The New Zealand

Piped Irrigation Systems

Design Standards

THE NEW ZEALAND PIPED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS DESIGN STANDARDS | i

 Contents
Introduction 1
Date of Issue: October 2012
Revision: 22 May 2013 Purpose 1
Address for comments: Audience 1
Piped Irrigation Systems
Design Standards Intent 1
Irrigation New Zealand Acknowledgements 1
6 Sonter Road
Wigram
Christchurch
Design standards 2
[Link]
1 Irrigation system performance indicators 2
ISBN No. 978-0-473-25346-2 2 Water application 3
© Irrigation New Zealand 2013 3 Hydraulic design 4
NOTE: This Code is paired 4 Pumping stations 6
with The New Zealand Piped
Irrigation Systems Design Code 5 Measurement and monitoring 8
of Practice 6 Documentation 8
References 9
Definitions 9

Supported by Sustainable Farming Fund

Introduction
Purpose Acknowledgements
Irrigation New Zealand, in consultation with its stakeholders and Organisations, individuals and stakeholders contributing to the
as part of its mission to promote excellence in irrigation, has preparation of this document include:
initiated the development of The New Zealand Piped Irrigation • Irrigation New Zealand
Systems Design Standards.
• Parkland Products Ltd – Peter Gant
This document provides a set of design standards to measure • Hydro Services Ltd – Tony Davoren
the adequacy of piped irrigation systems in New Zealand.
• Page Bloomer Associates – Dan Bloomer
It also describes the design standards, and gives corresponding
performance indicator values which should be aimed for during • Water Dynamics Ltd – Steve McNally
the design process. • Fruitfed Ltd – Dan Norman
This document is intended to be used in conjunction with • Aqualinc Research Ltd – Ian McIndoe and Joe Powers
The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design Code of • Ron Dalley
Practice (INZ, 2012). The design code of practice assist designers
• Individuals, farmers, and staff from irrigation design
through the process of developing an irrigation system;
and supply companies in New Zealand, who willingly
providing a general design approach aimed at meeting the
provided advice
design standards and corresponding performance indicator
values set out in this document. Financial support for preparation of this document has been
provided by:
The design process described in the design code of practice, and
the standards contained in this document, are intended to be • Ministry of Primary Industries (Sustainable Farming Fund &
applied to agricultural irrigation systems. They do not amend or Irrigation Acceleration Fund)
replace other industry performance indicators, guidelines, codes • Irrigation New Zealand
of practice or standards. • Northland Regional Council
• Hawkes Bay Regional Council
Audience • Southland Regional Council
• Tasman District Council
This document is intended for designers of piped irrigation
systems. This may include engineers, equipment suppliers, and • Taranaki Regional Council
specialist irrigation designers. • Environment Waikato
It is also envisaged that this document will be used by • Environment Canterbury
those interested in assessing the performance of installed • DairyNZ
irrigation systems.
• FAR
Organisations, individuals and stakeholders who contributed to
Intent the 2012 review of this document include:

This document is intended as an industry best practice guideline. • Aqualinc Research Ltd – Ian McIndoe
Designers should interpret it according to the requirements of • PageBloomer Associates – Dan Bloomer
individual properties and owners. All decisions made must also • Opus International Consultants – Stephen McNally
comply with statutes, regulations, and other legal requirements and Nick Adams
and industry standards.
• Irrigation New Zealand – Andrew Curtis and Brett Marais
• Individuals, farmers, and staff from irrigation design and
supply companies in New Zealand, who willingly
provided advice

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DESIGN STANDARDS

Design Standards
1 Irrigation system performance indicators
The requirement to specify performance indicators has been described in The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design Code of
Practice (INZ, 2012).

Table 1 provides a summary of the target performance values that irrigation designs should achieve.

Table 1: Performance indicators and relevant standards.

