Irrigation

Development

Book 6|
Irrigation Development i
 Contents
Irrigation development 1
This book is part of a series
providing a comprehensive Specifying irrigation systems 1
training and reference
resource for irrigation industry Core information 2
participants in New Zealand. 1. General 2
It covers the information 2. Land 4
required and the process
to follow to develop an 3. Water source 5
irrigation system. 4. Crops 7

ISBN No. 978-0-473-24121-6 5. Climate 8

6. Soils 9
Compiled by: D. J. Bloomer,
A. Curtis and P. Reese.
Design information 10
© Irrigation New Zealand 2013
Construction checklist 11
System commissioning 13
Operation 13

Supported by Sustainable Farming Fund

Extension resources 14
Ground water 14
Surface water 16
Scheme water 17
Commissioning irrigation systems 19

References 21
Irrigation development
The development process follows a logical series of questions and actions;

Pre-development
• Will irrigation benefit my business? Options analysis
• Is water available for irrigation?
—— Is the water affordable? Relate to business options
—— Do I have permission to take and use the water? Consent
• Who should I talk to so I get the right irrigation system for my business?
• What information do I need to provide for my designer?

Development
• Specifying a design
• Designing the system
• Contracting installation
• Installation (build) to specifications
• Commissioning the new system
Figure 1. Decommissioned water
• Operation of the system
race gate.

Post development
• Maintain
• Evaluate
This simplistic overview of what can be a complicated and technical process sets the
outline for this book.

Specifying irrigation systems

Specifying an irrigation system is a critical task. It involves determining all the
requirements of the system and documenting them as a ‘Design Brief’.
The Irrigation Development Checklist is a document published by IrrigationNZ. It sets out
the process of information gathering and preparing a design brief specific to the needs
identified, through to establishing a construction and commissioning contract to ensure
the irrigation system is built as designed.
It is not anticipated that a farmer, or indeed a consultant or designer, can complete all the
steps alone. To complete each stage it is advisable to seek advice from properly qualified
people. This will ensure the right information is gathered and appropriate decisions made
in regard to the many design and construction options.
Every irrigation system is a unique solution to a unique set of circumstances; a custom
design specific to the farm on which it is built.
It is advisable to review at an early stage all implications of irrigation development and
investment. These discussions should involve bankers, accountants, irrigation service
providers, peers and your family.

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Irrigation Development

Core information
The first stage in specifying an irrigation system is gathering the core information that
informs the design. This includes:
1. General requirements
2. Land
3. Water source
4. Crops
5. Climate
6. Soils
The required information will come from a range of sources and needs to be as site-
specific as possible.

1. General
Key Concepts
• Undertake a cost benefit analysis of the business options – consider
economic, environmental and social aspects
• Understand the level of investment needed
• Do not start an irrigation project until access to water (consent or
shares) is assured

General information includes:

• High level cost benefit analysis
• The system’s intended purpose(s)
• Its expected service life
• Acceptable system down-time
• Consents and permits

Costs Benefit Analysis

While irrigation will generally provide benefits that exceed cost, individual cases vary.
Development proposals must be subjected to a cost benefit analysis to justify investment.
It is a basic pre-requisite for funding and business that the benefits of any particular
proposal exceed the cost over time.

Purpose
Irrigation is the primary purpose however there may be other functions to include.
Common extra functions are:
• Domestic water needs
• Stock water supply
• Frost protection
• Fertigation/Chemigation
• Sprayer filling
Figure 2. Frost protection. • Fire fighting

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Each of these extra functions can have specific performance requirements that influence
design decisions. Designing for these at the outset is easier and cheaper than trying to
retrofit them later.

Required service period (system life and usage)

The expected lifetime, and the expected annual usage, has significant economic
implications.
The system life span can be dependent on a number of factors. Consent duration,
tenure of land, climate variability and capital versus operating costs should be taken Figure 3. Control panel.
into consideration. If the irrigation system has a very high probability that it will be used
for the success of the crop grown versus using it as an insurance cover in areas of more
reliable rainfall then the level of investment could alter. In the situation where the usage is
more erratic a lower capital cost and higher operating costs may be more acceptable. For
example, a manual move system (sprayline or long lateral) is less expensive to install than a
pivot, but has significantly higher labour demand.
To accommodate future expansion or land use change, system design may select (initially)
over-sized mainlines to allow future higher flow demands.

