Computer Networks

🔹 Introduction to Computer Networks

A Computer Network is a system of interconnected computers that

are able to communicate and share resources such as data, printers,
and storage devices. It enables the exchange of data and is a vital
component of modern communication.

The Internet is the largest example of a computer network, but

networks can be as small as a single local area network (LAN)
connecting a few computers.

🔹 Types of Computer Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

 Definition: A network confined to a small geographic area,

typically within a building or office.

 Features: High data transfer speeds, low latency, and low-cost

setup.

 Examples: Home network, office network.

 Protocols: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11).

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Definition: A network that spans a large geographical area,

often connecting multiple LANs.

 Features: Can be global in scope, but typically slower and more

expensive than LANs.

 Examples: The Internet, corporate networks connecting offices

across cities or countries.

 Protocols: TCP/IP, MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching).

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network that covers a city or large campus.

 Features: Faster than WAN but larger in scale than LAN.

  Examples: Networks connecting universities, public
transportation systems, or municipal buildings.

 Protocols: Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Ethernet.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Definition: A small-scale network, typically for a single

individual, connecting personal devices.

 Features: Very short-range connections, typically over

Bluetooth or USB.

 Examples: Smartphone, laptop, and tablet connectivity via

Bluetooth.

 Protocols: Bluetooth, Infrared, USB.

5. Global Area Network (GAN)

 Definition: A network that spans the globe, integrating several

different types of networks.

 Examples: The Internet, satellite communication networks.

 Protocols: TCP/IP, satellite communication standards.

🔹 Network Topologies

The Topology of a network refers to the arrangement of different

elements (links, nodes, etc.) in the network. Here are the most
common types:

1. Bus Topology

 All devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).

 Advantages: Easy to implement, cost-effective.

 Disadvantages: Can suffer from congestion and data collisions.

2. Star Topology

 All devices are connected to a central node (usually a switch or

hub).

 Advantages: Easy to add new devices, easy fault isolation.

  Disadvantages: Central node failure affects the entire network.

3. Ring Topology

 Each device is connected to two others, forming a circular data

path.

 Advantages: Simple to implement.

 Disadvantages: A break in the ring disrupts the entire network.

4. Mesh Topology

 Devices are interconnected with each other. Full mesh has

every device connected to every other device.

 Advantages: Highly reliable and fault-tolerant.

 Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to maintain.

5. Hybrid Topology

 Combines two or more different topologies.

 Advantages: Flexible and scalable.

 Disadvantages: Complex setup and maintenance.

🔹 Network Devices

Various devices are used to enable communication and manage data

in a network.

1. Router

 Routes data between different networks, such as between a

LAN and a WAN.

 Function: Determines the best path for data packets.

 Example: Home Wi-Fi router connecting your local network to

the Internet.

2. Switch

 Operates within a LAN to direct data to the correct device on

the network.

 Function: Filters and forwards data based on MAC addresses.

  Example: A switch used to connect multiple devices within a
building.

3. Hub

 A basic network device that broadcasts data to all devices in a

network.

 Function: Simple device for creating a physical network

connection.

 Example: Often replaced by switches in modern networks due

to inefficiency.

4. Modem

 Converts digital data from a computer into analog signals for

transmission over phone lines or cable systems.

 Function: Provides internet connectivity.

 Example: DSL or cable modems.

5. Bridge

 Connects two LANs, helping manage data flow between them.

 Function: Reduces network traffic by dividing large networks

into smaller segments.

6. Gateway

 Serves as a "gate" between two networks, such as between a

LAN and the Internet.

 Function: Converts protocols and formats between different

systems.

 Example: A web gateway providing Internet access to a

network.

🔹 Network Protocols

Network protocols are rules that define how data is transmitted

over a network. Here are some key protocols:

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

  The foundational protocol for the Internet.

 Function: Manages how data packets are sent and routed

between devices.

2. HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure)

 Used for transferring web pages and data over the internet.

 Function: Web browsers and servers use this protocol for

communication.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Used for transferring files between computers over a network.

 Function: Allows uploading and downloading files to/from a

server.

4. DNS (Domain Name System)

 Translates domain names (e.g., google.com) into IP addresses.

 Function: Ensures that users can access websites using domain

names instead of numeric IP addresses.

5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

 Used for sending emails between servers.

 Function: Manages email sending in a client-server

architecture.

6. IMAP/POP3 (Internet Message Access Protocol/Post Office

Protocol)

 Used for retrieving emails from a mail server.

 Function: IMAP allows email to be stored on the server, while

POP3 downloads emails to the client.

🔹 IP Addressing and Subnetting

 IP Address: A unique identifier assigned to each device on a

network. It consists of four octets (IPv4) or eight groups of
hexadecimal numbers (IPv6).
Example: 192.168.1.1 (IPv4) or
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334 (IPv6).

 Subnetting: The process of dividing an IP network into smaller

sub-networks, or subnets, to optimize the network's
performance.

🔹 OSI Model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual

framework used to understand network interactions in seven layers.

Lay
Name Description
er

Applicati
7 End-user services (e.g., web browsers, email).
on

Presentat Data format conversion (e.g., encryption,

6
ion compression).

5 Session Manages sessions between applications.

4 Transport Reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP, UDP).

3 Network Routing, logical addressing (e.g., IP).

2 Data Link Physical addressing, error detection (e.g., MAC).

Transmission of raw data bits over physical

1 Physical
medium (e.g., cables).

🔹 Conclusion

Computer networks enable communication and resource sharing

between computers, whether in a small office or across the globe.
Understanding networking fundamentals is essential for building,
securing, and optimizing modern communication systems, from the
internet to enterprise-level networks.