Module:1

Overview of Networking Using the Internet as an Example

Networking is the process of connecting multiple devices to share data and

resources efficiently. The Internet is the largest and most widely used
example of a global network, connecting billions of devices across the world.

1. What is Networking?

Networking involves connecting computers, servers, and other devices to

facilitate communication and data exchange. It can be done via wired
(Ethernet, fiber optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, cellular, satellite) technologies.

2. How the Internet Works as a Network

The Internet is a global network of interconnected networks that use

standard communication protocols like TCP/IP to exchange data.

Key Components of Internet Networking:

1. End Devices (Clients & Servers)

o Clients: Devices like laptops, smartphones, and tablets that
request data from the Internet.
o Servers: Store and provide data to clients (e.g., websites, email
servers).
2. Routers & Switches
o Routers: Direct data packets between networks (e.g., from your
home Wi-Fi to an ISP).
o Switches: Manage data flow within a local network (LAN).
3. Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
o ISPs (e.g., Jio, Airtel, BSNL) provide Internet access to users.
o They connect home and business networks to the global Internet
backbone.
4. Data Transmission (Packet Switching)
o The Internet uses packet switching, where data is broken into
small packets, sent independently, and reassembled at the
destination.
 o This method makes the Internet efficient and fault-tolerant.

3. Internet Networking in Action (Example)

Example: Accessing a Website (www.google.com)

1. Your device (Client) sends a request to the DNS (Domain Name

System) to find the IP address of www.google.com.
2. The request is forwarded through your ISP to Google's web server.
3. The server processes the request and sends back the website data in
the form of packets.
4. The data is transmitted through routers and switches using TCP/IP
protocols.
5. Your browser receives the packets, reassembles them, and displays the
Google homepage.

4. Internet Protocols Used in Networking

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The

backbone of Internet communication.
 HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Used for web
browsing.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Translates website names to IP
addresses.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for downloading/uploading files.
 SMTP/IMAP/POP3: Email communication protocols.

5. Advantages of Internet Networking

✅ Global Connectivity – Connects people and businesses worldwide.

✅ Fast Communication – Enables instant messaging, video calls, and emails.
✅ Information Sharing – Provides access to vast amounts of information.
✅ Cloud Computing – Enables remote storage and services.
✅ E-commerce & Online Services – Supports online banking, shopping, and
entertainment.
 History and Development of Computer Networks
The development of computer networks has evolved from early
communication systems to today’s high-speed global Internet. Below is an
overview of the key milestones in networking history.

1. Early Communication Systems (Before 1950s)

 Before computers, communication was primarily through telegraph
(Morse code, 1837) and telephone networks (Alexander Graham
Bell, 1876).
 These systems laid the foundation for data transmission over wired
networks.

2. The Birth of Computer Networking (1950s - 1960s)

 1950s: Large mainframe computers used batch processing, where
users submitted jobs via punch cards.
 1960s: Scientists explored ways to connect computers for sharing data.
 1961: Leonard Kleinrock introduced packet switching, a revolutionary
concept where data is broken into small packets before transmission.
 1969: ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)
was created by the U.S. Department of Defense, becoming the first
operational computer network.
o The first message was sent between UCLA and Stanford
Research Institute on October 29, 1969.
o It used packet switching, a key technology still used in today’s
Internet.

3. Expansion of Networking (1970s - 1980s)

  1973: The concept of the TCP/IP protocol was introduced by Vinton
Cerf and Robert Kahn, forming the foundation of modern networking.
 1976: Ethernet was developed by Robert Metcalfe, enabling local area
networking (LAN).
 1981: IBM introduced Token Ring Networking, an alternative LAN
technology.
 1983: ARPANET adopted TCP/IP, leading to the development of the
modern Internet.
 1989: Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web (WWW),
introducing web pages and hyperlinks.

4. The Internet Era (1990s - 2000s)

 1991: The World Wide Web became publicly available, revolutionizing
information sharing.
 1993: The first graphical web browser, Mosaic, was developed, making
the Internet user-friendly.
 1995: Commercial Internet services emerged, with companies like
AOL, Yahoo, and Google growing rapidly.
 1999: The rise of Wi-Fi (802.11 standard) enabled wireless
networking.

