CURRENT ELECTRICITY

CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CONTENT
• Electric Current
• The Cell
• Joule’s Law Of Heating
• Electric Power
• Chemical Effect Of Electric Current
• Domestic Electrification
• Lightning Appliance
• Potential Energy
• Law Of Thermodynamics
• Circuits
• Electrical Resistance
• Ohm’s Law
• Resistivity Of Various Materials
• Resistance In Series And Parallel
• Measuring Current
• Measuring Voltage
• Three Circuit Law
• Direct Current Vs Alternating Current
• Magnetic Effect Of A Current
• Uses Of Electromagnets
• Domestic Electric Installation
• Domestic Electric Installation (Parts)
• Electric Light
• Working Of Some Electronic Devices
• Cost Of Electricity

ELECTRIC CURRENT
• An electric current whose magnitude and direction do not change with time is calleddirect current,
and whose magnitude changes continuously and direction changes periodically is called
alternating current.
• Inverter is a device which converts DC to AC.
• In solid conductors, electric current flows due to flow of electrons, in liquids due to flowof ions as
well as electrons and in semiconductors due to flow of electrons and holes.
• Its S.I. unit is Ampere ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS
• In other materials, notably metals, some of the electrons are practically free to move within the
bulk material. These materials, generally called conductors, develop electriccurrents in them when
an electric field is applied.

IN SOLID CONDUCTORS
(a) When no electric field is present- The number of electrons travelling in any direction willbe equal
to the number of electrons travelling in the opposite direction. So, there will be no net electric
current.
(b) If an electric field is applied- An electric field will be created and is directed from thepositive
towards the negative charge.
They will thus move to neutralize the charges. The electrons, as long as they are moving,will constitute
an electric current.

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THE CELL
• The cell stores chemical energy and transfers it to electrical energy when a circuit isconnected.
• When two or more cells are connected together. we called this a Battery.
• The cells chemical energy is used up pushing a current round a circuit.
• Electric cell are of two types
o Primary cell cannot be charged. Voltaic, Daniell and Leclanche cells are primary cells.
o Secondary cell can be charged again and again. Acid and alkali accumulators aresecondary
cells. Working of electric cells is based on chemical effect of electric current.

ELECTRIC CELL
• Cells are of two types viz. primary and
secondary.
o Examples of primary cells include torches,
radios, etc.
• The constituents of a dry cell are a negative
electrode, a positive electrode and an
electrolyte.
• The negative electrode is made with zincas it is
the outer shell of the cell.
• A carbon rod surrounded by a mixture ofcarbon
and manganese dioxide acts as the positive
electrode.
• The electrolyte is a mixture of ammonium
chloride and zinc chloride inthe form of a paste.
• A dry cell produces about 1.5 volt.
• Lead cells which are used for ignition and
lighting on motor car are secondary cells.
• Secondary cells are used as storage cells or accumulators. Due to their low internalresistance,
secondary cells are capable of giving large currents.
• They can be recharged after they discharged. They are used in emergency lights inhospitals and
other buildings.
• Count Alessandro Volta made the first battery.
• The first practical primary cell (non-rechargeable) was produced by John FredericDaniell using zinc
and copper electrodes.
• This was followed by the first secondary (rechargeable) cell invented by Gaston Plante .
• This cell, based upon the use of lead and sulfuric acid, is still employed as the carbattery.
• The Leclanche ‘Dry’ Cell was developed into the modern ordinary torch battery. It has azinc case
and a carbon electrode down its centre.
• Michael Faraday confirmed his hypothesis that magnetism could produce electricity when he
found that a magnet moving in a coil of wire induced a current in the wire when the wire was
present in an electric circuit.
• These discoveries soon led to the electric motor and to the dynamo, a device for generating
electricity by spinning a coil of wire between the poles of a suitably shapedmagnet.
• James Clerk Maxwell predicted that by using oscillating electric currents it should bepossible to
generate electromagnetic waves which travel at the speed of light.
• Heinrich Hertz produced such waves, which were soon used for wireless transmissions.