System down-time
System down-time refers to failure of the irrigation system rather than failure of water
supply. Not being able to meet irrigation demand incurs a cost. If a crop has high value,
additional ‘fail-safe’ options can be justified. Examples include back-up pumps, alternative
power supplies and higher quality components or inventories of spare parts held on farm.

Plans consents and permits

Legal requirements are covered in more detail in Book 2 of this series. There are
potentially many ‘permissions’ and consents required to develop an irrigation system.
Regional and unitary authorities are responsible for the administration and provision
of consents.
Irrigators need to find out exactly which permits and consents are needed before getting
underway. Do not start an irrigation project until access to water is assured.
In every case, taking and using water is subject to Resource Management Act (RMA)
provisions. These include both regional plan rules and resource consents.
Resource consent processes include assessment of effects for affected parties (other
stakeholders) as well as effects on the environment. Early consultation with neighbours
and other stakeholders can be beneficial.
Where water is supplied by an irrigation scheme, the consents to take and use water are
held by the scheme. New irrigation sourcing water from the scheme requires scheme
permission. This may include purchase of shares.
On-farm storage may require consent under the Building Act (2004) depending on stored
volume and bank height. It may be subject to on-going engineering structural checks
and reports.
Irrigating leasehold or rented land may require lessor permission, and in some cases
agreement about cost sharing.
The authorities and the general public expect all new irrigation developments to operate
at good practice from the outset to minimise any effects and maximise the efficient use
of what is a public good.

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Irrigation Development

2. Land
Key Concepts
• Accurate information is vital
• Map the development at farm scale
• Consider the whole farm system and related infrastructure

Location
Where is the irrigation system to be installed?
A full and correct site address, legal title description and owner information is important
to ensure everyone involved knows exactly where the system is to be built and ensure
correct consenting.

Land area
Land area includes both the proposed irrigation system coverage and the total
property area.
Some systems, including dairy effluent application areas, have a minimum area specified.
This must be the effective application area, not including non-irrigable parts such as
gullies or buffer zones.

Plans/maps
A complete scale map of the area is the base for all system designs. It must identify all
features that require consideration during the design process, including:
• Planned irrigated area
• Existing infrastructure (roads, fences, buildings etc)
• Power supplies
• Topography (slope and aspect)
• Soils and soil zones
• Crop boundaries where applicable
• Water source(s)
• Drainage patterns and streams
• Sensitive areas
Ideally maps will be available in electronic format, but a good aerial photo or scale
property plan does provide a suitable base.
Considerable care is needed if using GPS to make maps. It is advisable to get a
professional service to create a highly accurate GPS surveyed map.

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3. Water source
Key Concepts
• Water supply reliability needs to be understood – it will influence
what is feasible
• Water is expensive to move (energy cost)
• Knowledge of the water supply quality characteristics is essential

Water Supply
The water supply is the heart of any irrigation system, and can be the controlling factor
in irrigation feasibility. The volume, timing and reliability of supply can have a bearing on
what land use occurs with irrigation.
Supply determines the area of pasture or crop that can be effectively irrigated, and has a
large influence on the profitability of irrigation. If water is not available at reasonable cost,
irrigation will not be financially viable.
It is vital that an assessment of water supply availability, reliability, quantity and quality is
made before progressing.
The most common sources of water are:
Further Information
• Groundwater (shallow or deep aquifer)
Ground, surface and stored
• Flowing surface water (streams, rivers, drains) water are covered in more
• Surface water harvested into storage details at the end of this
• Irrigation scheme – from surface or stored source booklet in the Extension
• Municipal supply resources: Water sources.
• Sewage or industrial wastes
The reliability and adequacy of supply within season and between seasons must be
considered, regardless of the source of water.
Locating a water source may be an easy task if a stream or river is available or if proven
groundwater exists. However, a guaranteed supply is not always available.
Groundwater can be a more dependable source of water than surface water takes. It is
a form of natural storage that does not suffer from evaporation losses and large within-
season fluctuations to the same extent as water taken from flowing sources. However
many ground water sources are hydraulically connected to surface water bodies and
ground water take consents can have conditions subject to surface water levels.
Generally, both surface and groundwater supplies in New Zealand fluctuate significantly
during the irrigation season. Both are replenished by rainfall but the time spans to
increased levels and flows differ.
When annual withdrawals from groundwater systems exceed replenishment, water levels
fall. Lower water levels increase pumping costs, and can make abstractions difficult or
impossible. Energy requirements for pumping strongly influence irrigation costs. The cost
of lifting ground water to the surface is dependent on the depth it is being pumped from
and can be significant.
Therefore detailed knowledge of water supply reliability is essential. Just because the
water is easily available today does not mean it will be as freely available tomorrow.
Accessing any water supply has an initial cost of development, and on-going delivery
costs of energy, maintenance of infrastructure and consents. Conserving water and energy
is important in maintaining a sustainable irrigation system.

