Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.

6 : Vector Functions

12.6 Vector Functions

We first saw vector functions back when we were looking at the Equation of Lines. In that section
we talked about them because we wrote down the equation of a line in R3 in terms of a vector function
(sometimes called a vector-valued function). In this section we want to look a little closer at them and
we also want to look at some vector functions in R3 other than lines.
A vector function is a function that takes one or more variables and returns a vector. We’ll spend
most of this section looking at vector functions of a single variable as most of the places where
vector functions show up here will be vector functions of single variables. We will however briefly
look at vector functions of two variables at the end of this section.
A vector functions of a single variable in R2 and R3 have the form,

~r (t) = hf (t) , g (t)i ~r (t) = hf (t) , g (t) , h (t)i

respectively, where f (t), g (t) and h (t) are called the component functions.
The main idea that we want to discuss in this section is that of graphing and identifying the graph
given by a vector function. Before we do that however, we should talk briefly about the domain of
a vector function. The domain of a vector function is the set of all t’s for which all the component
functions are defined.

Example 1
Determine the domain of the following function.
√
~r (t) = cos(t), ln (4 − t) , t + 1

Solution
The first component is defined for all t’s. The second component is only defined for t < 4.
The third component is only defined for t ≥ −1. Putting all of these together gives the
following domain.
[−1, 4)

This is the largest possible interval for which all three components are defined.

Let’s now move into looking at the graph of vector functions. In order to graph a vector function all
we do is think of the vector returned by the vector function as a position vector for points on the
graph. Recall that a position vector, say ~v = ha, b, ci, is a vector that starts at the origin and ends
at the point (a, b, c).
So, in order to sketch the graph of a vector function all we need to do is plug in some values
of t and then plot points that correspond to the resulting position vector we get out of the vector

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

function.
Because it is a little easier to visualize things we’ll start off by looking at graphs of vector functions
in R2 .

Example 2
Sketch the graph of each of the following vector functions.
(a) ~r (t) = ht, 1i

(b) ~r (t) = t, t3 − 10t + 7

Solution
(a) ~r (t) = ht, 1i
Okay, the first thing that we need to do is plug in a few values of t and get some position
vectors. Here are a few,

~r (−3) = h−3, 1i ~r (−1) = h−1, 1i ~r (2) = h2, 1i ~r (5) = h5, 1i

So, what this tells us is that the following points are all on the graph of this vector
function.
(−3, 1) (−1, 1) (2, 1) (5, 1)

Here is a sketch of this vector function.

In this sketch we’ve included many more evaluations than just those above. Also note
that we’ve put in the position vectors (in gray and dashed) so you can see how all

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

this is working. Note however, that in practice the position vectors are generally not
included in the sketch.
In this case it looks like we’ve got the graph of the line y = 1.

(b) ~r (t) = t, t3 − 10t + 7

Here are a couple of evaluations for this vector function.

~r (−3) = h−3, 10i ~r (−1) = h−1, 16i ~r (1) = h1, −2i ~r (3) = h3, 4i

So, we’ve got a few points on the graph of this function. However, unlike the first part
this isn’t really going to be enough points to get a good idea of this graph. In general,
it can take quite a few function evaluations to get an idea of what the graph is and it’s
usually easier to use a computer to do the graphing.
Here is a sketch of this graph. We’ve put in a few vectors/evaluations to illustrate them,
but the reality is that we did have to use a computer to get a good sketch here.

Both of the vector functions in the above example were in the form,

~r (t) = ht, g (t)i

and what we were really sketching is the graph of y = g (x) as you probably caught onto. Let’s
graph a couple of other vector functions that do not fall into this pattern.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Example 3
Sketch the graph of each of the following vector functions.
(a) ~r (t) = h6 cos(t), 3 sin(t)i

(b) ~r (t) = t − 2 sin(t), t2

Solution
As we saw in the last part of the previous example it can really take quite a few function
evaluations to really be able to sketch the graph of a vector function. Because of that we’ll
be skipping all the function evaluations here and just giving the graph. The main point behind
this set of examples is to not get you too locked into the form we were looking at above. The
first part will also lead to an important idea that we’ll discuss after this example.
So, with that said here are the sketches of each of these.
(a) ~r (t) = h6 cos(t), 3 sin(t)i

So, in this case it looks like we’ve got an ellipse.