5. Modern Networking (2010s - Present)

 2010s: Growth of cloud computing (AWS, Google Cloud, Azure),
enabling remote storage and services.
 2015-Present:
o Development of 5G networks for faster mobile data.
o Internet of Things (IoT) connects billions of smart devices.
o Advances in AI-driven networks, blockchain for security, and
quantum networking.
6. Future of Networking
 6G and Beyond: Faster wireless speeds with AI-driven automation.
 Quantum Networking: Uses quantum mechanics for ultra-secure
communication.
 Edge Computing: Reduces latency by processing data closer to users.
Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of
computers, devices, and connections in a network. It defines how data flows
between nodes (devices) in a network.

Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology
 Structure: All devices are connected to a single central cable
(backbone).
 Data Flow: Data travels in both directions along the backbone.
 Advantages:
✅ Simple and cost-effective.
✅ Requires less cabling.
 Disadvantages:
❌ If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down.
❌ High traffic can slow down performance.

2. Star Topology
 Structure: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
 Data Flow: Communication happens through the central hub.
 Advantages:
✅ Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
✅ Failure of one device does not affect the network.
 Disadvantages:
❌ If the central hub fails, the whole network stops working.
❌ Requires more cabling.
3. Ring Topology
 Structure: Devices are connected in a circular loop, forming a closed
circuit.
 Data Flow: Data travels in one or both directions in the ring.
 Advantages:
✅ Efficient for small networks.
✅ Prevents data collisions.
 Disadvantages:
❌ If one device fails, the entire network is affected.
❌ Difficult to expand.

4. Mesh Topology
 Structure: Every device is connected to every other device.
 Data Flow: Data can take multiple paths to reach its destination.
 Types:
o Full Mesh: All devices are connected to each other.
o Partial Mesh: Only some devices are interconnected.
 Advantages:
✅ Very reliable (failure of one connection doesn’t impact
communication).
✅ No traffic congestion.
 Disadvantages:
❌ Expensive due to high cabling costs.
❌ Complex to set up and maintain.

5. Tree (Hierarchical) Topology

  Structure: Combination of Star and Bus topologies, with multiple star
networks connected to a central backbone.
 Data Flow: Data moves between different hierarchical levels.
 Advantages:
✅ Scalable and supports large networks.
✅ Easy to expand.
 Disadvantages:
❌ If the backbone cable fails, the whole network collapses.
❌ Complex and expensive.

6. Hybrid Topology
 Structure: Combination of two or more topologies (e.g., Star-Mesh,
Star-Bus).
 Advantages:
✅ Flexible and scalable.
✅ Reliable due to multiple topologies.
 Disadvantages:
❌ Complex and costly to set up.

Choosing the Right Topology

Factor Best Topology
Small Office Star
High Reliability Mesh
Cost-Effective Bus
Scalability Tree
LANs and WANs
Computer networks are classified based on their geographical coverage and
purpose. Two important types are Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide
Area Networks (WANs).

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

A LAN is a network that connects computers and devices within a small
geographical area, such as a home, office, or campus.
Characteristics of LAN
 Covers a small area (e.g., a single building or a few nearby buildings).
 High data transfer speeds (typically 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps).
 Uses Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, or fiber optics for connectivity.
 Privately owned (e.g., by a company or organization).
 Low latency (fast data transmission with minimal delay).
Examples of LAN
 Office or corporate networks.
 University or school computer labs.
 Home Wi-Fi networks.
Advantages of LAN
✅ High speed and efficiency.
✅ Easy file and resource sharing.
✅ Secure, as it is a private network.
✅ Cheaper to set up and maintain.
Disadvantages of LAN
❌ Limited coverage area.
❌ Network failure in the server can disrupt connectivity.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