Performance Indicator Unit(s) Design Standard

Water Use Efficiency
System capacity: ℓ/s/ha Meets the reasonable needs of the crop
(based on 24 hours) mm/day
Ratio of system capacity to peak season crop % 80–120%
irrigation demand
Application depth mm (range) < MAD
Ratio of applied depth to the design maximum % <100%
management allowable deficit (MAD)
Return interval Days hours Corresponds to system capacity and application depth.
See Section 2.6
Ratio of application intensity to soil infiltration rate % < 100%
Application uniformity % ratio CUc > 85%, DUlq > 80%
Adequacy of irrigation ratio 87%
Potential application efficiency % Depends on system type as relates to field distribution
Distribution efficiency % 100%
Mainline efficiency % > 95%
Headwork efficiency % 90%, < 3 m pressure loss. See Section 4.8
Energy Use Efficiency
System pumping efficiency % Best possible efficiency for the particular situation
Pump Operating Cost $/ha/yr System dependent
$/m3

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 DESIGN STANDARDS

2 Water application
2.1 PEAK FLOW RATES AND 2.6 RETURN INTERVAL
SEASONAL ALLOCATIONS The interval between irrigation events must be short enough
Designers must consider all of the relevant factors that that the soil will not dry below the management allowable
determine how much water the irrigation system will be deficit (MAD).
designed to apply and how often, and then design a system that
The return interval must not exceed the interval determined by
meets those requirements in an efficient manner. Designers must
the following formula:
also ensure that the peak flow rate of the system, and seasonal
crop water requirements, meet irrigation scheme or regional Return interval = Dn
council requirements. W×f
Where:
If resource consents are required for the taking and using of
water, designers must ensure that the system meets all relevant Dn is the net application depth (mm)
conditions of consent. W is the system capacity (mm/day)
f is the crop factor
2.2 IRRIGATION AREA
When choosing an irrigation area, the designer must consult the 2.7 APPLICATION INTENSITY
purchaser and take into account any site-specific constraints, as A spray irrigation system must be designed to apply water at
discussed in The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design an intensity that does not cause surface runoff or excessive
Code of Practice (INZ, 2012). ponding on the soil surface during irrigation or after irrigation
has ceased.
2.3 SYSTEM CAPACITY
On flat land, the average application intensity (Ra) over the time
The designer must select an irrigation system capacity (W) to water is applied must not exceed the average infiltration rate of
meet the reasonable needs of the crop, as discussed in The the soil over the same time period.
New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design Code of Practice
(INZ, 2012). On land with a slope >5%, both the average application
intensity (Ra) and the instantaneous intensity (Ri) must not
2.4 APPLICATION EFFICIENCY exceed the infiltration rate of the soil.
The design application efficiency (Ea) must be ≥ 80%. If site The design infiltration rate must be adjusted for slope, as
constraints dictate the need for a system with lower Ea, the described in Section 3.7 of The New Zealand Piped Irrigation
designer must clearly explain the on-going energy, water use, Systems Design Code of Practice (INZ, 2012).
leaching potential, crop and cost implications to the purchaser.
2.8 APPLICATION UNIFORMITY
2.5 APPLICATION DEPTH
Spray irrigation
The gross depth of application (Dg) must take into consideration
All spray irrigation systems should be designed to achieve a
the design application efficiency (Ea), as follows:
minimum DUlq of 80% or CUc of 85%.
Dg = 100 × Dn When applying fertilisers or chemicals through the system,
Ea
CUc must be at least 85%, (0.76 DU), regardless of the method of
The net application depth Dn must not be greater than the irrigation used.
expected soil moisture deficit unless saline soils are being
For shallow rooted crops and frost fighting, the minimum should
irrigated or irrigation water contains a significant amount of salt.
be CUc > 90% and DUlq > 82%.
In these situations additional water may be applied to leach
salts through the soil profile. In these scenarios, the leaching When applying wastewater, CUc must be at least > 85%.
requirement may be added to the gross depth of application to
If site constraints dictate the need for a system with lower
determine total application depth.
uniformity, the designer must clearly explain the on-going
energy, water use, crop and cost implications to the purchaser.

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DESIGN STANDARDS

Micro-sprinkler and drip irrigation

The minimum design emission uniformity (EUdes) for different
3 Hydraulic design
micro irrigation types is shown in Table 2.
3.1 WATER VELOCITY
Table 2: Minimum EUdes for microsprinkler and drip irrigation
Maximum water velocity
Crop type Emission uniformity (%) Table 3 lists the recommended water velocity thresholds
Microsprinkler 85 in different pipe systems. Designers must ensure that these
Drip – point source 90 thresholds are not exceeded, unless a surge analysis or
manufacturer’s literature shows that this is acceptable.
Drip – inline emitters 90
Table 3: Recommended maximum water velocities
2.9 ADEQUACY OF IRRIGATION
Adequacy of irrigation is a measure of the proportion of the Condition/location Velocity (m/s)
target area in which the soil is restored to a predetermined Less than 150 mm, open ended, controlled 3.0
moisture content. This is calculated as the ratio of the mean start and stop
DUlq applied, to the mean required (target) depth. 150 mm or greater, open ended, controlled 2.0
start and stop
2.10 IRRIGATION SYSTEM SELECTION Less than 150 mm, uncontrolled start and stop 1.5

