Introduction

Fluids mechanics has develop as an analytical discipline from the application of the classical laws of statistics, dynamics and thermodynamics, to situations in which fluids can be treated as continuous media. The particular laws involved are those of the conservation of mass, energy and momentum and, in each application, these laws can be simplified in an attempt to describe quantitatively the behavior of the fluid. A weir is an opening in the sidewall of a tank at top. The stream of liquid coming out the weir is known as a nappe, sheet, or vein. There is no difference between a notch and weir except that the former is a small structure and has sharp edges. A weir is generally an overflow structure, with a broad crest, built across an open channel. The terms air and weirs are used synonymously in general. The top of weir wall over which the liquid flows is known as the sill or crest. The head under which the weir is discharging is measured from the crest to the free surface. A weir or notch is generally used for measuring the flow of liquids. In this experiment, we are using the rectangular weirs and triangular weirs. Rectangular weirs and triangular or v-notch weirs are often used in water supply, wastewater and sewage systems. They consist of a sharp edged plate with a rectangular, triangular or v-notch profile for the water flow. Broad-crested weirs can be observed in dam spillways where the broad edge is beneath the water surface across the entire stream. Flow measurement installations with broad-crested weirs will meet accuracy requirements only if they are calibrated. There are different types of weir. It may be a simple metal plate with a V-notch cut into it, or it may be a concrete and steel structure across the bed of a river. A weir which causes a large change of water level behind it, compared to the error inherent in the depth measurement method, will give an accurate indication of the flow rate. Some of them are: i ) Broad-crested weir A broad-crested weir is a flat-crested structure, with a long crest compared to the flow thickness (Chanson 1999, 2004, Henderson 1966, Sturm 2001). When the crest is broad,the streamlines become parallel to the crest invert and the pressure distribution above the crest is hydrostatic. The hydraulic characteristics of broad-crested weirs were studied during the 19th and 20th centuries. Practical experience showed that the weir overflow is affected by the upstream flow conditions and the weir geometry. ii ) Sharp crested weir (fayoum weir) A sharp-crested weir allows the water to fall cleanly away from the weir. Sharp crested weirs are typically 1/4" or thinner metal plates. Sharp crested weirs come in many different shapes such as rectangular, V-notch and Cipolletti weirs.

iii ) Combination weir The sharp crested weirs can be considered into three groups according to the geometry of weir: a) the rectangular weir, b) the V or triangular notch and c) special notches, such as trapezoidal, circular or parabolic weirs. For accurate flow measurement over a wider range of flow rates, a combination weir combines a V-notch weir with a rectangular weir. This is typically used in pipes ranging from 4" to 15" in diameter.

Theory
In hydraulic engineering, weirs are commonly employed to regulate flow in rivers and other open channels. The diagrams below indicate the essential features of flow over rectangular or V-shaped notches. Consider the motion of a particle of fluid from a position M some distance upstream of the weir to its subsequent position N in the plane of the vertical weir plate. If there is no energy loss, according to Bernoullis equation,

u 2 PM u2 P M ZM N N Z N . 2g W 2g W

(1)

Now, provided the approach channel has a much larger cross-sectional area than the notch, the fluid in the vertical plane, containing M, will be comparatively at rest, so that is almost an hydrostatic condition for which the total head of all points has the same value, H, relative to the Datum (reference point), shown in Figure 1c,

h h b (a) (b)

h h N Zn

M H Datum (c)

Making the further (but less justifiable) assumption that PN = 0, ie., the static pressure at N is atmospheric, equation (1) simplifies to

u2 N ZN H . 2g
From Fig. 1, it can be shown that
H ZN h thus, u2 N h. 2g

(2)

(3)

This velocity is the same as that which would be attained by a particle falling freely from the level of the upstream surface to the position N. The discharge over the weir may now be found by integration.

For a rectangular weir of width b, the area of an element having height h is b. h, so that the flow rate q through it is
q u N b h 2 gh b h .

(4)

The total flow rate q obtained by integrating between zero and H gives a result which neglects the lowering of the surface in the plane of the weir, and is given as,
q

2gh b dh ,

(5)

or
q
2 3

2g b H

(6)

The V-shaped weir with a notch of an angle 2, has element width = 2(H - h)tan, so that the area if the element having height h is 2(H - h)tan.h. Thus,
q u N 2( H h)tan h .

(7)

The flow rate through this element is developed as above, by integration between the limits of 0 and H, to give
q
8 15

2g tan H

(8)

A considerable contraction of the stream occurs as it passes through the V-notch. This contraction can be seen in Fig. 1c, taking place in the vertical plane. Note the upper surface slopes downwards over the notch and the lower surface springs from the crest of the notch in an upwards direction. In the horizontal plane, the water leaves the edges of the weir in a curve which reduces the width of the stream. This contraction is the same as that observed at a sharp-edged orifice, and has the same effect of reducing the discharge. It is therefore customary to rewrite these equations in the form:

Re c tan gular notch:

q Cd

2 3

2g b H

; and

(9)

V notch:

q Cd

8 15

2g tan H

(10)

In both cases, Cd is the coefficient of discharge of the notch, which may not be independent of H, and may be determined experimentally.

