. Sinusoidal sequence is an example of an odd signal. For an odd
signal 𝑥𝑒 (𝑛) = 0. Some odd signals are shown in Figure 2.15 (b).

Figure 2.15 Example of even (a) and odd (b) signals.

Thus, the product of two even signals or of two odd signals is an even signal, and the
product of even and odd signals is an odd signal.

Every signal need not be either purely even signal or purely odd signal, but
every signal can be decomposed into sum of even and odd parts.

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Block Diagram Representation of Discrete-Time Systems

Let us define some basic building blocks that can be interconnected to form complex
systems and forms the block diagram of discrete time systems.

An adder- Figure 2.16 illustrates a system (adder) that performs the addition of two
signal sequences to form another (the sum) sequence, which we denote as y(n). Note
that it is not necessary to store either one of the sequences in order to perform the
addition. In other words, the addition operation is memoryless.

Figure 2.16 Graphical representation of an adder.

A constant multiplier- This operation is depicted by Fig. 2.17, and simply

represents applying a scale factor on the input x(n). Note that this operation is also
memoryless.

Figure 2.17 Graphical representation of a constant multiplier.

A signal multiplier. - Figure 2.18 illustrates the multiplication of two signal sequences
to form another (the product) sequence, denoted in the figure as y(n). As in the
preceding two cases, we can view the multiplication operation as memoryless.

Figure 2.18 Graphical representation x(n) of a signal multiplier.

A unit delay element. The unit delay is a special system that simply delays the signal
passing through it by one sample. Figure 2.19 illustrates such a system. If the input
signal is x(n), the output is x (n - 1). In fact, the sample x (n- 1) is stored in memory
at time n - 1 and it is recalled from memory at time n to form
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
Thus, this basic building block requires memory. The use of the symbol, 𝜏 −1 to
denote the unit of delay.
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Figure 2.19 Graphical representation of the unit delay element

A unit advance element. In contrast to the unit delay. a unit advance moves the
input x(n) ahead by one sample in time to yield x (n + 1). Figure 2.20 illustrates this
operation, with the operator: being used to denote the unit advance.

Figure 2.20 Graphical representation of the unit advance element

CLASSIFICATION OF DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS

A system is defined as an entity that acts on an input signal and transforms it into an
output signal. A system may also be defined as a set of elements or functional blocks
which are connected together and produces an output in response to an input signal.
The response or output of the system depends on the transfer function of the system.
It is a cause-and-effect relation between two or more signals.
As signals, systems are also broadly classified into continuous-time and discrete-time
systems. A continuous-time system is one which transforms continuous-time input
signals into continuous-time output signals, whereas a discrete-time system is one
which transforms discrete-time input signals into discrete-time output signals.
For example, microprocessors, semiconductor memories, shift registers, etc. are
discrete- time systems.
A discrete-time system is represented by a block diagram as shown in Figure 2.21. An
arrow entering the box is the input signal (also called excitation, source or driving
function) and an arrow leaving the box is an output signal (also called response).
Generally, the input is denoted by x(n) and the output is denoted by y(n).

The relation between the input x(n) and the output y(n) of a system has the form:
y(n) = Operation on x(n)
Mathematically,
y(n) = T[x(n)]
which represents that x(n) is transformed to y(n). In other words, y(n) is the
transformed version of x(n).

Figure 2.21 Block diagram of discrete–time system.

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Both continuous-time and discrete-time systems are further classified as follows:

1. Static (memoryless) and dynamic (memory) systems
2. Causal and non-causal systems
3. Linear and non-linear systems
4. Time-invariant and time varying systems
5. Stable and unstable systems.
6. Invertible and non-invertible systems

Static and Dynamic Systems

A system is said to be static or memoryless if the response is due to present input
alone, i.e., for a static or memoryless system, the output at any instant n depends only
on the input applied at that instant n but not on the past or future values of input or
past values of output.
For example, the systems defined below are static or memoryless systems.
y(n) = x(n)
y(n) = 2x2(n)
In contrast, a system is said to be dynamic or memory system if the response depends
upon past or future inputs or past outputs. A summer or accumulator, a delay element
is a discrete- time system with memory.
For example, the systems defined below are dynamic or memory systems.
y(n) = x(2n)
y(n) = x(n) + x(n – 2)
y(n) + 4y(n – 1) + 4y(n – 2) = x(n)
Any discrete-time system described by a difference equation is a dynamic system.
A purely resistive electrical circuit is a static system, whereas an electric circuit having
inductors and/or capacitors is a dynamic system.