Select an irrigation system type that is capable of meeting all 150 mm or greater, uncontrolled start and stop 1.0
water application criteria. It must also meet the purchaser’s
expectations as outlined in The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Minimum water velocity
Systems Design Code of Practice (INZ, 2012). Designers must specify pipe diameters and flow rates that allow
for a minimum operational water velocity according to Table 4.
The designer must provide a description of the performance of This will ensure that any sediment or solids are flushed through
the system and how well it meets the crop and enterprise needs. the lines.

Table 4: Minimum water velocities

Condition/location Velocity (m/s)

Flushing fine sediment (e.g. in tapes) 0.4
Flushing coarse sediment 0.5
Flushing air, particularly in small diameter pipes 0.6
Flushing water containing solid material 1.0

3.2 SURGE AND WATER HAMMER

Designers must consider possible effects of surge and water
hammer. A surge analysis may be necessary and mitigation
measures specified to lessen the risk of damage.

3.3 PRESSURE AND FLOW VARIATION

The design must specify a way to measure the pressure, and if
required the flow, at each outlet or block of outlets.

Agricultural spray irrigation

The design pressure variation at the outlets must not exceed:
• 20% of the outlet operating pressure at any point in
the system, and
• 15% of the outlet operating pressure over 80% of
the outlet positions within an irrigation zone

Microsprinkler or drip irrigation

Pressures must be set so that the maximum variation in emitter
flow within a block or subunit does not exceed ±5% of the
average emitter flow.

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 DESIGN STANDARDS

Turf and amenity irrigation Filters for sprinkler irrigation

Pressures must be set so that the maximum variation in flow at In manually controlled systems, the size of the mesh orifices
the sprinklers within a block or subunit does not exceed ±5% of must be no greater than one quarter of the sprinkler outlet
the design sprinkler flow. diameter.

Pressures must be set so that the maximum variation in flow In systems with automatic valves, the manufacturer’s
within a block or subunit does not exceed 10% of the outlet specification must be followed, or a minimum of 80 mesh used.
operating pressure at any point in the system.
Filters for micro-irrigation
3.4 PIPE FRICTION Disc/screen filter openings must be no greater than one
Main pipelines should be designed so that friction losses are fifth of the emitter orifice diameter. The manufacturer’s
between 1.5 m and 5 m per 100 m of pipe. This value is reflected recommendations regarding appropriate filtration for the micro
in the hydraulic efficiency figure in Table 1. emitter must be followed.

3.5 AIR RELEASE Filters for drip irrigation

The size of the screen or disc orifices must not be more than
Specify one air release valve for the highest point in
one seventh of the drip emitter’s outlet diameter.
the headworks.
When using a sand filter, a secondary control screen or disc filter
For irrigation systems with long pipelines, include at least one
must be placed on the downstream side of the sand filter, to
additional air relief valve for every 1,000 m of pipe.
catch the impurities in case of damage to the sand filter.
For irrigation systems located in undulating terrain, include air
The drip manufacturer’s recommendations must be followed
release valves at all high points where air may build up.
when using filters.
Sizing and type of air valve should follow
manufacturer’s recommendations. 3.8 THRUST BLOCKS
Thrust blocks must be specified for each bend, valve, tee,
3.6 PRESSURE OR VACUUM RELIEF reducer, dead end cap, and blank flange greater than 90 mm
The design must specify if pressure or vacuum relief valves are in diameter.
necessary. It must also specify the type of valve to be used, and
Thrust blocks must be designed according to good industry
the location in which it should be installed.
practice, as outlined in The New Zealand Piped Irrigation
Sizing and type of valve must comply with Systems Installation Code of Practice (INZ, 2012).
manufacturer’s recommendations.
3.9 DISTRIBUTION EFFICIENCY
3.7 FILTRATION Distribution efficiency must be 100%.

Filter size
3.10 HYDRAULIC EFFICIENCY
The maximum velocity through filters must not exceed
manufacturer’s recommendations. Hydraulic efficiency must be ≥ 95%.