(b) ~r (t) = t − 2 sin(t), t2

Here’s the sketch for this vector function.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Before we move on to vector functions in R3 let’s go back and take a quick look at the first vector
function we sketched in the previous example, ~r (t) = h6 cos(t), 3 sin(t)i. The fact that we got an
ellipse here should not come as a surprise to you. We know that the first component function gives
the x coordinate and the second component function gives the y coordinates of the point that we
graph. If we strip these out to make this clear we get,
x = 6 cos(t) y = 3 sin(t)

This should look familiar to you. Back when we were looking at Parametric Equations we saw that
this was nothing more than one of the sets of parametric equations that gave an ellipse.
This is an important idea in the study of vector functions. Any vector function can be broken down
into a set of parametric equations that represent the same graph. In general, the two dimensional
vector function, ~r (t) = hf (t) , g (t)i, can be broken down into the parametric equations,
x = f (t) y = g (t)

Likewise, a three dimensional vector function, ~r (t) = hf (t) , g (t) , h (t)i, can be broken down into
the parametric equations,
x = f (t) y = g (t) z = h (t)

Do not get too excited about the fact that we’re now looking at parametric equations in R3 . They
work in exactly the same manner as parametric equations in R2 which we’re used to dealing with
already. The only difference is that we now have a third component.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Let’s take a look at a couple of graphs of vector functions.

Example 4
Sketch the graph of the following vector function.

~r (t) = h2 − 4t, −1 + 5t, 3 + ti

Solution
Notice that this is nothing more than a line. It might help if we rewrite it a little.

~r (t) = h2, −1, 3i + t h−4, 5, 1i

In this form we can see that this is the equation of a line that goes through the point (2, −1, 3)
and is parallel to the vector ~v = h−4, 5, 1i.
To graph this line all that we need to do is plot the point and then sketch in the parallel vector.
In order to get the sketch will assume that the vector is on the line and will start at the point
in the line. To sketch in the line all we do this is extend the parallel vector into a line.
Here is a sketch.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Example 5
Sketch the graph of the following vector function.

~r (t) = h2 cos(t), 2 sin(t), 3i

Solution
In this case to see what we’ve got for a graph let’s get the parametric equations for the
curve.
x = 2 cos(t) y = 2 sin(t) z=3

If we ignore the z equation for a bit we’ll recall (hopefully) that the parametric equations for
x and y give a circle of radius 2 centered on the origin (or about the z-axis since we are in
R3 ).
Now, all the parametric equations here tell us is that no matter what is going on in the graph
all the z coordinates must be 3. So, we get a circle of radius 2 centered on the z-axis and at
the level of z = 3.
Here is a sketch.

Note that it is very easy to modify the above vector function to get a circle centered on the x or
y-axis as well. For instance,
~r (t) = h10 sin(t), −3, 10 cos(t)i
will be a circle of radius 10 centered on the y-axis and at y = −3. In other words, as long as two of
the terms are a sine and a cosine (with the same coefficient) and the other is a fixed number then
we will have a circle that is centered on the axis that is given by the fixed number.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Let’s take a look at a modification of this.

Example 6
Sketch the graph of the following vector function.

~r (t) = h4 cos(t), 4 sin(t), ti

Solution
If this one had a constant in the z component we would have another circle. However, in
this case we don’t have a constant. Instead we’ve got a t and that will change the curve.
However, because the x and y component functions are still a circle in parametric equations
our curve should have a circular nature to it in some way.
In fact, the only change is in the z component and as t increases the z coordinate will in-
crease. Also, as t increases the x and y coordinates will continue to form a circle centered
on the z-axis. Putting these two ideas together tells us that as we increase t the circle that
is being traced out in the x and y directions should also be rising.
Here is a sketch of this curve.

So, we’ve got a helix (or spiral, depending on what you want to call it) here.

As with circles the component that has the t will determine the axis that the helix rotates about.
For instance,
~r (t) = ht, 6 cos(t), 6 sin(t)i
is a helix that rotates around the x-axis.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

Also note that if we allow the coefficients on the sine and cosine for both the circle and helix to be
different we will get ellipses.
For example,
~r (t) = h9 cos(t), t, 2 sin(t)i
will be a helix that rotates about the y-axis and is in the shape of an ellipse.
There is a nice formula that we should derive before moving onto vector functions of two vari-
ables.

Example 7
Determine the vector equation for the line segment starting at the point P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
ending at the point Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ).

