Module - 2

Operational Amplifiers And Oscillator

Operational Amplifier (Op-amp):

An operational amplifier is a direct coupled high gain voltage amplifier with a differential input and usually,
a single-ended output. which can amplify a signals with a wide range of frequencies (0 to over 1MHz).
Ø The operational amplifier can be used to amplify DC as well as AC input signals
Ø Op-amp was originally designed for performing mathematical operation such as addition, subtraction,
differentiation and integration etc. So named as operational amplifier.

Typical application of op-amp includes –

Audio amplifiers
oscillators
Filter circuits
comparators
Instrumentation circuits. etc.
Operational Amplifier (Op-amp):

Strandard Operational Amplifier Symbol

UA741 op-amp IC
Op-amp Parameters
1. Open loop voltage gain /Differential Gain Av(ol) /Ad / A :
It is the factor by which the difrence between two input signals is amplified by the opamp.
Vo α (V1-V2)
Vo=Ad(V1-V2) = Avol (V1-V2)
where, Ad is called as differential gain. (or also called as Av(ol) open loop voltage gain)
The difference between the two inputs (V2-V1) is called difference input voltage Vid or Vi
The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to
input voltage measured with no feedback applied.
Avol =V0/Vi
Ideally open loop gain is infinite (∞) , practically 105 for IC741.

The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case:
Av(ol)=20log(V0/Vi)
Op-amp Parameters continued..

2. Closed-loop voltage gain:

The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input voltage
measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied).

Where, AV(CL) is the closed-loop voltage gain, Vo and Vi are the output and input voltages, respectively,
under closed-loop conditions.

The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain to a value that is both predictable and
manageable.
Op-amp Parameters continued..

3. Input resistance:
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to
input current expressed in ohms.

R i = V i / Ii
where Ri is the input resistance (in ohms), Vi is the input voltage (in volts) and Ii is the
input
current (in amps).

In practice values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012 Ω for
FET and CMOS devices.
Ideal value of Ri should be ထΩ.
Op-amp Parameters continued..

4. Output Resistance:Ro
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open circuit
output voltage to short circuit output current expressed in ohms.

Ro = Vo(oc) / Io(sc)
where, Ro is the output resistance (in ohms), V o(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in
volts) and I o(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).
Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω.
Ideal value of Ro should be 0Ω.
Op-amp Parameters continued..
5. Input offset voltage: ViOS:
 The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts difference is applied to its inputs.
 In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small voltage present at the
output
 The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to make
the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
 Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV to 15 mV. In the ideal case, it is 0 V.
 Op-amp Parameters continued..

6. Slew rate
The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time in response to a
rectangular step input voltage is applied.

∆V0
Slew rate =
∆t

where,
∆V0 is the change in output voltage (in volts) and ∆t is the corresponding interval of time (in
seconds).

Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs.
 Op-amp Parameters continued..

• Common Mode Gain:(Acm):

It is the factor by which the common mode input voltage is amplified by the op-amp.

Hence the ouput voltage is also proportional to common mode signal

V0cm=AcmVcm
Where, Acm is called common mode gain.
therefor total output of a differential amplifier is given by
Vo=AdVd + AcmVcm
Op-amp Parameters continued..

Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR):

It is defined as ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the common-mode gain, Acm.
CMRR =|Aol / Acm|
Ideally Acm = 0 , then ideal value of the CMRR = ∞.
CMRR is also expressed in dB as follows,
CMRR = 20 log|Ad / Acm| dB.
Ideally CMMR is ∞ but for practical opamp it is 120 dB.
Op-amp Parameters continued..
Maximum output voltage swing (V0(p-p)) (or saturating property of op-amp):
Let the open loop gain of op-amp be 105.
Then Vo=Aol(V1-V2) =105(2mv-0) =105 x 2 x 10-3 =200V(p-p)
But output gets clipped off at positive saturation voltage +Vsat < +VCC and negative saturation voltage
-Vsat < -VEE). This is called saturating property of op-amp.
Op-amp Characteristics contnd.....

(V)

Linear region
(uV)

Voltage Transfer characteristrics of practical op-amp

 Op-amp Parameters continued..