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Water quality
New Zealand’s natural water is generally of excellent quality and suitable for most
irrigation without treatment. Micro-irrigation systems justify increased caution and care
when selecting a water supply.
Cases where water quality can and does require consideration include:
• Sediment loads and foreign matter
• Chemical contaminants
• Biological contamination

Sediment and foreign matter

The main problem with sediment is pipe and sprinkler blockage. This can be managed
by appropriate separation or filtration. Sharp sands also cause wear of components,
especially where velocities are higher such as passing through valves and nozzles.
Clay contamination is a particular issue for micro-irrigation systems with low flows, low
pressures and very small orifices.
Foreign matter includes any other physical contaminants from a variety of sources. Water
sources can contribute weed, algae and small animals. Where effluent is spread from a
holding pond the effluent itself, windblown sticks, sawdust, etc get through pumps and
end up in sprinklers. Larger particles are easily removed through filtration but all filtration
mechanisms increase energy use and costs.
Chemical contaminants
In some regions, iron and other chemicals can cause problems. This is usually a problem
for micro-irrigation systems, but horticultural crops can be damaged by staining from
overhead application.
Treatment is possible, but can be expensive when large volumes are involved.
Biological contamination
Micro-irrigation is most at risk of biological contamination. Algae growing in lateral lines
and emitters reduce application rates and can cause system failure.
Treatment methods to combat these issues include periodic acid injection or chlorination,
and should be considered in the system design (inclusion of injection points).
Weed or nuisance algae growth such as Didymo from affected rivers can also be
problematic for all spray irrigation types, frequently resulting in blocked irrigation water
intakes and nozzles.
Solutions to nuisance weed and algae growth, such as self cleaning screens and filters,
Figure 4. Dripper affected by algae should be considered in the design stage where known issues exist.
growing in the lines.
Physical abstraction rate
The physical abstraction rate is governed by the size of the water supply and pump.
A well will have a maximum ability to supply water because of aquifer properties (water
depth, yield), well diameter and screening.
Pump size dictates the maximum amount of water that can flow through the irrigation
system at any given pressure.
Legal abstraction rate
The legal abstraction rate is determined by regional rules or consent conditions.
The maximum legal abstraction rate may be capped to protect a surface water source or
to limit draw-down effects on neighbouring wells within an aquifer system.
Irrigators need to find out exactly which permits and consents are needed before getting
underway. Do not start an irrigation project until access to water is assured.

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4. Crops
Key Concepts
• Water use varies with crop type and growth stage
• Crop rooting depth determines how much of the soil’s profile available
water can be used
• The distribution uniformity (evenness of application) required is
influenced by crop type
• Match the irrigation system design to the crop

The primary function of irrigation is to maintain a steady supply of water for crops to use.
Crop water use varies influenced by prevailing weather conditions, available water in the
soil, crop species and growth stage.
The needs of all proposed crops should be ascertained before an irrigation system is
designed. This will ensure the cumulative simultaneous demand and overall seasonal
volume demand can be met. Alternately if the volume and/or reliability of supply is
constrained this may influence the land use that occurs.

Crop type
Pasture for livestock production has a relatively constant demand for water, varying in
response to daily and seasonal weather conditions.
Arable, vegetable, vine and tree crops have different water needs as they pass through
vegetative growth, grain and fruit development and maturing stages. Their exact
requirements depend on the crop and the end product.
Specific crop needs may influence choice of irrigation type. The suitability and
practicalities of using the irrigator over the crop should be considered. If specialist
arable or tree crops are being grown, factors such as irrigator access, droplet size, precise
placement of water and other attributes should be matched with crop sensitivities
and need. Small seedlings and plants such as salad crops are sensitive to droplet size Figure 5. Wheat crop.
and impact. Soil splash and leaf wetness can promote disease or affect crop quality,
so irrigation intensity and return interval (set interval versus as and when) must
be considered.