Solution
It is important to note here that we only want the equation of the line segment that starts at
P and ends at Q. We don’t want any other portion of the line and we do want the direction
of the line segment preserved as we increase t. With all that said, let’s not worry about that
and just find the vector equation of the line that passes through the two points. Once we
have this we will be able to get what we’re after.
So, we need a point on the line. We’ve got two and we will use P . We need a vector that
is parallel to the line and since we’ve got two points we can find the vector between them.
This vector will lie on the line and hence be parallel to the line. Also, let’s remember that
we want to preserve the starting and ending point of the line segment so let’s construct the
vector using the same “orientation”.

~v = hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 i

Using this vector and the point P we get the following vector equation of the line.

~r (t) = hx1 , y1 , z1 i + t hx2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 i

While this is the vector equation of the line, let’s rewrite the equation slightly.

~r (t) = hx1 , y1 , z1 i + t hx2 , y2 , z2 i − t hx1 , y1 , z1 i

= (1 − t) hx1 , y1 , z1 i + t hx2 , y2 , z2 i

This is the equation of the line that contains the points P and Q. We of course just want the
line segment that starts at P and ends at Q. We can get this by simply restricting the values
of t.
Notice that
~r (0) = hx1 , y1 , z1 i ~r (1) = hx2 , y2 , z2 i

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

So, if we restrict t to be between zero and one we will cover the line segment and we will
start and end at the correct point.
So, the vector equation of the line segment that starts at P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ends at
Q = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is,

~r (t) = (1 − t) hx1 , y1 , z1 i + t hx2 , y2 , z2 i 0≤t≤1

As noted briefly at the beginning of this section we can also have vector functions of two variables.
In these cases the graphs of vector function of two variables are surfaces. So, to make sure that
we don’t forget that let’s work an example with that as well.

Example 8
Identify the surface that is described by ~r (x, y) = x~i + y ~j + x2 + y 2 ~k.

Solution
First, notice that in this case the vector function will in fact be a function of two variables.
This will always be the case when we are using vector functions to represent surfaces.
To identify the surface let’s go back to parametric equations.

x=x y=y z = x2 + y 2

The first two are really only acknowledging that we are picking x and y for free and then
determining z from our choices of these two. The last equation is the one that we want.
We should recognize that function from the section on quadric surfaces. The third equation
is the equation of an elliptic paraboloid and so the vector function represents an elliptic
paraboloid.

As a final topic for this section let’s generalize the idea from the previous example and note that
given any function of one variable (y = f (x) or x = h (y)) or any function of two variables
(z = g (x, y), x = g (y, z), or y = g (x, z)) we can always write down a vector form of the equa-
tion.
For a function of one variable this will be,

~r (x) = x~i + f (x) ~j ~r (y) = h (y) ~i + y ~j

and for a function of two variables the vector form will be,
~r (x, y) = x~i + y ~j + g (x, y) ~k ~r (y, z) = g (y, z) ~i + y ~j + z ~k

~r (x, z) = x~i + g (x, z) ~j + z ~k

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.6 : Vector Functions

depending upon the original form of the function.

For example, the hyperbolic paraboloid y = 2x2 − 5z 2 can be written as the following vector func-
tion.
~r (x, z) = x~i + 2x2 − 5z 2 ~j + z ~k

This is a fairly important idea and we will be doing quite a bit of this kind of thing in multi-variable
Calculus.

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.7 : Calculus with Vector Functions

12.7 Calculus with Vector Functions

In this section we need to talk briefly about limits, derivatives and integrals of vector functions. As
you will see, these behave in a fairly predictable manner. We will be doing all of the work in R3 but
we can naturally extend the formulas/work in this section to Rn (i.e. n-dimensional space).
Let’s start with limits. Here is the limit of a vector function.

Vector Function Limits

lim ~r (t) = lim hf (t) , g (t) , h (t)i

t→a t→a
D E
= lim f (t) , lim g (t) , lim h (t)
t→a t→a t→a
= lim f (t)~i + lim g (t) ~j + lim h (t) ~k
t→a t→a t→a

So, all that we do is take the limit of each of the component’s functions and leave it as a vector.

Example 1
 
sin (3t − 3) 2t
Compute lim ~r (t) where ~r (t) = t3 , ,e .
t→1 t−1

Solution
There really isn’t all that much to do here.
 
3 sin (3t − 3) 2t
lim ~r (t) = lim t , lim , lim e
t→1 t→1 t→1 t−1 t→1
 
3 3 cos (3t − 3) 2t
= lim t , lim , lim e
t→1 t→1 1 t→1

= 1, 3, e2

Notice that we had to use L’Hospital’s Rule on the y component.