CAR BATTERY
• In a car battery, there is a combinationof 6 lead-acid secondary cells each with 2.04 volts.
• These cells use lead plates as electrodes and sulphuric acid as theelectrolyte.

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• The car battery provides large currentsfor a

short time as large currents are required to
start the engine.
• After engine started, the alternatorprovides
power to the car.

EMF OF A CELL
• The work done by the cell to bring a
(+)ve charge from its own terminal to the other
is known as its emf (electromotive force).
Electromotive force is work but not a force.

JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING

• Current can produce three effects: heating effect, magnetic effect and chemical effect.
• Electric bulb, electric kettle, heater etc., devices work on the basis of heating effect ofelectric
current.
• To protect the domestic appliances from sudden change in electricity, fuses are used. Itis made of
tin, lead, alloy (63% + 37%).
• It should have high resistance and low melting point always connected in series.

ELECTRIC POWER
• The electrical energy produced or consumed per unit time is called electric power.
• Electric power, P = VI = 𝐼2𝑅 =𝑉2/ 𝑅 ( V= IR )
• 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J

CHEMICAL EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

• When an electric current is passed through an acidic or basic solution, it decomposes into its
positive and negative ions. The positive ions collect at negative electrode (cathode) and the
negative ions collect at positive electrode (anode).
• This phenomenon is called electrolysis. It is chemical effect of current. The process ofcoating of a
base metal with a layer of more expensive metal, is called electroplating.

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DOMESTIC ELECTRIFICATION
• From the distribution, the two terminals are supplied
to the houses named as live and neutral (neutral is
earthed at local substation). The third terminal is
introduced as the earth forthe safety in the building.

LIGHTNING APPLIANCE
• The electric discharge occurring between two
charged clouds or between a charged cloud and earth
can damage the houses or buildings. To protect this
lightning conductors are used.

POTENTIAL ENERGY
• The energy of a body due to its position or change in shape is known as potentialenergy.
• P.E = MGH
o Where, M = mass of the body
o G= acceleration due to gravity
o H= height of the body above a reference point

POTENTIAL ENERGY CHANGES TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed by a chemical reaction.
• It can only change forms.

CIRCUITS
SIMPLE CIRCUITS
• It has a cell, a lamp and a switch.
• When the switch is closed, the lamplights
up. This is because there is a continuous
path of metal for the electric current to flow
around.

POWER
• It is the rate at which energy is transferred

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or transformed. It ismeasured in Watt (W).

• Ex- Most of the appliances at our home are rated in Watt or Joule per second.
• Power = Work done/Time takenMEASURING POWER
• Power is equal to the current times the potential difference.
P=IV
Q.If the current through the motor is 3.0 and the potential difference is 120v. What is themotor’s
power?
• Solution: Power = Current × Potential Difference
= 3 C/s × 120 J/C
= 360 J/s = 360 W

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
• The resistance to the flow of electricalcharges.
• Resistance is directly proportional to the length
and temperature, inversely proportional to area.
(whereas, rho is theresistivity of the substance or
material)

OHM’S LAW
• The potential difference, v, across the ends of a
given metallic wire in an electric circuitis directly proportional to the current flowing through it,
provided its temperature
remains the same. This is called ohm’s law. In other words –
• V 𝖺 I (12.4) or V/I = constant = R or V = IR
• For many conductors, current depends on :
• VOLTAGE - Current is directly proportional to Voltage.
• RESISTANCE - Current is indirectly proportional to resistance, the more is the resistance,the less
is the current. It is denoted by Ω (ohms). It is also defined as the ratio of potential difference to
current.
• Conductors such as a metallic wire offer some obstruction when electric current flows through it.
This character of conductors to offer obstruction is called its electrical resistance. The resistance
(R) of a wire of a given material depends on its length (l) andarea of cross-section (a).
• R= ρ (l/a); ρ is a constant called the resistivity of the material of the wire.
• With increasing temperature, resistivity of a good conductor increases whereas resistivity of a
semiconductor decreases.

VARIABLE RESISTANCE
• A component used to regulate current without changing the voltage source is called variable
resistance.

RHEOSTAT
• It is often used to change the resistance in the circuit.