Minimum uniformity (DULQ)

This is a measure of how evenly the irrigation needs to apply water, depending on the
crop type. The range of uniformity depends largely on depth and width of a crop’s root
structure. Uniformity is the evenness with which the crop receives irrigation. Higher value
crops with smaller plants and shallower roots on coarser soils require higher uniformity.

Crop root depth

A plant’s rooting characteristics determine how much of the soil moisture can be accessed
by the plant. A deep-rooted crop has access to a greater amount of soil moisture than a
shallow-rooted crop, usually allowing it to go longer between irrigation events. This can
have a bearing on the system return period designed.

Crop factor
Different crops, stages of crop growth and different ground cover fractions have different
water requirements. The crop factor adjusts actual crop needs from the potential needs
using an indicator crop (usually pasture) to determine potential evapo-transpiration – the
main indicator of water requirement. The crop factor coefficient to use influences the
system peak capacity.

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Management allowable depletion

The management allowable depletion is a management factor that describes how much
soil-stored water can be used before irrigation is warranted. Typically about half the
available water can be used without a crop experiencing stress. However this does vary,
and sometimes stress is desirable to manipulate crop growth or development.

5. Climate
Key Concepts
• Rainfall and ET combined determine likely water shortage and
irrigation demand
• ET is the key determinant of peak system capacity
• Rainfall is variable and site specific data is required
• Overall climate influences land use choice
• Wind is important for uniformity, orientation, set-up

Figure 6. Rain gauge. Evapo-transpiration

Evapo-transpiration determines likely crop water needs. The demand in the peak month is
a key factor in determining the required system capacity. Together with rainfall it is a key
design determinant of an irrigation system’s required capacity and the likely seasonal and
instantaneous volume required for the irrigated area.

Rainfall
Rainfall is the most variable factor and significant variations can occur over relatively short
distances. Knowing the patterns and long term average over a season helps determine the
seasonal volume. Accurate rainfall data specific to the property is ideal.

Temperature
Under normal growing conditions, temperature is the main environmental factor
controlling development in all crops. Development relates to the formation of new
plant parts (e.g leaves, flowers, roots) and is physiologically different from growth
(i.e. dry matter accumulation). Growth is driven mainly by net photosynthesis, which
amongst other things (such as light intensity and resource availability) is also dependent
on temperature.
Growing degree days, a measure of days during which crops will grow, influence the
length of time a crop will take to reach maturity. This can have an influence on the type
or rotation of crops grown. Likelihood and timing of frosts is another consideration when
developing irrigation and land use options.
Soil temperature trends influence the need for irrigation especially at the start and end of
the growing season. At soil temperatures below 9–10˚C plant growth slows or stops and
soil moisture deficit is not the primary limit to plant growth. Applying irrigation will not
accelerate growth and is likely to slow growth by slowing the warming of the soil.

Wind
The main problem of wind is its effect on distribution pattern. A strong wind can blow
sprayed irrigation water off target. Knowledge of wind patterns can help select a system
type or make design or system adjustments to account for its effects.

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6. Soils
Key Concepts
• Obtain detailed farm scale soil maps
• Know the key soil characteristics
——Soil infiltration rates
——Water holding capacities
• Soils are a key determinant of system design

Soil information is a key determinant of irrigation system design. Book 4 in this series
‘Irrigation Essentials’, provides a comprehensive resource to understand the implications of
different soil properties.
New Zealand has very diverse and changeable soil types. Frequently, changes from deep
to shallow and coarse to fine textures are found over very short distances. For successful
irrigation development, a property’s soil characteristics must be mapped at farm scale. Figure 7. Knowing the soil profile is
a first step in determining irrigation
The main soil properties of interest are:
system specifications.
• Soil infiltration rate
• Soil depth
• Water holding capacity
• Drainage characteristics
Soil texture and structure affect infiltration and water holding capacity.
Soil information helps determine:
• The type and flexibility of irrigation system selected and how it must be managed
• Maximum application intensity – soils with low infiltration rates will require a
system with matching application intensity
• Maximum irrigation depth– soils with low water holding rule out irrigators that
cannot apply small depths
• The range of crops able to be grown. Different soil types are more suited than
others to particular crops