Now let’s take care of derivatives and after seeing how limits work it shouldn’t be too surprising
that we have the following for derivatives.

Vector Function Derivative

~r0 (t) = f 0 (t) , g 0 (t) , h0 (t) = f 0 (t)~i + g 0 (t) ~j + h0 (t) ~k

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.7 : Calculus with Vector Functions

Example 2
Compute ~r0 (t) for ~r (t) = t6 ~i + sin (2t) ~j − ln (t + 1) ~k.

Solution
There really isn’t too much to this problem other than taking the derivatives.
1 ~
~r0 (t) = 6t5 ~i + 2 cos (2t) ~j − k
t+1

Most of the basic facts that we know about derivatives still hold however, just to make it clear here
are some facts about derivatives of vector functions.

Facts

d 
~u + ~v = ~u0 + ~v 0
dt
d 
c~u = c ~u0
dt
d 
f (t) ~u (t) = f 0 (t) ~u (t) + f (t) ~u0 (t)
dt
d 
~u · ~v = ~u0 · ~v + ~u · ~v 0
dt
d 
~u × ~v = ~u0 × ~v + ~u × ~v 0
dt
d 
~u (f (t)) = f 0 (t) ~u0 f (t)


dt

There is also one quick definition that we should get out of the way so that we can use it when we
need to.
A smooth curve is any curve for which ~r0 (t) is continuous and ~r0 (t) 6= 0 for any t except possibly
at the endpoints. A helix is a smooth curve, for example.
Finally, we need to discuss integrals of vector functions. Using both limits and derivatives as a
guide it shouldn’t be too surprising that we also have the following for integration for indefinite
integrals

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.7 : Calculus with Vector Functions

Vector Function Indefinite Integral

Z Z  Z Z
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt, g (t) dt, h (t) dt + ~c
Z Z Z Z
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt i + g (t) dt j + h (t) dt ~k + ~c
~ ~

and the following for definite integrals.

Vector Function Definite Integral

Z b Z b Z b Z b 
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt, g (t) dt, h (t) dt
a a a a
Z b Z b Z b Z b
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt ~i + g (t) dt ~j + h (t) dt ~k
a a a a

With the indefinite integrals we put in a constant of integration to make sure that it was clear that
the constant in this case needs to be a vector instead of a regular constant.
Also, for the definite integrals we will sometimes write it as follows,
Z b Z Z Z  b
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt, g (t) dt, h (t) dt
a a
Z b Z Z Z  b
~r (t) dt = f (t) dt ~i + g (t) dt ~j + h (t) dt ~k
a a

In other words, we will do the indefinite integral and then do the evaluation of the vector as a whole
instead of on a component by component basis.

Example 3
Z
Compute ~r (t) dt for ~r (t) = hsin (t) , 6, 4ti.

Solution
All we need to do is integrate each of the components and be done with it.
Z
~r (t) dt = − cos (t) , 6t, 2t2 + ~c

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.7 : Calculus with Vector Functions

Example 4
Z 1
Compute ~r (t) dt for ~r (t) = hsin (t) , 6, 4ti.
0

Solution
In this case all that we need to do is reuse the result from the previous example and then
do the evaluation.

1
Z 1
~r (t) dt = − cos (t) , 6t, 2t2
0 0
= h− cos (1) , 6, 2i − h−1, 0, 0i
= h1 − cos (1) , 6, 2i

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.8 : Tangent and Normal Vectors

12.8 Tangent, Normal and Binormal Vectors

In this section we want to look at an application of derivatives for vector functions. Actually, there
are a couple of applications, but they all come back to needing the first one.
In the past we’ve used the fact that the derivative of a function was the slope of the tangent line.
With vector functions we get exactly the same result, with one exception.
Given the vector function, ~r (t), we call ~r 0 (t) the tangent vector provided it exists and provided
~r 0 (t) 6= ~0. The tangent line to ~r (t) at P is then the line that passes through the point P and is
parallel to the tangent vector, ~r 0 (t). Note that we really do need to require ~r 0 (t) 6= ~0 in order to
have a tangent vector. If we had
~r 0 (t) = ~0
we would have a vector that had no magnitude and so couldn’t give us the direction of the tan-
gent.
Also, provided ~r 0 (t) 6= ~0, the unit tangent vector to the curve is given by,

Unit Tangent Vector

~r 0 (t)
T~ (t) =
k~r 0 (t)k

While, the components of the unit tangent vector can be somewhat messy on occasion there are
times when we will need to use the unit tangent vector instead of the tangent vector.