A WAN is a network that connects multiple LANs over a large geographical
area, such as cities, countries, or even globally.
Characteristics of WAN
 Covers a large area (e.g., cities, countries, or continents).
 Lower data transfer speeds (typically 1 Mbps to 100 Gbps,
depending on technology).
 Uses public and private communication links like fiber optics,
satellite, and leased telephone lines.
 Can be privately or publicly owned (e.g., a company’s WAN or the
Internet).
 Higher latency due to long-distance data transmission.
Examples of WAN
 The Internet (largest WAN in the world).
 Banking networks (connecting ATMs and branches).
 Corporate networks spanning multiple locations.
Advantages of WAN
✅ Covers a vast geographical area.
✅ Allows global communication and data sharing.
✅ Supports business operations across multiple locations.
Disadvantages of WAN
❌ Expensive setup and maintenance.
❌ Slower speeds compared to LAN.
❌ Security risks due to public data transmission.
 Comparison: LAN vs. WAN
Feature LAN WAN
Coverage Area Small (single building, campus) Large (cities, countries, global)
Speed High (100 Mbps – 10 Gbps) Lower (1 Mbps – 100 Gbps)
Ownership Private Private or Public
Technology Used Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Fiber Fiber optics, Satellites, Leased
lines
Latency Low High
Cost Low High
Conclusion
 LAN is best for small-scale, high-speed networking within a limited
area.
 WAN is essential for connecting distant locations over large areas.
OSI Reference Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework
that standardizes network communication into seven layers. It was
developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to
enable different systems to communicate using a structured approach.

7 Layers of the OSI Model

Layer Function Protocols/Devices
7. Application User interaction with HTTP, FTP, SMTP, Web
applications browsers
6. Presentation Data translation, encryption, SSL, TLS, JPEG, MP3
compression
5. Session Manages sessions and NetBIOS, PPTP
connections
4. Transport Reliable data delivery, error TCP, UDP
checking
3. Network Routing, addressing, packet IP, ICMP, Routers
forwarding
2. Data Link Framing, MAC addressing, error Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Switches
detection
1. Physical Transmission of raw bits over a Cables, Hubs, Fiber Optics
medium

Explanation of Each Layer

1. Physical Layer (Hardware & Transmission)
  Defines how raw data (bits: 0s and 1s) are transmitted over the
network.
 Deals with cables, signals, voltages, and hardware components like
hubs and repeaters.
📌 Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, radio waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

2. Data Link Layer (Framing & Error Control)

 Handles MAC (Media Access Control) addressing to identify devices.
 Ensures error detection and flow control in data transmission.
 Divided into MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Logical Link
Control) sublayers.
📌 Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
🔹 Devices: Switches, Network Interface Cards (NICs).

3. Network Layer (Routing & IP Addressing)

 Manages logical addressing (IP addresses) to route packets across
networks.
 Determines the best path for data to travel.
 Handles fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
📌 Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (ping), OSPF, RIP.

🔹 Devices: Routers.

4. Transport Layer (Reliable Communication)

 Ensures end-to-end communication between devices.
 Uses segmentation and reassembly of data.
 Provides error detection and retransmission.
📌 Protocols:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable, connection-oriented.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Fast, connectionless, used for
streaming.

5. Session Layer (Session Management)

 Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.
 Supports authentication and authorization.
 Ensures data exchange is synchronized.
📌 Examples: NetBIOS, PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol).

6. Presentation Layer (Data Formatting & Encryption)

 Translates data formats (e.g., text to binary, ASCII to Unicode).
 Performs compression (reduces file size) and encryption (security).
📌 Examples: JPEG, MP3, MPEG, SSL/TLS for encryption.

7. Application Layer (User Interface & Services)

 Provides network services to applications (e.g., web browsing, email).
 Enables users to interact with network-based applications.
📌 Examples:
 HTTP/HTTPS (Web browsing).
 SMTP, POP3, IMAP (Email).
 FTP, SFTP (File transfer).
OSI vs. TCP/IP Model
Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Number of Layers 7 4
Developed By ISO DARPA (for ARPANET)
Layer Functions Each layer has a distinct Some layers are merged
function
Common Use Theoretical model Practical
implementation

🔹 The OSI Model is used for teaching and conceptual understanding, while
the TCP/IP Model is used in real-world networking (like the Internet).
 Internet TCP/IP Protocol Stack
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model is
a simplified networking model used for real-world Internet
communication. It was developed by DARPA for ARPANET, the predecessor
of the modern Internet.
📌 Key Points:
✔ It consists of four layers (compared to the OSI model's seven layers).
✔ It is a practical implementation used in the Internet.
✔ It defines how data is sent, routed, and received across networks.