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 Design information
Key Concepts
• Consistent clear information is important
• Inputs must be comprehensive to cover all parameters
• Outputs must show the design will achieve required performance
• Formal contracts are essential for all development and upgrades
• Contracts must be comprehensive
• For more information and templates to use contact IrrigationNZ
at [Link]

The Irrigation Development Checklist has three functions;

1. Clarifying the design parameters for the irrigation system designer
2. Checking the design meets requirements
3. If options are available, deciding which design to choose, and providing the base
information for a commissioning plan

Design brief
The design brief forms the basic information that enables an irrigation design to be
completed. It includes a list of performance factors the design must meet if the system is
to achieve expectations.
They include:
• Required service period – how long the system should last
• Allowable system down time – days out of action when needed
• Minimum application uniformity – evenness of irrigation
• Maximum soil application intensity – thunderstorm or shower
• Maximum daily application depth – rainfall equivalent per day
• Maximum return period – time between successive irrigations at one place
• Maximum required system flow rate – pumping capacity
• Maximum water abstraction rate – the rate at which water can be taken from
water source
• Volume of water required per season – amount of irrigation needed in addition
to rain
• Storage volume required – if a buffer such as a pond is needed
The design inputs tell the irrigation designer what the system must achieve.

Design outputs
This is information that comes out of the design process and describes a number of
measurable factors about the proposed system’s performance. These factors are part of
system commissioning and on-going performance monitoring.
The design output information also allows a fair and convenient way to compare different
design options.

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 Design information

Design outputs include:

• Economic variables
—— Capital and operating costs
—— Power, labour and maintenance costs
• System duty points
—— System flow rate
—— System pressure at key points
—— Motor and pump efficiencies
—— Maximum and minimum pipeline velocities
• Equipment and materials selected
Figure 8. Trenching.
—— Storage
—— Motors and pumps
—— Filters and water meters
—— Pipes and valves
—— Sprinklers and emitters
—— Control system

Construction checklist
A construction checklist helps ensure the system is built as designed and clarifies
responsibilities, construction details and costs. Main components are:
• General contract conditions
• Construction specifications
• People and capabilities
• Health and Safety

General contract conditions

Contracting involves a number of specialist tasks and legal conventions. Large projects
warrant professional support in setting and managing contracts. Smaller projects do not
have the same risks, but still justify care in contracting. If nothing else, the parties involved
have a record of what they agreed to do.
IrrigationNZ has developed resources specific to contracting irrigation projects. In general,
some items to check are:
• How is the contract structured? Is it clear and concise?
• What contract standards will apply? i.e. NZS 3910 or something else?
• What payment structure is agreed? i.e. Lump sum or measure and value?
• Which costs are fully covered within the contract price?
• Which costs are not covered, tagged or may vary? e.g. Consenting, power
connection, trenching or anything else?
• What provision is made for retentions? Do they cover practical and final completion,
and maintenance period?
• What insurance cover and/or bonds are in place? Who is responsible for their cost
and will they protect both parties from financial failure?
• Who is the contractor?
• Who is the Principal? Is it you?

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Design information

Construction specifications
The construction specifications deal with the specific issues needed to successfully
complete the works required. Check that the following items are known and satisfactory:
• Project Plan
—— Is it realistic?
—— Are the contractor and sub-contractors sufficiently resourced?
—— What methods and standards will be used?
• Commencement and completion dates and any consequences of failure to
meet them
• Contract Duration. Has the ‘Critical Path’ been identified to ensure efficient progress?
• Is the scope of work clearly defined?
• Is the schedule of quantities clearly defined?
• Construction Methods and Standards
—— Storage, intake and wells
—— Motors
—— Pumps
—— Filters
—— Pipes
—— Automatic and manual valves
—— Emitters and lateral
—— Control system. Are their methods and standards valid?
• Who will be responsible for practical commissioning and completion and what
standards apply?
• Who will be responsible for final commissioning and completion and what
standards apply?

People and capabilities

Make sure the contractor has people allocated to your project who have the required
skills and experience. Ask for references and undertake background checks of previous
projects they have been involved with.