Results
Rectangular notch Height of Water Volume Collected, V 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 Time for collection, t (s) 35.34 14.12 8.22 4.56 3.50 2.53 Volume Flow Rate, Qt (m3/s) 8.49 x 10-5 2.12 x 10-4 3.65 x 10-4 6.58 x 10-4 8.57 x 10-4 1.19 x 10-3 Vee Notch Discharge Coefficient, Cd 0.96 2.39 4.12 7.43 9.68 13.44

Level, h (m) (m3) 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Vee-notch Height of water level, h (m) Volume collected, V (m3) 0.01 0.02 0.03 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 3 x 10-3 38.10 10.75 3.10 7.87 x 10-5 2.79 x 10-4 9.68 x 10-4 Time for Collection, t (s) Volume Flow Rate, Qt (m3/s) Vee Notch Discharge Coefficient, Cd 3.33 1.18 40.98

Calculations
Rectangular notch i) Volume flow rate, Qt = volume collected/time for collection = 0.003 m3/ 35.34 s = 8.49 x 10-5 m3/s

ii)

Rectangular Notch, H3/2

= (0.01m)3/2 = 1.00 x 10-3 m3/2

iii)

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =

3Qt

2b(2g) H3//2 = 3(8.49 x 10-5m3/s) .

2(0.03 m) 2(9.807 m/s2) (1.00 x 10-3 m3/2)

= 0.959

Triangular (Vee) Notch

i)

Volume flow rate, Qt = volume collected/time for collection = 0.003 m3 / 38.10 s = 7.87 x 10-5m3/s

ii)

Vee Notch, H5/2

= (0.01 m)5/2 = 1.00 x 10-5m5/2

iii)

Coefficient of Discharge, Cd =

15Qt

8 tan (2g) H5/2 2 = 15(7.87 x 10-5 m3/s) .

8 tan (45o) 2(9.807 m/s2) (1.00 x 10-5m5/2)

= 3.33 Calculation of error the Discharge Coefficient (Cd) From the theory, the Cd value is 0.685 = Theoretical value of Cd - Experimental value of Cd x 100% Theoretical value of Cd Rectangular notch : = 0.959 0.685 x 100% 0.685

40 %

Vee notch :

3.33 0.685 x 100% 0.685

= 386.13 %

Discussion
From the experiment, we are about to determine the discharged coefficient of the both rectangular and the triangular notches. The discharged coefficient for the rectangular notch are influenced by its H and also its volumetric flow rate while the triangular notch are influenced by its , H and also its volumetric flow rate. The values of Cd for vee notch at low flow rate were not in wide variations because the low height increments. But the values of Cd for rectangular notch at lower flow rates were in quite wide variations because the difference of values of height was in wide range. From the results, we can see that the trend of volumetric flow rates of both notches are increased. These showed that the water outflow increased as the H increased. These is supposed to happen as the water level increased, the water outflow from the notch should be increased over time. But from the discharged coefficient for V-notch, we can see that the values of the notches are not stable. This may be from the friction at the head of the notches during the starter of the experiment. The friction will affect the time taken to collect 3 liters of the water. Thus it will affect the volumetric flow rate and also the discharged coefficient as the volumetric flow rate influenced the value of the Cd. These deviations of values are contributed by the errors during handling the experiment. If we take it as overall errors, most of errors occurred when step of taking the height started. First, we have to be careful about the height of datum. For convenience, it is recommended to take your datum height as zero. Other than that, the time should be taken at least 3 times to take the average so that the error during the time taken can be minimized. The purpose of doing it is to minimize the errors. Besides that, we noticed that there is inconsistency in our readings because of the error that occur.

Conclusion
i. Rectangular weir has wide range variations of Cd. This is because this notch has width, b with 0.03 m. ii. V-notch has small range of variations for the value of Cd. This is because this notch has an angle at its bottom where about 90o. This angle might affect the values of flowrate and Cd. iii. Therefore the best discharged coefficient, Cd is from the V-notch compared to rectangular notch.

Recommendation
i. The data that was observed in the experiment that was time gain should be taken twice. This can avoid the very wide deviation because of only take once of each observation. Take care not to allow spillage to occur over the plate top adjacent to the notch. If this happened, it would effect the collection of known volume.

ii.

iii.

Once the data were taken, the procedure cannot be reverse to find the value of time collection by adjusting the height. This would affect the value of height datum. The height datum must be constant and the observation should be done once round for the little increment of height especially for V-notch.

iv.

The readings of height should be taken carefully by avoiding sight error. The time collection should be taken much appropriately.

References
1. http://www.gitam.edu/eres ource/environmental/mur ali/notches.htm\ 2. http://en.wikip edia.org/wiki/Weir 3. http://www.engineeringtoolb ox.com/weirs- f low-r ate- d_592.html 4. htt p:// www.cus s ons.co.uk/S OFTWAR E/Par t5/P ART5.HTM 5. Fluid Flow, Heat Transfer and Mass TransferVolume 1, Sixth Edition, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering by J M Coulson & J F Richardson with J R Backhurst and J H Harker.