Example 1
Find the general formula for the tangent vector and unit tangent vector to the curve given by
~r (t) = t2 ~i + 2 sin(t) ~j + 2 cos(t) ~k.

Solution
First, by general formula we mean that we won’t be plugging in a specific t and so we will be
finding a formula that we can use at a later date if we’d like to find the tangent at any point
on the curve. With that said there really isn’t all that much to do at this point other than to
do the work.
Here is the tangent vector to the curve.

~r 0 (t) = 2t~i + 2 cos(t) ~j − 2 sin(t) ~k

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.8 : Tangent and Normal Vectors

To get the unit tangent vector we need the length of the tangent vector.
q
0
~r (t) = 4t2 + 4 cos2 (t) + 4 sin2 (t)
p
= 4t2 + 4

The unit tangent vector is then,

1  
T~ (t) = √ 2t~i + 2 cos t ~j − 2 sin(t) ~k
4t2 + 4
2t ~i + √ 2 cos(t) ~ 2 sin(t) ~
=√ j−√ k
2
4t + 4 2
4t + 4 4t2 + 4

Example 2
Find the vector equation of the tangent line to the curve given by
π
~r (t) = t2 ~i + 2 sin(t) ~j + 2 cos(t) ~k at t = .
3

Solution
First, we need the tangent vector and since this is the function we were working with in
the previous example we can just reuse the tangent vector from that example and plug in
t = π3 .
 π  2π √
~i + 2 cos π ~j − 2 sin π ~k = 2π ~i + ~j − 3 ~k
   
~r 0 =
3 3 3 3 3
π
We’ll also need the point on the line at t = 3 so,
π  π2 ~ √ ~ ~
~r = i + 3j + k
3 9

The vector equation of the line is then,

π √ √
 2   
2π
~r (t) = , 3, 1 + t , 1, − 3
9 3

Before moving on let’s note a couple of things about the previous example. First, we could have
used the unit tangent vector had we wanted to for the parallel vector. However, that would have
made for a more complicated equation for the tangent line.
Second, notice that we used ~r (t) to represent the tangent line despite the fact that we used that
as well for the function. Do not get excited about that. The ~r (t) here is much like y is with normal
functions. With normal functions, y is the generic letter that we used to represent functions and

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.8 : Tangent and Normal Vectors

~r (t) tends to be used in the same way with vector functions.

Next, we need to talk about the unit normal and the binormal vectors.
The unit normal vector is defined to be,

Unit Normal Vector

~0
~ (t) = T (t)
N
T~ 0 (t)

The unit normal is orthogonal (or normal, or perpendicular) to the unit tangent vector and hence
to the curve as well. We’ve already seen normal vectors when we were dealing with Equations of
Planes. They will show up with some regularity in several Calculus III topics.
The definition of the unit normal vector always seems a little mysterious when you first see it. It
follows directly from the following fact.

Fact
Suppose that ~r (t) is a vector such that k~r (t)k = c for all t. Then ~r 0 (t) is orthogonal to
~r (t).

Proof
To prove this fact is pretty simple. From the fact statement and the relationship between
the magnitude of a vector and the dot product we have the following.

~r (t) · ~r (t) = k~r (t)k2 = c2 for all t

Now, because this is true for all t we can see that,

d  d  2
~r (t) · ~r (t) = c =0
dt dt

Also, recalling the fact from the previous section about differentiating a dot product we see
that,
d 
~r (t) · ~r (t) = ~r 0 (t) · ~r (t) + ~r (t) · ~r 0 (t) = 2~r 0 (t) · ~r (t)
dt
Or, upon putting all this together we get,

2~r 0 (t) · ~r (t) = 0 ⇒ ~r 0 (t) · ~r (t) = 0

Therefore ~r 0 (t) is orthogonal to ~r (t).

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.8 : Tangent and Normal Vectors

The definition of the unit normal then falls directly from this. Because T~ (t) is a unit vector
we know that T~ (t) = 1 for all t and hence by the Fact T~ 0 (t) is orthogonal to T~ (t).
However, because T~ (t) is tangent to the curve, T~ 0 (t) must be orthogonal, or normal, to the
curve as well and so be a normal vector for the curve. All we need to do then is divide by
T~ 0 (t) to arrive at a unit normal vector.