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DESIGN STANDARDS

4 Pumping stations 4.4 SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS

When determining the pump duty point, include allowances for
4.1 PUMPING EFFICIENCY drawdown in bores or wells and for fluctuations in groundwater
level over time.
Designers must consider the efficiency of both the pump and
the motor when making selections for an irrigation system. The velocity of water in the rising column must not exceed
2.5 m/s.
Pump efficiency
The velocity of water in the annular space between the pump
Pumps with the highest level of efficiency at the operating point
motor and the well casing:
must be selected, subject to acceptable economic capital and
operating costs. • Must be at least 0.3 m/s
• Must not exceed 5 m/s,
Pumps must be selected so that they operate at or near their
maximum efficiency points as often as is reasonably possible. unless otherwise specified by the pump manufacturer.

If a check valve is to be used in the rising column, it must be set?

Motor efficiency at a height no greater than 7 m above the lowest expected static
Electric motors must be selected and matched to pumps so that water level.
they operate at greater than 95% of maximum motor efficiency
under normal operating conditions. A probe tube must be installed in all wells to allow water levels
to be monitored, and water samples to be collected.
Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) are included
in Australian Standard AS/NZS 1359.5:2000, which sets out 4.5 PUMP ELECTRICS
minimum energy performance and labelling of motors in
All electrical systems must be designed to meet local and
Australia and New Zealand.
national electrical standards and requirements.
When specifying a diesel engine to power a pump, the designer
Electrical systems for pumps must include, at a minimum:
must follow manufacturer’s recommendations and remember to
derate the engine according to the altitude at which the engine • A starter type that meets local lines company and energy
will be operating. supplier requirements
• A manual switch-on and switch-off for each pump
4.2 SAFETY FACTOR • High and low pressure or flow cut-outs
If the designer is selecting the pump, additional capacity to the • High pressure or zero-flow cut-offs on the upstream side
calculated pump pressure and flow rate should be added as of pressure regulating valves, if fitted
a precaution.
• Low water level protection
• Flow rate add 5–10% additional capacity
• Fault indicators (to identify the reason for a fault)
• Pressure add 5% additional capacity
• An external running light installed at the pump shed
Where an irrigation pump is pumping water of poor quality, • A circuit disconnect for each electricity connection
such as that containing significant sand (more than 6 specs in a
• Overload protection for every pump motor
standard cup) or injected abrasive fertilisers, these figures must
be doubled. • Phase failure and reversal protection
• Voltage and amperage display
4.3 SURFACE-MOUNTED CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS • A running timer
Actual net positive suction head (NPSH) must be calculated
• A total hour meter
and be less than the required NPSH recommended by the pump
manufacturer. At no time should total suction lift for centrifugal Care must be taken to minimise electrical interference and
pumps exceed 7.5 m. noise resulting from the use of variable speed drives. Many
electricity providers now require harmonic filters to be installed.
Flexible couplings between pumps and rigid installations
Check with local regulations.
(suction or discharge) must be specified to prevent failure due
to vibration. All pump starting and control systems must be used only for
manufacturer-approved applications.
Specify a method of priming the pump.
The maximum voltage drop from the power supply point to the
Specify a valve at the highest point on the pump casing to allow
pump motor (includes voltage drop in submersible pump cables)
air to escape when priming the pump.
must be compatible with the manufacturer’s requirements. If a
maximum voltage drop is not specified, it must be the lesser of:
• 5% of nominal operating voltage, or
• 15V

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4.6 CONTROL Ensure the system flow rate can be independently measured for
The design must allow the system to be operated in a way that: compliance purposes. An offtake for water meter verification
should be considered or an accessible length of straight pipe for
• Meets the purchaser’s needs
the measurement of flow rate using a portable meter. The length
• Can be easily started and stopped of the straight pipe must be at least 15 times its diameter plus
• Can be run for varying times the length of any water meter.
• Operates within the constraints of the system
Pressure Gauges
The designer must ensure that the irrigation system can always A pressure gauge or pressure test point must be specified on the
be operated while maintaining a safe running condition. high pressure and on the mainline side of the headworks.