4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Layer Equivalent Function Protocols/Technologies
OSI Layers
Application Application, Provides services HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS,
Presentation, to applications SSH
Session
Transport Transport Reliable/unreliable TCP, UDP
communication
Internet Network Routing, IP IP, ICMP, ARP, OSPF
addressing
Network Data Link + Physical data Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP
Access Physical transmission

Explanation of Each Layer

1. Network Access Layer (Link Layer)
 Responsible for physical data transmission over the network medium.
  Deals with MAC addresses, error detection, and hardware
interactions.
 Similar to OSI’s Data Link + Physical layers.
📌 Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
🔹 Devices: Switches, Network Interface Cards (NICs), Hubs.

2. Internet Layer
 Handles logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing of packets.
 Responsible for fragmentation and reassembly of data.
 Works like OSI’s Network Layer.
📌 Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol) – Defines addressing (IPv4, IPv6).
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) – Used for error reporting
(e.g., ping).
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) – Maps IP addresses to MAC
addresses.
🔹 Devices: Routers.

3. Transport Layer
 Ensures end-to-end communication between devices.
 Manages error detection, retransmission, and flow control.
 Works like OSI’s Transport Layer.
📌 Protocols:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) – Reliable, connection-oriented
(e.g., web browsing, email).
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) – Fast, connectionless (e.g., video
streaming, gaming).
 4. Application Layer
 Provides network services to applications.
 Includes OSI’s Application, Presentation, and Session layers.
📌 Protocols:
 HTTP/HTTPS – Web browsing.
 FTP – File transfers.
 SMTP, POP3, IMAP – Email.
 DNS (Domain Name System) – Translates domain names to IP
addresses.
🔹 Example: When you type www.google.com, the DNS converts it into an IP
address, and HTTP fetches the webpage.

Comparison: OSI Model vs. TCP/IP Model

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Number of Layers 7 4

Use Case Conceptual Model Practical Implementation

Reliability Detailed error handling Focuses on functionality

Flexibility More theoretical More flexible and used in the Internet

Conclusion
 The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the modern Internet and
networking.
 It simplifies communication compared to the OSI model.
  It allows devices to connect and exchange data globally. 🚀

Client/Server Paradigm
The Client/Server Paradigm is a fundamental model for communication in
computer networks, where a client requests services, and a server provides
them. This model is widely used in web applications, databases, and cloud
computing.

Key Components
1. Client:
o A device or software that initiates requests for services.
o Example: Web browsers (Chrome, Firefox) act as clients when
requesting a webpage.
2. Server:
o A system that responds to client requests and provides the
requested services.
o Example: A web server hosting a website.
3. Network:
o The communication medium between clients and servers.
o Example: The Internet, LAN, Wi-Fi.

How It Works?
1. The client sends a request to the server.
2. The server processes the request.
3. The server sends a response back to the client.
🔹 Example:
  When you type "www.google.com", your browser (client) requests
data from Google’s web server.
 Google’s server processes the request and sends the webpage data
back.
 Your browser displays the webpage.

Types of Client/Server Architectures

1. Two-Tier Architecture
 Direct communication between Client ↔ Server.
 Example: Database applications (Client sends queries, Server returns
results).
2. Three-Tier Architecture
 Client ↔ Application Server ↔ Database Server
 Separates processing and storage for better performance.
 Example: Web applications (Frontend ↔ Backend ↔ Database).
3. Multi-Tier Architecture
 Extends three-tier by adding load balancers, caching layers, or
microservices.
 Example: Large-scale applications like Netflix, Amazon.