Health and Safety

While a contractor is responsible for the health and safety of their staff, the land
owner/purchaser also has responsibilities. Make sure that any on-site hazards are clearly
communicated to the contractor and retain written evidence of this.
Among the hazards that may be present are:
• Working at height
• Working in trenches
• Working with electricity
• Working with pressure
• Working in wet, muddy slippery conditions

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 Design information

System commissioning Further Information

A description and guidelines
Key Concept
for commissioning irrigation
• Commissioning is an important process. It is the quality control systems are included in The
ensuring the system is installed and operating correctly New Zealand Piped Irrigation
Systems Installation Code of
Practice (2012).
The commissioning process will determine whether or not all components of the system
are installed and operating properly, in accordance with the system’s specification over the Information in more detail
range of on-site conditions expected. is provided in the Extension
resources: Commissioning
Commissioning is a technical task completed by trained people. It includes: Irrigation systems.
• System testing
• Procedures for correcting poor performance
• Documentation that needs to be provided
• Producing as-built plans

Operation
Development is only part of the story. To achieve economic, sustainable and optimal
irrigation, each of the key components (specify, design, install, maintain, operate
and evaluate) must be correctly completed and revisited. That will ensure on-going
sustainability and continuity over the investment time frame.

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 Extension resources
Groundwater
Find out what depth groundwater is likely to be found and in what volumes.
You need to ensure that you can still obtain an adequate and reliable supply of water
during droughts. To achieve this:
• Talk to neighbours or locals familiar with the groundwater in the locality
• Talk to well drillers
• Contact the local regional council for details about groundwater in the district
• Talk to irrigation consultants who have been involved in groundwater studies
in the district
• Find out as much as possible about how water levels fluctuate, both within
seasons and between seasons

Location of wells
The number of wells, approximate location for wells and well diameters need to be
Figure 9. Deeper groundwater must be estimated before obtaining resource consents. You also need to assess an approximate
accessed by bores. water supply cost to determine if irrigation is likely to be financially viable.
The exact location of wells needs to be decided as part of the design process.
Factors that affect well locations include:
• Likely location of aquifers
• Flow rate required
• Location of power supply
• The design of the irrigation system
• The effect on the hydraulics of the irrigation system
• Proximity of nearby wells
• The effect of abstraction on nearby wells
• The effect of pumping on streams–connectivity
• Distance from the coast (in case of saltwater intrusion)
If groundwater is shallow, galleries or shallow wells may be dug with excavators. For
deeper groundwater, properly constructed wells are advised. Generally the deeper the
groundwater, the more reliable the supply.
Shallow wells are often hydraulically-linked to nearby rivers or streams that can become
very low in late spring/summer/autumn and can dry up in extreme cases.
In areas where more than one well may be required, allow for possible locations for
additional wells in a way that allows them to be spaced as widely as possible, as far away
from neighbours as workable.
On flat ground, ideally wells should be placed near to the centre of the land to be
irrigated. This results in the lowest pipeline cost because shorter runs and smaller pipe
diameters can be used.
If the property is sloping, the well should be placed towards the high end of the property.
However, depending on the degree of slope and length of run, the highest point is not
usually the optimum location.

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 Extension resources

As a guide, on typical farms with a fall of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200, the well could be located
about one third of the distance from the top of the farm, thus pumping one third uphill
and two thirds downhill.
Sometimes, more than one well is required to feed into a single system. Proper location
of each well is vital to the cost and the long-term operation of the system. Multiple water
supply systems can be hydraulically complex, and experts should be consulted.
Other factors to consider are the risks of contamination by chemicals, nitrates, etc.
The best advice is to have a number of options designed and priced for a range of well
positions before the wells are drilled. Remember, you pay for installation costs once but
you pay for design inefficiencies for the life of the system. There is no cost to the user to
transport electricity through wires but the cost to push water through pipes is on-going.

Groundwater costs
Obtaining irrigation from groundwater generally includes the following costs:
Initial installation
• Well drilling Figure 10. Power must be available.

• Well screen
• Well development
• Pump
• Pump column
• Pump cables
• Electrical switch gear/equipment
• Power lines
• Miscellaneous hydraulic valves/headworks
• Pump shed
• Consent applications
Operation and maintenance
• Electricity capacity and fixed charges
• Electricity energy charges
• Diesel cost (if appropriate)
• Operational labour costs
• Repairs and maintenance to wells and pumps
Financial
• Costs of capital/borrowings vs debt servicing (and repayment)
• Depreciation

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Extension resources

Surface water
It is essential to determine if a reliable water supply is available and how it can be
supplied to your farm. An indication of how much it is likely to cost must also be obtained
so that it can be factored into the initial economic evaluations.
Lakes, streams, rivers, drains and artificial ponds are the most common sources of surface
water for private takes.