RESISTIVITY OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

• Resistivity of a material depends on the temperature and nature of the material depends on
temperature and nature of the material.
• It is independent of dimensions of the conductor, i.e., length, area of cross-section etc.
• Resistivity of metals increases with increase in temperature.
• The materials are classified as conductors, semiconductors and insulators depending on their
resistivities, in an increasing order of their values.

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• Metals have low resistivities in the range of 10−8Ω to 10−6Ω.

• At the other end are insulators like ceramic, rubber and plastics having resistivities 1018times
greater than metals or more.
• In between the two are the semiconductors. These, however, have resistivitiescharacteristically
decreasing with a rise in temperature.
• The resistivities of semiconductors are also affected by presence of small amount of impurities.
This last feature is exploited in use of semiconductors for electronic devices.
• Commercially produced resistors for domestic use or in laboratories are of two majortypes : wire
bound resistors and carbon resistors.

• Wire bound resistors are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz., manganin, constantan,
nichrome or similar ones.
• The choice of these materials is dictated
mostly by the fact that their resistivities are
relatively insensitive to temperature.
• These resistances are typically in the range of
a fraction of an ohm to a fewhundred ohms.
• Resistors in the higher range are mademostly
from carbon.
• Carbon resistors are compact, inexpensive
and thus find extensive use in electronic
circuits. Carbon resistors are small in size and
hence their values are given using a colour
code.
• The resistivities of semiconductors decrease
with increasing temperatures.

RESISTANCE IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

RESISTANCE IN SERIES
• In series connection, voltage changes while the current
remains the same.
• R = R1 +R2 + R3 RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL
• In parallel connection, voltage remain same while the
current changes.
• 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +… 1/Rn
• Q) A 30V battery is connected to a circuit with a current of 10A. What is the resistancein this set
up?
• Solution: R= 30V/10A = 3 V/A OR 3Ω

SERIES CIRCUITS
• In series circuits, current can only take one path.
• The amount of current is the same at all points
in a series circuit.

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PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• The current can take more than one path.Because there are multiple branches, the current is not
the same at all points in a parallel circuit.
• If one bulb ‘blows’ there is still be a complete circuit to the bulb so it staysalight.

MEASURING CURRENT
• Electric current is measured in Ampere (A) using an ammeter connected in series in thecircuit.

MEASURING VOLTAGE
• The ‘electrical push’ which the cell gives to the current is called the voltage. It is measured in Volts
(V) on a voltmeter. Different cells produce different voltages. The bigger the voltage supplied by
the cell, the bigger the current. In series circuit, voltagegets divided.
VT= V1+V2+ V3 +…VN
• While in parallel, it is same at all point.
VT= V1=V2= V3 =…VN
• Unlike an ammeter, a voltmeter is connected across the components.
• Scientist, usually use the term potential difference, when they talk about voltage.
THREE CIRCUIT LAW
• It contains 3 laws:-
o OHM’s Law
o Kirchhoff’s Current Law: The total current into a junction equals the total currentout of the
junction.
o Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The total voltage drop (or gain) around any loop of a circuitis zero.

DIRECT CURRENT VS ALTERNATING CURRENT

DIRECT CURRENT
• If the voltage is maintained between two points in a circuit, charge will flow in one direction –
from high to low potential. (Ex- Battery-powered circuits, Electrified railwaylines)

ALTERNATING CURRENT
• If the high and low voltage terminals switch locations periodically, the current will flow“back and
forth” in the circuit. (Ex - Circuits powered by electrical outlets, domestic electricity)

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CONVERTING AC TO DC
• AC is converted to dc using devices called DIODES, which
allow charges to move in only one direction.