Advantages
✔ Centralized Management – Servers control resources, making
administration easier.
✔ Scalability – Servers can handle multiple clients efficiently.
✔ Security – Data is controlled and managed securely on the server.
✔ Better Performance – Optimized resource allocation.

Disadvantages
❌ Single Point of Failure – If the server crashes, all clients lose access.
❌ Scalability Issues – High traffic may require powerful servers.
❌ Latency – Delays in response time over long distances.

Comparison: Client/Server vs. Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

Feature Client/Server Peer-to-Peer (P2P)
Control Centralized Decentralized
Scalability Can be optimized Limited by peers’ resources
Security More secure Less secure
Examples Web browsing, Online banking Torrenting, Blockchain

Conclusion
The Client/Server model is widely used in modern computing for websites,
cloud services, and enterprise applications. It enables efficient data
management, scalability, and security, making it the backbone of the
Internet. 🚀
End-to-End Communication: Packet Switching and Circuit Switching
End-to-end communication is the process of transmitting data between two
devices over a network. It ensures data integrity, reliability, and efficiency.
There are two primary techniques for establishing communication:

1. Packet Switching (Used in the Internet 🌍)

Packet switching is a method where data is divided into smaller packets
and sent independently across a network. These packets may take different
routes and are reassembled at the destination.
🔹 How It Works?
1. The message is broken into packets (each packet contains source,
destination, sequence number, and data).
2. Each packet travels independently through the network.
3. At the receiver’s end, packets are reassembled in order.
Types of Packet Switching
🔹 Datagram Switching (Connectionless)
 Packets take independent routes.
 Each packet is treated separately.
 Example: UDP-based communication (video streaming, VoIP).
🔹 Virtual Circuit Switching (Connection-Oriented)
 A logical path is established before transmission.
 All packets follow the same route.
 Example: TCP-based communication (web browsing, email).
Advantages of Packet Switching
✔ Efficient Use of Bandwidth – No need to reserve a full path.
✔ Fault Tolerance – If one path fails, packets take another route.
✔ Supports Multiple Users – Data from different users can share the
network.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching
❌ Possible Packet Delay – Packets may arrive at different times.
❌ Reassembly Overhead – Extra processing is needed to reconstruct data.

📌 Example: The Internet, Emails, WhatsApp messages, File downloads.

2. Circuit Switching (Used in Telephone Networks ☎)

Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path between
sender and receiver before transmission begins. The entire path is reserved
for that communication session.
🔹 How It Works?
1. A physical path is reserved between sender and receiver.
2. The entire message is sent through the dedicated path.
3. Once communication is done, the circuit is released.
Phases of Circuit Switching
1. Circuit Establishment – A dedicated path is set up.
2. Data Transfer – The sender transmits data.
3. Circuit Termination – The connection is closed after data transfer.
Advantages of Circuit Switching
✔ Guaranteed Bandwidth – No interference from other users.
✔ Low Delay – Data is transmitted without waiting for routing decisions.
✔ Reliable Transmission – No risk of lost packets.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
❌ Inefficient Use of Resources – The reserved path stays idle if not in use.
❌ Slow Setup Time – Establishing the path takes time.
❌ Not Scalable for Internet Use – The Internet needs dynamic resource
sharing.
📌 Example: Telephone networks (landlines, traditional voice calls).

Comparison: Packet Switching vs. Circuit Switching

Feature Packet Switching (Internet) Circuit Switching
(Telephony)
Connection Dynamic, packets take different Dedicated path is
routes established
Efficiency High, as bandwidth is shared Low, as bandwidth is
reserved
Scalability Very scalable (used in the Not scalable for large
Internet) networks
Reliability Packet loss possible, but Reliable once connection
retransmission helps is set
Example Internet, Email, WhatsApp Landline, PSTN calls

Conclusion
 Packet switching is used in the Internet, making communication fast,
scalable, and efficient.
 Circuit switching is used in telephone networks, ensuring reliable,
uninterrupted voice calls.
 The Internet relies on packet switching because it handles multiple
users dynamically. 🚀