4.7 SURFACE WATER INTAKES Headworks efficiency

All surface water intakes must have an appropriately sized screen Pressure loss through the headworks (excluding any pressure
or filtration system to exclude any debris present in the water control fittings, backflow prevention, or filtration) should not
source that may damage pumps. Intake screens must have a total exceed the lesser of:
open area of at least five times the area of the suction pipe. • 5% of the pressure delivered to the headworks, or
All surface water intakes must exclude fish. • 3 m of pressure loss

The suction pipe must be of sufficient diameter, and at a Certain components which may be used in the headworks, such
sufficient depth below the lowest expected water level, so that as Reduced Pressure Zone (RPZ) backflow preventors, have a high
air is not drawn into the suction assembly. pressure loss and will cause the head loss across the headworks
to exceed 3 m. Reasons for the excessive headloss should be
The minimum distance from any bends, valves, or pipe reducers
explained to the client.
to the inlet of the pump must be equal to at least five times the
diameter of the pipe.
Layout
The suction pipe must be at least as large as the size of the The layout of the headworks must allow free access to all
pump inlet. critical components (i.e. valves, meters, gauges) for operation
and maintenance.
The water velocity through the suction pipe and intake screen
must not exceed the values given in Table 5. Specify components that allow the headworks to be
dismantled easily?
Table 5: Allowable suction line velocities
If multiple pumps are linked together, construct the manifold so
Location Velocity that each pump can be independently isolated.
Suction pipe 1.5 m/s Ensure that the check valve and control valve are downstream
Intake screen 0.4 m/s from the water meter.

The water velocity through a foot valve must not exceed that of Protect sensitive components (e.g. backflow prevention devices)
the suction pipe by more than 25%. with a filter, as required by the component’s manufacturer.

Include a facility to drain the headworks or irrigation system

4.8 HEADWORKS to ground.

Control Valve
Air release
A control valve must be fitted to all systems.
Specify an air release valve at the highest point in
Do not use valves that can only be fully open or fully the headworks.
closed in situations where the system can be started with
empty mainlines. Fertiliser injection
Injection points must always be placed downstream of a
Always use valves of a diameter at least as large as the pipe in
backflow preventer. See the Backflow Prevention Guidelines
which they are being installed.
(INZ, 2012) for further requirements.

Flow Measurement Systems including fertiliser injection must also meet all
Refer to Irrigation New Zealand’s Guidelines for the local regulations.
Measurement and Reporting of Water Takes (2011), which
provides a detailed description of requirements for flow Backflow prevention
measuring devices. Backflow prevention, appropriate to the level of risk, must be
installed on all systems where contamination of water supplies
is possible. Refer to Backflow Prevention Guidelines (INZ, 2012)
for further guidance.

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DESIGN STANDARDS

5 Measurement and monitoring 6 Documentation

FLOW RATES A properly prepared design report and plan must be provided to
A flow measuring device, or provision for a flow measuring the client. These must be completed in sufficient detail so that
device, must be installed on the delivery side of the pumping quotations for the supply and installation of the system may
station to measure the volume and flow rate of water. Refer be obtained.
to Irrigation New Zealand’s Guidelines for the Measurement A quotation based on the system specification must be supplied
and Reporting of Water Takes (2011), which provides a detailed to the purchaser, so that all parties are clear about what is going
description of requirements for flow measuring devices. to be provided
The minimum accuracy of measurement for flow measuring Lists of information to include in the design report and
devices is quotation are included in The New Zealand Piped Irrigation
• Piped flow + 5% Systems Design Code of Practice (INZ, 2012).
• Open channel flow + 10% The purchaser must also be supplied with a commissioning
It may be necessary to monitor flow rates as a condition of the report, as built plans, and operation and maintenance manuals
water take. The type and frequency of records is dependent on upon the final completion of the irrigation system. The
the water source, the monitoring requirements of the purchaser, New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Installation Code of
and the monitoring requirements of the resource consent. Practice (INZ, 2012). provides details about what to include in
these documents.
PRESSURE GAUGES
At a minimum, specify pressure gauges or pressure sampling
points at the following locations:
• Anywhere in the system where pressure monitoring/
control is being used (e.g. at pressure transducers and
pressure switches)
• The inlet of all surface pumps
• The outlet of all pumps, upstream of any in-line
components
• Upstream and downstream of components with a large
head loss (i.e. backflow preventers)
• The outlet of headworks, downstream of all in-line
components
• The inlet to each irrigator, downstream of all hydrants and
connecting hoses
• Near the last outlet of an irrigator if a large head loss
is expected through the machine or hose (e.g. at the
end of centre-pivots, or at the gun-cart of a hard hose
gun system)

The distance from a pressure gauge to any valve must be at least

three times the diameter of the pipe.