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF A CURRENT

• In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted accidently
discovered that a compass needle deflectedwhen
the current was switched on.
• Magnetic Field Around A Wire CarryingCurrent
o A current carrying straight conductor has
magnetic field in the form of concentric
circles around it. Magnetic field of current
carrying straight conductor can be shown by
magnetic field lines.
• The direction of magnetic field through a current
carrying conductor depends upon the direction of flow of electric current. The direction of
magnetic field gets reversed in caseof a change in the direction of electric current.
• Let a current carrying conductor be suspended vertically and the electric current is flowing from
south to north. In this case, the direction of magnetic field will be anticlockwise. If the current is
flowing from north to south, the direction of magneticfield will be clockwise.
• The magnetic field of a long, straight current-carrying wire is stronger:
• When it is closer to the wire, or When a larger current flows through the wire.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS
• An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which themagnetic field
is produced by an electric current.
• Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into acoil.
• A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is
concentrated in the hole in the center of thecoil.
• The magnetic field disappears when the current isturned off.

• The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic core made
from a ferromagnetic orferrimagnetic material such as iron; the
magnetic core concentrates the magnetic flux and makes a more
powerful magnet.

ELECTRIC BELL
• The electromagnet forms the core of the
electric bell. When the bell button is pressed,
the circuit is closed and current flows. The
electromagnet becomes magnetized,
attracting the soft iron ammature and the
hammer strikes the gong.
• However, the circuit will break and the
electromagnet loses its magnetism and the
springy metal strip pull back the armature
and the circuit is closed again. The process
repeats.

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)

• A popular method of medical imaging that

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provides views of tissues in the body. It is a huge scanner containing a solenoid made of
superconductors.

DOMESTIC ELECTRIC INSTALLATION

• Electricity is supplied to houses by using two cables, the “live” cable and the “neutral”cable.
• A third cable is also used for safety purposes. It is called the “earth” and is connected tothe earth
terminal provided in the building.
• From the meter installed in a house, connections are made to the distribution boardthrough a
main fuse and a main switch.

FUSE
• A fuse is a short piece of wire that has a low
melting point.
• It is generally made of a tin-lead alloy.
• Fuse melts and breaks whenever there is
short circuiting, overloading, voltage
fluctuation, etc. This will protect the electrical
appliances and also prevents fire accidents.
Fuses are always connected in the live wire.
Nowadays, miniature circuitbreakers (M CBs)
are replacing fuses.
• A circuit breaker automatically protects an
electrical circuit from damage caused by
overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, a
circuit breaker need not be replaced. It needs
to be reset manually to resume normal operation.

DOMESTIC ELECTRIC INSTALLATION(PARTS)

EARTH
• The earth wire is used for safeguarding of
electrical appliances against shocks.

FLEXIBLE CABLES
• All electrical appliances comes with three-
core flexible cables.
• The cables insulations are coloured red or
brown (for live connection), black or light
blue (for neutral connection), and green or
yellow (for earth connection).

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PLUGS, SOCKETS AND SWITCHES

• In a three pin plug, one pin is longer and thicker,
and the other two are similar. The longer pin is
used for earthing and it is connected to the
green wire of the appliance. The otherpins are
connected to the red (or brown) and the black
(or blue) wires.
• As the earth pin is longer, an applianceis always
first earthed before it is connected to the live
circuit.
• In a socket, the lower right hole is used for the
live connection and the left hole is for the
neutral connection, and the top bigger hole is for the earth.
• All switches in a house are connected to the live wires. If they are connected in theneutral wire,
the sockets would remain live even if the switches are in offposition.

ELECTRIC LIGHT
INCANDESCENT LAMP OR FILAMENT LAMP
• In electric lamps, electrical energy isconverted to light energy.
• In electric lamps, a tungsten filament isconnected between two lead-in wires.
• The tungsten filament is heated with passage of current and emits light. The reason for use of
tungsten is it has a high meltingpoint of 3,400°C.
• The electric lamp also contains a small quantity of argon (an inert gas) to preventevaporation of
tungsten. Air is not used as it would oxidise the tungsten.

FLUORESCENT TUBES

• A fluorescent tube consists of mercury vapours at low

pressure. When electricity flows through the tube, the
mercury vapours emit invisible ultraviolet rays. These
ultraviolet rays fall on the fluorescent coating on the
inside of the tube and emit visible light. In a fluorescent
tube very little heat is produced, so almost all the
electrical energy is converted to light energy. The
fluorescent tubes are cheaper and efficient.