Location
If water is to be gravity-fed for surface irrigation, it should almost always be supplied to
the highest point of the irrigated area.
If water is to be pumped for surface irrigation, it should also be located at the highest
point in the field, although in some systems it is cheaper to pump small quantities of
water to localised high spots than it is to pump all of the water to the highest point.
Electricity line supply will often dictate whether that is possible.

Intakes
There are a number of options for intake structures to take water from a stream, river, lake
or other surface water resource. The options are:
• Dam
• Diversion weir
• Whole channel diversion
• Partial channel diversion
• Open gallery
• Buried gallery
Small systems may use a direct suction take with a simple screen to minimise
Figure 11. Surface intake using rotating
contaminant entry.
screen to clear debris.

Conveyance Methods
The main methods of conveying water from a surface water source to an irrigation system
are canals, flumes and pipelines.
Canals
Canals, also known as ditches or laterals, are open channels used to carry irrigation water.
Canals can cause more trouble in operating an irrigation system than any other
conveyance method if not designed and maintained correctly.
Weeds and other vegetation remove water through evapo-transpiration. Rabbits and other
pests may damage canal walls. Also, bridges or culverts are needed to cross roads and
other waterways.
Most canals are unlined. Small canals can be built and maintained with farm equipment
and may be permanent or temporary. Larger canals will require large earthmoving
machinery.
High velocities can erode canal walls so take care where grades are steep. Drop structures
may be needed to dissipate excess energy.
In some soils, particularly porous sands or gravel, seepage can be a problem. This can be a
significant problem on long canals.
Canal lining can reduce or eliminate seepage and minimise bank erosion. It also gives some
protection from rabbit damage and reduces water logging of adjacent land. Artificial lining
provides a more dependable water delivery method and helps to control weeds.

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Flumes are artificial channels supported by substructures. They are often used where
canals are not practical or along steep or rocky hillsides, and tend to be used for carrying
smaller quantities of water than unlined canals.
Low pressure pipelines
These are similar to flumes except that the pipelines are usually designed to run full under
low pressure.
They are often used on surface water systems where the water does not have to be
delivered under pressure. They have the advantage of being lower cost than high pressure
pipelines and are 100% efficient.
Provided that they are well-maintained and are not leaking, there will be no losses.
Because they rely entirely on the forces of gravity to provide the pressure to move the
water, diameters tend to be larger than for high pressure systems. If they are too small, the
required flow of water may not be able to pass through them.
High pressure pipelines
High pressure pipelines are normally used where water is to be delivered to sprinkler
irrigation systems rather than to surface irrigation systems.
Nearly all pressurised irrigation pipelines are permanent and buried. Construction
materials include PVC, polyethylene, steel, ductile iron, Hobas and concrete. Pressurised
pipelines provide the greatest advantage where sufficient down slope can be obtained to
overcome pipe friction and build up enough pressure in the pipeline to operate sprinkler
irrigation systems.

Surface water costs

It is difficult to provide budget figures for the cost of major surface water supply systems
as the factors determining construction cost vary so much.
The only way to arrive at a sensible budget estimate is to carry out a pre-feasibility design
and prepare cost estimates for it.

Scheme water
Much of the irrigation water in New Zealand is supplied by way of community based
irrigation schemes.
Up to 1988, these schemes were primarily developed by central government. In 1988,
government divested itself of irrigation scheme assets and ceased any involvement.
From that date, irrigation scheme development has been undertaken as private ventures.
This means that all irrigation schemes must be economically viable to proceed.
Further irrigation expansion is possible on some existing irrigation schemes.
The allocation of water from each irrigation scheme varies greatly as does the basis and
rate of charging. Current scheme water charges within New Zealand vary widely.
The low scheme water charges are usually based on covering operation and maintenance
charges only and do not require a return on the original capital invested. The water
charges on the newer private schemes are usually a combination of debt servicing and
charges for on-going operation and maintenance.
Central and regional governments are again taking active interest in irrigation
development. While support is increasing, full cost coverage is not likely. A form of
public–private ownership may evolve, particularly where general community benefit
Figure 12. Scheme intake fish screen.
is demonstrated.

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Open race systems

Most community irrigation schemes in New Zealand have traditionally been constructed
as unlined canals.
This is because of substantially lower initial capital cost. Earth canals are relatively cheap
to construct and maintain in areas that suit open channels. However, they do take up land
area and normally have race losses of ~10%.