A discrete-time LTI system is memoryless (static) if its impulse response h(n) is zero
for n<0. If the impulse response is not identically zero for n>0, then the system is
called dynamic system or system with memory.
Problem Find whether the following systems are dynamic or not:
(a) y(n) = x(n + 2) (b) y(n) = x2(n)
(c) y(n) = x (n – 2) + x(n)
Solution:
(a) Given y(n) = x (n + 2)
The output depends on the future value of input. Therefore, the system is dynamic.
(b) Given y(n) = 𝑥 2 (n)
The output depends on the present value of input alone. Therefore, the system is
static.
(c) Given y(n) = x (n – 2) + x(n)
The system is described by a difference equation. Therefore, the system is dynamic.
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Causal and Non-causal Systems

A system is said to be causal (or non-anticipative) if the output of the system at any
instant n depends only on the present and past values of the input but not on future
inputs, i.e., for a causal system, the impulse response or output does not begin before
the input function is applied, i.e., a causal system is non anticipatory.
Causal systems are real time systems. They are physically realizable.
The impulse response of a causal system is zero for n < 0,
since (n) exists only at n = 0,
i.e. h(n) = 0 for n < 0
The examples for causal systems are:
y(n) = nx(n)
y(n) = x(n – 2) + x(n – 1) + x(n)
A system is said to be non-causal (anticipative) if the output of the system at any
instant n depends on future inputs. They are anticipatory systems. They produce an
output even before the input is given. They do not exist in real time. They are not
physically realizable.
A delay element is a causal system, whereas an image processing system is a non-causal
system.
The examples for non-causal systems are:
y(n) = x(n) + x(2n)
y(n) = 𝑥 2 (n) + 2x(n + 2)

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Problem Check whether the following systems are causal or not:

(a) y(n) x(n) x(n 2) (b) y(n) = x(2n)
(c) y(n) = sin[x(n)] (d) y(n) = x(–n)

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Linear and Non-linear Systems

A system which obeys the principle of superposition and principle of homogeneity is
called a linear system and a system which does not obey the principle of superposition
and homogeneity is called a non-linear system.

Homogeneity property means a system which produces an output y(n) for an input
x(n) must produce an output ay(n) for an input ax(n).
Superposition property means a system which produces an output y1(n) for an input
x1(n) and an output y2(n) for an input x2(n) must produce an output y1(n) + y2(n) for
an input x1(n) + x2(n).
Combining them we can say that a system is linear if an arbitrary input 𝑥1 (𝑛)
produces an output 𝑦1 (𝑛) and an arbitrary input 𝑥2 (𝑛) produces an output 𝑦2 (𝑛),
then the weighted sum of inputs a𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑛) where a and b are constants
produces an output 𝑎𝑦1 (𝑛) + 𝑏𝑦2 (𝑛)) which is the sum of weighted outputs.

𝑻(𝐚𝒙𝟏 (𝒏) + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 (𝒏)] = 𝒂𝑻[𝒙𝟏 (𝒏)] + 𝒃𝑻[𝒙𝟐 (𝒏)]

Simply we can say that a system is linear if the output due to weighted sum of inputs
is equal to the weighted sum of outputs.
In general, if the describing equation contains square or higher order terms of input
and/or output and/or product of input/output and its difference or a constant, the
system will definitely be non-linear.

Time-invariant and Time-variant Systems

Time-invariance is the property of a system which makes the behaviour of the system
independent of time. This means that the behaviour of the system does not depend
on the time at which the input is applied. For discrete-time systems, the time
invariance property is called shift invariance.
A system is said to be shift-invariant if its input/output characteristics do not change
with time, i.e., if a time shift in the input results in a corresponding time shift in the
output as shown in Figure 1.23, i.e.
If T[x(n)] = y(n)
Then T[x(n – k)] = y(n – k)

A system not satisfying the above requirements is called a time-variant system (or
shift- variant system). A time-invariant system is also called a fixed system.
The time-invariance property of the given discrete-time system can be tested as
follows:
Let x(n) be the input and let x(n – k) be the input delayed by k units.
y(n) = T[x(n)] be the output for the input x(n).

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Stable and Unstable Systems

A bounded signal is a signal whose magnitude is always a finite value, i.e.
x (n) ≤ M , where
M is a positive real finite number. For example, a sinewave is a bounded signal. A
system is said to be bounded-input, bounded-output (BIBO) stable, if and only if
every bounded input produces a bounded output. The output of such a system does
not diverge or does not grow unreasonably large.
Let the input signal x(n) be bounded (finite), i.e.,
|𝑥 (𝑛) | ≤ 𝑀𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛
where Mx is a positive real number. If
|𝑦 (𝑛) | ≤ 𝑀𝑦 ≤ ∞
i.e. if the output y(n) is also bounded, then the system is BIBO stable.
Otherwise, the system is unstable. That is, we say that a system is unstable even if one
bounded input produces an unbounded output.
It is very important to know about the stability of the system. Stability indicates the
usefulness of the system. The stability can be found from the impulse response of the
system which is nothing but the output of the system for a unit impulse input. If the
impulse response is absolutely summable for a discrete-time system, then the system
is stable.

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