COMPACT FLUORESCENT LAMPS

• In incandescent light bulbs, lot of electricity is wasted in
the form of heat. A CFL (compact fluorescent lamp) is a
miniature fluorescent tube that works 4 to 6 times more
efficient than an incandescent bulb. A 15W fluorescent
bulb can produce the same amount of light as a 60W

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incandescent bulb. Mercury used in the fluorescent lamps is a hazardoussubstance. Most light
sources including fluorescent bulbs emit a small amount of UV, but it is far lessthan the amount
produced by natural daylight.

COST OF ELECTRICITY
• Electricity consumption is measured in the unit kWh. From the power rating of electrical
appliances, we can calculate the
consumption of electrical energy. By
knowing the rate per unit, one can work
out the cost ofconsumption.

WORKING OF SOME ELECTRONICDEVICES

TV REMOTE CONTROL
• A TV or music system remote control
contains a chip (an integrated circuit) and
other components, such as a diode, a
transistor, capacitor, etc. When a key is
pressed, remote control translates it into
infra-red signals which are received by the
electronic circuit in the TV, and the desired
operation is performed.

CORDLESS PHONE
• Cordless phones are directly plugged into
an existing telephone socket that essentially
serves as a wireless
extension to the existing phone wiring.A cordless
phone has two parts viz. a base unit and a hand
set. The hand setcan communicate with a number
of frequencies (channels) in the 46-48 MHz bands.
Based on the quality, a cordless phone can permit
mobility (range) up to 100 m.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES & ELECTROMAGNETICSPECTRUM

CONTENT
• Oscillation And Waves
• Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
• Simple Pendulum
• Damped Harmonic Motion
• Resonant Oscillations
• Waves
• Types Of Waves
• Other Types Of Waves
• Electromagnetic Radiation
• Features Of Waves
• Electromagnetic Spectrum

OSCILLATION AND WAVES PERIODIC MOTION

• A motion which repeats itself identically after a fixed interval of time, is called a periodicmotion.
• EXAMPLE:
o Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of the earth around the sun, motion of asimple
pendulum etc.
• OSCILLATORY MOTION
• A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back and forth about a fixed point is calledoscillatory
motion.
• EXAMPLE:
o Motion of a simple pendulum.
o Motion of a loaded spring etc.
• If a particle oscillates with its own natural frequency without help of any externalperiodic force.
The oscillation is then called damped oscillation.
• When a body oscillates with the help of an external periodic force with a frequency different from
natural frequency of the body, then oscillation is called forced oscillation.

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM)

• An oscillatory motion of constant amplitude and of single frequency under a restoringforce, whose
magnitude is proportional to the displacement and always acts towards mean position, is called
Simple Harmonic Motion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SHM
• When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean position:
1. No force acts on the particle.
2. Acceleration of the particle is zero.
3. Velocity is maximum.
4. Kinetic energy is maximum.
5. Potential energy is zero.
• When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, then:
1. Acceleration of the particle is maximum.

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2. Restoring force acting on particle is maximum.

3. Velocity of particle is zero.
4. Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
5. Potential energy is maximum.

SIMPLE PENDULUM
• A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of an elastic inextensiblestring, is
called a simple pendulum.
• Time period of a simple pendulum is given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑙/𝑔
• The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite length is 84.6 min. The time period of asecond’s
pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the earth is nearly 100 cm.
• Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude (height) and therefore time period of a
pendulum clock will increase and clock becomes slow.
• If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended from a metallic wire, then the length of the
pendulum increases with increase in temperature and therefore its time period alsoincreases.
• A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up over the swing, then the effective lengthof the swing
decreases and therefore, the time period of oscillations decreases.
• A pendulum clock cannot be used in a space-ship because there is no constantgravitational force.

DAMPED HARMONIC MOTION

• When there is friction or any other force acting within an oscillating system, the amplitudes of the
oscillation decreases over time to this damping force. This is calleddamped harmonic motion.

RESONANT OSCILLATIONS
• When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency (V0) with the help of an externalperiodic
force also called forced harmonic motion. And if the frequency (v) provided bythe external agent
is equal to the natural frequency of the body, the oscillations of the body are called resonant
oscillations.