Next, is the binormal vector. The binormal vector is defined to be,

Binormal Vector
~ (t) = T~ (t) × N
B ~ (t)

Because the binormal vector is defined to be the cross product of the unit tangent and unit normal
vector we then know that the binormal vector is orthogonal to both the tangent vector and the
normal vector.

Example 3
Find the normal and binormal vectors for ~r (t) = ht, 3 sin(t), 3 cos(t)i.

Solution
We first need the unit tangent vector so first get the tangent vector and its magnitude.
~r 0 (t) = h1, 3 cos(t), −3 sin(t)i
0
q √
~r (t) = 1 + 9 cos2 (t) + 9 sin2 (t) = 10

The unit tangent vector is then,

 
1 3 3
T~ (t) = √ , √ cos(t), − √ sin(t)
10 10 10

The unit normal vector will now require the derivative of the unit tangent and its magni-
tude.
 
3 3
T~ 0 (t) = 0, − √ sin(t), − √ cos(t)
10 10
r r
0 9 9 9 3
T~ (t) = 2
sin (t) + cos2 (t) = =√
10 10 10 10

The unit normal vector is then,

√  
~ (t) = 10 0, − √3 sin(t), − √3 cos(t) = h0, − sin(t), − cos(t)i
N
3 10 10

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.8 : Tangent and Normal Vectors

Finally, the binormal vector is,

~ (t) = T~ (t) × N
B ~ (t)
~i ~j ~k
= √1 √3 3
cos(t) − √10 sin(t)
10 10
0 − sin(t) − cos(t)
3 1 1 3
= − √ cos2 (t)~i − √ sin(t) ~k + √ cos(t) ~j − √ sin2 (t)~i
10 10 10 10
3 ~ 1 1
= − √ i + √ cos(t) ~j − √ sin(t) ~k
10 10 10

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 970 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.9 : Arc Length with Vector Functions

12.9 Arc Length with Vector Functions

In this section we’ll recast an old formula into terms of vector functions. We want to determine the
length of a vector function,
~r (t) = hf (t) , g (t) , h (t)i
on the interval a ≤ t ≤ b.
We actually already know how to do this. Recall that we can write the vector function into the
parametric form,
x = f (t) y = g (t) z = h (t)

Also, recall that with two dimensional parametric curves the arc length is given by,
Z bq
2
f 0 (t) + [g 0 (t)]2 dt

L=
a

There is a natural extension of this to three dimensions. So, the length of the curve ~r (t) on the
interval a ≤ t ≤ b is, Z bq
 2  2  2
L= f 0 (t) + g 0 (t) + h0 (t) dt
a

There is a nice simplification that we can make for this. Notice that the integrand (the function
we’re integrating) is nothing more than the magnitude of the tangent vector,
q 2  2  2
0
~r (t) = f 0 (t) + g 0 (t) + h0 (t)

Therefore, the arc length can be written as,

Arc Length
Z b
L= ~r 0 (t) dt
a

Let’s work a quick example of this.

Example 1
Determine the length of the curve ~r (t) = h2t, 3 sin (2t) , 3 cos (2t)i on the interval 0 ≤ t ≤
2π.

Solution

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 971 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.9 : Arc Length with Vector Functions

We will first need the tangent vector and its magnitude.

~r 0 (t) = h2, 6 cos (2t) , −6 sin (2t)i

0
q √ √
~r (t) = 4 + 36 cos2 (2t) + 36 sin2 (2t) = 4 + 36 = 2 10

The length is then,

Z b
L= ~r 0 (t) dt
a
Z 2π √
= 2 10 dt
0
√
= 4π 10

We need to take a quick look at another concept here. We define the arc length function as,

Arc Length Function

Z t
s (t) = ~r 0 (u) du
0

Before we look at why this might be important let’s work a quick example.

Example 2
Determine the arc length function for ~r (t) = 2t, 3 sin (2t) , 3 cos (2t) .

Solution
From the previous example we know that,
√
~r 0 (t) = 2 10

The arc length function is then,

Z t √  √  t √
s (t) = 2 10 du = 2 10 u = 2 10 t
0 0

Okay, just why would we want to do this? Well let’s take the result of the example above and solve
it for t.
s
t= √
2 10

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Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.9 : Arc Length with Vector Functions

Now, taking this and plugging it into the original vector function and we can reparametrize the
function into the form, ~r (t (s)). For our function this is,
    
s s s
~r (t (s)) = √ , 3 sin √ , 3 cos √
10 10 10

So, why would we want to do this? Well with the reparameterization we can now tell where we are
on the curve after we’ve traveled a distance of s along the curve. Note as well that we will start the
measurement of distance from where we are at t = 0.