9. Slew Rate: Slew rate (SR) is defined as maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of time and
is expressed in volts per microsecond.
dV
SR = 0 | maximum
dt

Slew rate indicates How rapidly the output of an op-amp can change in response to changes in the input
frequency.
Slew rate for 741 op-amp is 0.5V/µS. Ideally it should be ∞ V/µS.
Rules in analysing the opamp in closed loop configuration

1. No current flows into the input terminnals of the opamp.

2.Virtual Ground:
This means differntial input voltage between noninverting input and inverting input is essentially zero.

Rf

R1
A V0
Vin
B

VA=VB
 Virtual Ground (Virtual Short)
Rf Assuming V0=10V and Aol=200000
Vo=Aol(V+ - V-)
(V+ - V-) =Vo / Aol
R1
(V+ - V-)=10 / 200000
(V+ - V-)=0.05mV
V+ - V- =0.00005V
Vin V0
V+ - V- ≈ 0V
V+ = V-
This means differential input voltage between non-inverting and inverting input of op-amp is
essentially zero. Therefore there exists virtual short between inverting and non-inverting input
terminal. Hence inverting input terminal is virtually grounded.
V+ = V- both the input terminals of the op-amp are at equi-potential.
 Op-amp applications in closed loop configuration:

 Inverting amplifier

 Non-inverting amplifier

 Voltage follower

 Adder / Summer

 Subtractor

 Integrator

 Differentiator
Oscillators
• Oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating
electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave or a triangle wave.
• Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an
alternating current (AC) signal.
• They are widely used in many electronic devices ranging from simplest
clock generators to digital instruments (like calculators) and complex
computers and peripherals etc.
• Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals
broadcast by radio and television transmitters, clock signals that regulate
computers and quartz clocks, and the sounds produced by electronic
beepers and video games.
Positive feedback
• Output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather than
to subtract from it), is known as positive feedback.
• Amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network
provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°.
Positive feedback
Positive feedback
• Example 2: Assume that you have an amplifier with a gain of 10 and
one-tenth of the output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). In this
case the loop gain (β × Av) is 1.

• With negative feedback, the overall gain is:

• With positive feedback, the overall gain is:

Conditions for oscillations
Ladder network oscillator
• TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2
providing base bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization.
• The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected between
collector and base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.
• The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall
phase shift of 360° or 0° (note that these are the same).
• The frequency of oscillation of the circuit is given by:
Ladder network oscillator
• Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder
network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.
Wein bridge oscillator
Wein bridge oscillator

• The input signal is applied to b and d while the output is taken from a and c.
• At one particular frequency, the phase shift produced by the network will be
exactly zero (i.e. the input and output signals will be in-phase).
• If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift which has
sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.
Wein bridge oscillator
• The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given
by:

• When C1 = C2 and R1 = R2, the frequency at which the phase shift

will be zero is given by:

• When R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C the frequency at which the

phase shift will be zero will be given by:
Wein bridge oscillator
• Figure shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an
operational amplifier. If C1 = C2 = 100 nF, determine the output
frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ
and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.
Multivibrator
• Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output
waveforms consisting of one or more rectangular pulses.

• The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type
of waveform is rich in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).

• Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback

Multivibrators
• The principal types of multivibrator are:
a) Astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses
(these are sometimes also referred to as free-running multivibrators).
b) Monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they
have one stable state and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-
shot’);
c) Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a
trigger pulse or control signal to change from one state to another.
Single-stage Astable oscillator

• A simple form of astable oscillator that

produces a square wave output can be built
using just one operational amplifier.
 The circuit employs positive feedback with
the output fed back to the non-inverting
input via the potential divider formed by R1
and R2.
 This circuit can make a very simple square
wave source with a frequency that can be
made adjustable by replacing R with a
variable or preset resistor.
Single-stage Astable oscillator
 Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input is
slightly less than the voltage at the non-inverting input.
 The output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at the inverting input
will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor C charges through R.
 Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes
the voltage at the inverting input to exceed that present at the non-inverting input.
 At this point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.

 Capacitor C will then start to charge in the other direction and the voltage at
the inverting input will begin to fall exponentially.
Single-stage Astable oscillator
• The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum positive value for the
voltage at the inverting input) will be given by:

• The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for
the voltage at the inverting input) will be given by:

• Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform
produced by the astable oscillator is given by:
Astable multivibrator waveforms
Crystal controlled oscillator
 The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces (this
phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect).
 The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size. Most quartz
crystals can be expected to stabilize the frequency of oscillation of a circuit to within a few
parts in a million.
 Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental mode over a frequency range
extending from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from 20 MHz to well over
100 MHz.