WAVES
• Wave is a flow or transfer of energy in the form of oscillation through a medium – spaceor mass.
• Sea waves or tides, sound which we hear, photon of light travelling and even the movement of
small plants blown by the wind are all examples of different types of waves. A simple wave
illustration is as follows.

TYPES OF WAVES
• Different types of waves have different set of characteristics. Based on orientation of particle

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motion and direction of energy, there are three categories – Longitudinal, Transverse and Surface
waves

LONGITUDINAL WAVES
• In this type of wave, the movement of the particle are parallel to the motion of the energy i.e. the
displacement of the medium is in the same direction to which the wave ismoving. Example – Sound
Waves, Pressure Waves.

TRANSVERSE WAVES
• When the movement of the particles are at right angles or perpendicular to the motionof the
energy, then this type of wave is known as Transverse wave. Light is an example of a transverse
wave. Some of the other examples are – ‘Polarized’ waves & Electromagnetic waves.
• Water waves are an example of combination of both longitudinal and transversemotions.

SURFACE WAVES
• In this type, the particles travel in a circular motion.
• These waves usually occur at interfaces. Waves in the ocean and ripples in a cup of water are
examples of such waves.

OTHER TYPES OF WAVES

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• Wave of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through avacuum is
known an electromagnetic wave.

NON-MECHANICAL WAVES OR ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• The waves which do not require medium for their propagation i.e. which can propagate even
through the vacuum are called non mechanical wave.
• Light, heat is the examples of non-mechanical wave. In fact all the electromagneticwaves are non-
mechanical.
• All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon. The wavelength range ofelectromagnetic wave
is 10−14m to 104 m.

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• 1. They are neutral (uncharged).
• 2. They propagate as transverse wave.
• 3. They propagate with the velocity of light.
• 4. They contain energy and momentum.
• 5. Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.

NON-ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
• Following waves are not electromagnetic
1. Cathode rays
2. Canal rays
3. α rays
4. β rays
5. Sound wave
6. Ultrasonic wave

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES & THEIR DISCOVERER

• γ-Rays - Henry Becqueral
• X-Rays - W. Rontgen
• Ultra-violet rays - Ritter
• Visible radiation - Newton
• Infra-red rays - Hershel
• Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves - Heinrich Hertz
• Long Radio Waves - Marconi
• Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 m to 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 m are calledmicrowaves.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
• Electromagnetic waves are perpendicular waves, combining the electric and magneticfields.
• Electromagnetic waves are produced when an electric charge vibrates or acceleratesand can travel
through empty space or through matter.
• Electromagnetic radiation consists of this type of waves.
• A mechanical wave is a wave that transfers energy through a medium. This is a contrastto the
electromagnetic wave.
• Electromagnetic waves can travel longer distances with higher speed but due to themedium of
transfer, mechanical waves are limited.

FEATURES OF WAVES
AMPLITUDE
• Amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on eitherside from the
equilibrium position.

WAVELENGTH
• Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particle of the medium, vibratingin the same
phase. It is denoted by the Greek letter lambda. (λ)
• In transverse wave distance between two consecutive crests or troughs and in longitudinal wave,
distance between two consecutive compressions or rarefactions isequal to wavelength.

TIME PERIOD
• The time taken by the vibration of the particles of the medium in completing oneoscillation is
called Time period.

FREQUENCY
• The number of oscillations executed by the particles of the medium in one second is called
frequency of wave. Its SI unit is Hertz.
o Velocity of wave = frequency × wavelength.

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Gamma Rays: Highest Frequency, Shortest Wavelength
• X Rays
• Ultraviolet Rays
• Visible Light
• Infra Red
• Microwaves
• Radio waves : Lowest Frequency, Longest Wavelength

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o Wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional to each other. ELECTROMAGNETIC

SPECTRUM DIAGRAM

SPEED OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• All electromagnetic waves travel at 3 × 108 m/s in a vacuum.
• Speed of a wave formula:
• Speed = frequency × wavelength
• As the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.
• The more is the frequency, the more is the penetrability of the rays.
• Gamma rays have the highest penetrability but it is not used in place of x rays as thegamma rays
penetrates into the bones and does not reflect back.