Example 3
Where on the curve ~r (t) = 2t, 3 sin (2t) , 3 cos (2t) are we after traveling for a distance of
√
π 10
?
3

Solution
To determine this we need the reparameterization, which we have from above.
    
s s s
~r (t (s)) = √ , 3 sin √ , 3 cos √
10 10 10
√
Then, to determine where we are all that we need to do is plug in s = π 310 into this and we’ll
get our location.
√ !! D * √ +
π 10 π π   π E π 3 3 3
~r t = , 3 sin , 3 cos = , ,
3 3 3 3 3 2 2

√  √ 
π 10 π 3 3 3
So, after traveling a distance of 3 along the curve we are at the point 3 , 2 , 2 .

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 973 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.10 : Curvature

12.10 Curvature

In this section we want to briefly discuss the curvature of a smooth curve (recall that for a smooth
curve we require ~r 0 (t) is continuous and ~r 0 (t) 6= 0). The curvature measures how fast a curve is
changing direction at a given point.
There are several formulas for determining the curvature for a curve. The formal definition of
curvature is,
d T~
κ=
ds
where T~ is the unit tangent and s is the arc length. Recall that we saw in a previous section how
to reparametrize a curve to get it into terms of the arc length.
In general the formal definition of the curvature is not easy to use so there are two alternate formulas
that we can use. Here they are.

Curvature
T~ 0 (t) k~r 0 (t) × ~r 00 (t)k
κ= κ=
k~r 0 (t)k k~r 0 (t)k3

These may not be particularly easy to deal with either, but at least we don’t need to reparametrize
the unit tangent.

Example 1
Determine the curvature for ~r (t) = t, 3 sin(t), 3 cos(t) .

Solution
Back in the section when we introduced the tangent vector we computed the tangent and
unit tangent vectors for this function. These were,

~r 0 (t) = 1, 3 cos(t), −3 sin(t)

 
~ 1 3 3
T (t) = √ , √ cos(t), − √ sin(t)
10 10 10

The derivative of the unit tangent is,

 
~ 0 3 3
T (t) = 0, − √ sin(t), − √ cos(t)
10 10

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 974 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.10 : Curvature

The magnitudes of the two vectors are,

0
q √
~r (t) = 1 + 9 cos2 (t) + 9 sin2 (t) = 10
r r
9 9 9 3
T~ 0 (t) = 0 + sin2 (t) + cos2 (t) = =√
10 10 10 10

The curvature is then,

T~ 0 (t) 3 /√
3
κ= = √ 10 =
k~r 0 (t)k 10 10

In this case the curvature is constant. This means that the curve is changing direction at
the same rate at every point along it. Recalling that this curve is a helix this result makes
sense.

Example 2
Determine the curvature of ~r (t) = t2 ~i + t ~k.

Solution
In this case the second form of the curvature would probably be easiest. Here are the first
couple of derivatives.
~r 0 (t) = 2t~i + ~k ~r 00 (t) = 2~i

Next, we need the cross product.

~i ~j ~k
0 00
~r (t) × ~r (t) = 2t 0 1
2 0 0
= 2~j

The magnitudes are,

p
~r 0 (t) × ~r 00 (t) = 2 ~r 0 (t) = 4t2 + 1

The curvature at any value of t is then,

2
κ= 3
(4t2 + 1) 2

There is a special case that we can look at here as well. Suppose that we have a curve given by

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 975 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.10 : Curvature

y = f (x) and we want to find its curvature.

As we saw when we first looked at vector functions we can write this as follows,

~r (x) = x~i + f (x) ~j

If we then use the second formula for the curvature we will arrive at the following formula for the
curvature.
|f 00 (x)|
κ= 
 2  32
1 + f 0 (x)

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 976 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.11 : Velocity and Acceleration

12.11 Velocity and Acceleration

In this section we need to take a look at the velocity and acceleration of a moving object.
From Calculus I we know that given the position function of an object that the velocity of the object is
the first derivative of the position function and the acceleration of the object is the second derivative
of the position function.
So, given this it shouldn’t be too surprising that if the position function of an object is given by the
vector function ~r (t) then the velocity and acceleration of the object is given by,

~v (t) = ~r 0 (t) ~a (t) = ~r 00 (t)

Notice that the velocity and acceleration are also going to be vectors as well.
In the study of the motion of objects the acceleration is often broken up into a tangential compo-
nent, aT , and a normal component, aN . The tangential component is the part of the acceleration
that is tangential to the curve and the normal component is the part of the acceleration that is
normal (or orthogonal) to the curve. If we do this we can write the acceleration as,

~a = aT T~ + aN N
~

where T~ and N
~ are the unit tangent and unit normal for the position function.