WATER LEVEL
A method for monitoring water levels in water sources (lakes,
ponds, production wells and any associated monitoring wells, if
required for compliance) must be specified in the design.

The accuracy of water level measurements shall be ±0.1 m.

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References Definitions
Christiansen JE, (1942): Irrigation by sprinkling. California For the purposes of this document, the following definitions
Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 570. shall apply:

INZ (2010). The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Evaluation Adequacy of irrigation: A measure of the proportion of the
Code of Practice, Revision April 2010. Irrigation New Zealand. target area for which the soil is restored to a target soil water
content. This is calculated as the ratio of the mean low quarter
INZ (2011): Guidelines for the Measurement and Reporting of
depth applied to the mean required (target) depth.
Water Takes. Irrigation New Zealand.
Application depth: The rainfall equivalent depth of water
INZ (2012): Backflow Prevention Guidelines.
applied to the soil surface during a single irrigation event. It is
Irrigation New Zealand.
the depth of water that would be caught in a rain gauge, not the
INZ (2012): The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design depth of soil that is wetted.
Code of Practice. Irrigation New Zealand.
Application efficiency: The percentage of applied water that
INZ (2012). The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Installation is retained in the root zone, or in the target area, after an
Code of Practice. Irrigation New Zealand. irrigation event.

New Zealand (2010): Electricity (Safety) Regulations 2010. Application intensity: The rate (mm/hour) at which irrigation
The New Zealand Government, March 2010. is applied. It compares “gentle showers” with “heavy rain”. (See
specific calculations below).
NZS 5103:1973, Code of practice for the design, installation
and operation of sprinkler irrigation systems. • Instantaneous application intensity (Ri) The rate (mm/hr)
Standards New Zealand. at which irrigation is applied by an individual stream, from
an individual outlet or nozzle, to a very small area. For
Savva, A P; Frenken, K (2001): Sprinkler Irrigation Systems:
example, for a rotating boom it is the flow from a single
Planning, Design, Operation and Maintenance. Food and
outlet divided by the area being wetted at any instant by
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Harare. 80p.
that outlet.
Seginer, I (1987): Spatial water distribution in sprinkle irrigation. • Average application intensity (Ra) The rate of application
Advances in Irrigation 4: 119-168. (mm/hr), averaged over the individual applicator’s wetted
APMA (2001): Australian Pump Technical Handbook. Australian footprint. For example, for a rotating boom it is the
Pump Manufacturers Association: P72. applicator’s flow rate divided by the area wetted by one
full rotation of the boom.
Burt, Charles M; Styles, Stuart W (1999): Drip and Micro Irrigation
for Trees, Vines and Row Crops. Design and Management: P143 Application uniformity: The spatial variability of application.
This can be defined in a variety of ways. Common examples are:
• Distribution Uniformity (DU)
• Coefficient of Uniformity (CU)
• Coefficient of Variation (CV)

Back flow preventer: Device designed to prevent water from

flowing in reverse through the system. Commonly used to
prevent added nutrients, chemicals or effluent from mixing with
clean water sources.

Capital cost: The overall system purchase and installation

cost ($) or cost per unit area ($/ha) as a total or annualised cost.
For the purposes of economic analysis, the annualised capital
cost may also be expressed as cost per unit volume ($/m3) based
on mean annual irrigation demand.

Design area: The specific land area (e.g. in hectares) which

the designer and the purchaser mutually understand is to be
irrigated by the irrigation system.

Distribution efficiency: A measure of how much of the water

supplied to the property is applied to the land. It is a function
of losses incurred in the conveyance or distribution system, from
the point of water abstraction to the application system.