GAMMA RAYS
• They have the shortest wavelength and highest frequencies in the EM spectrum. It isgenerated by:
o Changes in energy levels in the nucleus
o Some radioactive substances and certain nuclear reactions produce gamma rays.
• Because of their great penetrating ability, gamma rays can cause serious illness.However, when
used in controlled conditions, gamma rays are useful in cancer treatment.
• They are the highest energy electromagnetic wave.
• They usually come from radioactive elements or stars.
• The uses include:
o Killing cancer cells.
o Making pictures of the brain.
o Inspection tools in industry.

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X -RAYS
• It was discovered by William roentgen.
• It is generated by:
o Rapid deceleration of fast moving electrons.
o Changes in energy of innermost orbital electrons.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
• X-Rays have high penetrability but do not penetrate through bones. These rays get reflected by
the bones when pass through it and thus provide a reflected image of theinner structure.
• X-RAYS ARE USED FOR :
o Diagnostic tool in dentistry and medicine. Doctors and dentists can examine the condition of
a person’s bones, the root of the teeth or the state of other inner partof the body.
o Custom officers at airports inspect the content of your luggage using X- rays.
o Industry wise, it is used to find cracks in structures just like cracks in bones.
• X- rays have high energy and can penetrate some material.
• USES OF X-RAYS :
o Medicines
o Industry
o Transportation
• Too much exposure can damage living tissue or even cause cancer.

ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
• UV rays, that is at a higher frequency and energy than violet light. It is produced by sunrays and
gets filtered by ozone in stratosphere.
• UV light can kill micro-organisms.
• Too much exposure can cause: Sunburn, wrinkles, cataract and skin cancer.
• UV can be detected by:
o Photographic plates
o Photoelectric cell
o Fluorescence

USES OF ULTRAVIOLET
• Detect counterfeit notes
• Gives the clothes a ‘glow’ effect in discotheques
• Sun- tanning
• Sterilizes medical equipment- UV rays are used in hospitals to sterilize the surgicalI struments and
operating theatres as it kills bacteria and viruses.

VISIBLE LIGHT
• It is the part of the EM spectrum which can be detected by the human eye.

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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

• The visible light has its own spectrum which consists of the 7 colors of light :
• VIBGYOR (Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red), generally occurs in therange of
wavelength, 400nm to 720nm.

PRISM
• Dispersion of white light from the Glass Prism
• When a monochromatic light is passed through the prism, the white light deviates fromits path
and dispersed into seven colors. This band of colored component of white lightis called spectrum.
• Red light has highest wavelength and least frequency while violet has least wavelengthand highest
frequency.
o Red light is generally used in traffic lights as it has the least scattering power and thuscovers
long distance.

INFRARED WAVES
• Heat can be transferred through infrared radiation. They are heat waves, all objectsemit infrared
waves because all objects possess heat.
• Night vision goggles detect infrared waves and allow the user to see the movement ofobjects in
the dark.

USES
• For navigation through fog and haze as it is less easily scattered compared to visible light
• Medical treatment: to warm injured muscles/ sports injuries
• Many TV remotes use infrared.

MICROWAVES
• One of their most common uses is in microwave ovens. When you switch on a microwave oven, it
gives off electromagnetic waves that bounce around inside the oven,penetrating the food.
• Water molecules in the food absorb the energy from the microwaves, causing the foodto get hot.
The motor used in microwave is called magnetron.
• Uses of Microwave:
o Radar communication
o Analysis of the molecular and atomic structure
o Telephone communications

RADIO WAVES
• These waves are the electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths and lowestfrequencies

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 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

• Like all electromagnetic waves, radio waves can travel through a vacuum.
• However, most of the radio waves we receive have travelled through air. Take the radio as an
example. The radio converts the electromagnetic waves into the sound that comesout of the radio
speakers.
• Mainly they are used for:
o Radar communications.
o TV and radio broadcasting

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