If we define v = k~v (t)k then the tangential and normal components of the acceleration are given
by,

Tangential and Normal Acceleration

~r 0 (t) · ~r 00 (t) k~r 0 (t) × ~r 00 (t)k
aT = v 0 = aN = κv 2 =
k~r 0 (t)k k~r 0 (t)k

where κ is the curvature for the position function.

There are two formulas to use here for each component of the acceleration and while the second
formula may seem overly complicated it is often the easier of the two. In the tangential component,
v, may be messy and computing the derivative may be unpleasant. In the normal component we
will already be computing both of these quantities in order to get the curvature and so the second
formula in this case is definitely the easier of the two.
Let’s take a quick look at a couple of examples.

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 977 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.11 : Velocity and Acceleration

Example 1
If the acceleration of an object is given by ~a = ~i + 2~j + 6t~k find the object’s velocity and
position functions given that the initial velocity is ~v (0) = ~j − ~k and the initial position is
~r (0) = ~i − 2~j + 3~k.

Solution
We’ll first get the velocity. To do this all (well almost all) we need to do is integrate the
acceleration.
Z
~v (t) = ~a (t) dt
Z
= ~i + 2~j + 6t~k dt

= t~i + 2t ~j + 3t2 ~k + ~c

To completely get the velocity we will need to determine the “constant” of integration. We
can use the initial velocity to get this.

~j − ~k = ~v (0) = ~c

The velocity of the object is then,

~v (t) = t~i + 2t ~j + 3t2 ~k + ~j − ~k

= t~i + (2t + 1) ~j + 3t2 − 1 ~k

We will find the position function by integrating the velocity function.

Z
~r (t) = ~v (t) dt
Z
= t~i + (2t + 1) ~j + 3t2 − 1 ~k dt

1
= t2 ~i + t2 + t ~j + t3 − t ~k + ~c



2

Using the initial position gives us,

~i − 2~j + 3~k = ~r (0) = ~c

So, the position function is,

 
1 2
t + 1 ~i + t2 + t − 2 ~j + t3 − t + 3 ~k



~r (t) =
2

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 978 –

Chapter 12 : 3 Dimensional Space Section 12.11 : Velocity and Acceleration

Example 2
For the object in the previous example determine the tangential and normal components of
the acceleration.

Solution
There really isn’t much to do here other than plug into the formulas. To do this we’ll need to
notice that,

~r 0 (t) = t~i + (2t + 1) ~j + 3t2 − 1 ~k

~r 00 (t) = ~i + 2~j + 6t~k

Let’s first compute the dot product and cross product that we’ll need for the formulas.

~r 0 (t) · ~r 00 (t) = t + 2 (2t + 1) + 6t 3t2 − 1 = 18t3 − t + 2

~i ~j ~k
0 00 2
~r (t) × ~r (t) = t 2t + 1 3t − 1
1 2 6t
= (6t) (2t + 1)~i + 3t2 − 1 ~j + 2t~k − 6t2~j − 2 3t2 − 1 ~i − (2t + 1) ~k

= 6t2 + 6t + 2 ~i − 3t2 + 1 ~j − ~k

Next, we also need a couple of magnitudes.

q p
~r (t) = t2 + (2t + 1)2 + (3t2 − 1)2 = 9t4 − t2 + 4t + 2
0
q p
~r (t) × ~r (t) = (6t2 + 6t + 2)2 + (3t2 + 1)2 + 1 = 45t4 + 72t3 + 66t2 + 24t + 6
0 00

The tangential component of the acceleration is then,

18t3 − t + 2
aT = √
9t4 − t2 + 4t + 2

The normal component of the acceleration is,

√ r
45t4 + 72t3 + 66t2 + 24t + 6 45t4 + 72t3 + 66t2 + 24t + 6
aN = √ =
9t4 − t2 + 4t + 2 9t4 − t2 + 4t + 2

© Paul Dawkins Calculus – 979 –