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DESIGN STANDARDS

Drainage depth: The potential volume of water that percolates This is the lower limit of available water below which plant
beyond the root zone, based on peak irrigation demand. This is growth ceases completely. The soil matric potential at this point
typically expressed as a volume per unit area (m3/ha) or an corresponds to about -1,500 kPa (-15 bar). The ‘permanent wilting
equivalent depth per unit area (mm/ha). point’ is generally governed by the amount of clay in the soil –
the greater the amount of clay, the higher (% soil moisture) the
Effective rooting depth: The depth of soil profile that has
‘permanent wilting point’.
enough rooting density for extraction of available water. Roots
may be found at depths greater than this value but do not Productivity: The marginal increase in productivity resulting
contribute significantly to water extraction. from the irrigation system. It is generally expressed as the
increase based on mean annual irrigation demand per unit
Evapotranspiration (ET): The rate of water loss from a combined
area $/ha (may also be expressed as $/mm/ha). However for
surface of vegetation and soil. It includes evaporation of water
economic analysis, maximum and minimum values may also be
from the soil and plant surface, and transpiration by plants.
of interest.
Field capacity (FC): The soil moisture content after gravitational
Readily available water (depth) (RAWD): The rainfall equivalent
drainage slows from a saturated condition to a rate that is
depth of ‘readily available water’ by a specified crop from its
insignificant (i.e. drainage rate less than 1 mm/day).
root zone.
This is usually estimated in the field by measuring the soil water
The root zone depth in centimetres is shown as a subscript
content 2–3 days after heavy rainfall, or by measuring the water
following the acronym (e.g. RAW40 is the ‘readily available
content of soil cores in the laboratory after they have been
water’ in the 40 cm deep root zone in a given soil).
equilibrated at a soil matric potential.
Return interval (Return period): The typical period between one
In New Zealand the laboratory estimation of field capacity is
irrigation event and the next. It is usually calculated for the most
measured at the nominal -10 kPa soil matric potential, but direct
demanding period so that the irrigation system can meet water
field measurements show that it can vary between -2 kPa to -30
demand most of the time.
kPa depending on soil texture.
Return on water use: The marginal change in returns resulting
Headworks efficiency: A measure of the hydraulic performance
from the irrigation system. It is generally based on mean annual
of the intake structure, pump and headworks (excluding pump
irrigation demand and incorporates cost and productivity
pressure and elevation differences) to indicate the extent of
elements above. Values can be expressed as returns per unit
pressure loss in the water supply system between the water
area or volume of water ($/ha or $/m3). Values can be positive
supply point and the mainline entry.
or negative, dependent on system costs, productivity and
Infiltration rate: The movement of water into the soil profile. crop returns.
Measured as the rate (mm/hour, mm/day) at which a soil
Scheduling coefficient: Used to determine how much extra
absorbs water. It varies with soil type, soil surface condition and
irrigation should be applied to ensure that most of the crop gets
moisture content.
sufficient water. It accounts for variances and inefficiencies of
Irrigation system: This comprises all of the equipment required application systems.
to transfer water from the water source to the crops in the
It is common to use the reciprocal of the low quartile
design area.
Distribution Uniformity to calculate the extra required.
Mainline: A pipeline in a pressurised distribution system that Multiplying irrigation need by the scheduling coefficient
transports water from the water source to sub units or zone determines a target application depth that ensures that 7/8th
control valve in a system. of the crop will receive at least the required depth of irrigation
(some will get considerably more).
Mainline efficiency: A measure of the mainline hydraulic
performance. It gives an indication of how much pressure is Surface runoff: The volume of applied water that does not
lost between the delivery (mainline entry) and discharge points infiltrate into the soil at the location that it was applied, but
(machine entry, hydrant, or take-off in drip-micro systems), runs along the soil surface.
excluding variations in elevation.
System capacity: System capacity The flow of water per unit
Management allowed depletion (MAD): The proportion of irrigated area normally expressed as litres per second per
of the Crop Available Water that is allowed to be removed hectare (ℓ/s/ha) or mm per day (mm/d) calculated on the basis
before irrigation is applied. The level is a management decision of the system operating 24 hours per day.
dependent on crop type, stage of crop development, seasonal
Total available water (TAW): All the water that is extractable
water demand and other management factors and constraints.
by plants (plant type may be specified); taken as the difference
Note: this term is not to be confused with maximum allowable between soil water at field capacity and at permanent wilting
deficit which is another term for the trigger point. point.
Permanent wilting point (WP): The soil moisture content where Water holding capacity (WHC): The volumetric ratio of all water
plant growth stops. contained in a layer or depth of soil at field capacity, including
that held too tightly for plants to access.

10 | THE NEW ZEALAND PIPED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS DESIGN STANDARDS

NOTES ABOUT THIS DOCUMENT

THE NEW ZEALAND PIPED IRRIGATION SYSTEMS DESIGN STANDARDS | 11

NOTES

REFERENCES
All photos © and courtesy of Dan Bloomer, Paul Reese, Andrew Curtis and Annette Scott.

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12 | IRRIGATION EVALUATION CODE OF PRACTICE

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