Piped systems
Piped systems offer considerable technical advantages over open race systems. Some of
these advantages are:
• Water may be delivered under pressure to the farm
• There are less farm entry problems
• There are no evaporation or seepage losses
• Water quality is maintained
• Operation and maintenance costs are minimal
• Water can be obtained on demand, rather than on a roster
• Lower overall scheme capacities can be used
• Control of water to farms is relatively simple
• Pumping for spray irrigation systems may be eliminated or reduced considerably
• Pipes can be buried on road verges
• Hydroelectric power may be generated from pressure generated in the pipes
The main disadvantage of pipe systems is that they are substantially more expensive in
terms of up-front capital costs.

Conversion of irrigation schemes

Increasingly, water use efficiency is being regarded as a key factor (particularly from an
environmental/conservation point of view).
Land use changes are seeing conversion from surface to spray irrigation. Conversion can
offer considerable benefits to existing scheme users and to new users.
Conversion of open race to piped irrigation supply systems is also finding favour. Existing
users can receive pressurised water to the gate, significantly reducing energy costs.
The increased efficiency can improve supply reliability and provide the excess water for
others, who may cover much of the cost of distribution system conversion.

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Commissioning irrigation systems Further Information

Commissioning is a technical task completed by trained people. It includes: A description and guidelines
for commissioning irrigation
• System testing
systems are included in
• Procedures for correcting poor performance Irrigation New Zealand’s The
• Documentation that needs to be provided New Zealand Piped Irrigation
• Producing as-built plans Systems Installation Code of
Practice (2012).
System Testing
The system must be tested by a qualified person and the results of the test supplied to
the installer, designer and purchaser.
The system testing must be conducted at a suitable time so that the installer, designer,
and purchaser can all be present.
System testing should include all new components, as well as all pre-existing components
that are being incorporated into a system upgrade. This is particularly important for
pumping stations.
Test the following during installation and/or prior to handover of the system:
• Pressure-test the pipelines at 1.5 times the normal operating pressure, if possible.
If this pressure is not achievable with the installed pumping equipment, then
pressure-test at the maximum achievable pressure
• Check that pump performance meets the specification
• Ensure that all irrigators receive the required pressure and flow rate
• Test all controls, cut-offs, and alarms
• Calibrate all flow meters
• Test water application depth, intensity, and uniformity under each irrigator
• Test all check valves and backflow preventers, including those on the intake
The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Evaluation Code of Practice (2010) has been
developed to guide the testing process. There are also several existing standards that are
specific to performance testing of irrigation components (‘Standards Relevant to Testing
and Commissioning’).
Many pipe suppliers’ technical documentation and pipe installation standards contain
sections relating to pipe pressure testing (‘Standards Relevant to Pipe Installations’).
If any variations from the original design are identified during the system testing, these
must be documented and recorded on the as-built plan and in the commissioning report.
Unless otherwise outlined in the contract, acceptable deviations from the system
specification include:
• Flow rates must not be more than +_ 5% of the design value
• Pressures must not be more than +_ 10% of the design value
• Current (amps) must not be more than +_ 5% of the design value
• Application uniformity must not be more than 5% under that specified

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Correcting Poor Performance

If system testing reveals that actual system performance does not meet the system
specification, the fault must be:
• Corrected and the system retested
• Reported to the purchaser
Any consequences of operating a system that deviates significantly from the system
specification must be fully explained to the purchaser. The purchaser may decide whether
or not to accept the system as installed.
If the purchaser decides that the system must meet the system specification, the designer
or installer (whoever is responsible) must arrange for the necessary changes to the system
to occur. This must be done in accordance with the original contract.

Documentation
Proper documentation is an essential part of the commissioning process.
The documentation should show that the system was checked, and that it was installed
and working properly when it was handed over. It should describe the installation and
testing procedures followed and the results obtained.
When an irrigation system is handed over to the purchaser, it should be accompanied by:
• A commissioning report
• As-built plans
• Operation and maintenance manuals
• Any other relevant supporting information

Figure 13. Checking critical points as

As-Built Plans
part of commissioning.
As-built plans show where all componentry can be found, how the pipework system is
laid out, control points and so on. It is the basis for all future management, maintenance
and any system change proposals.
A final clear and concise readable plan, drawn to scale, with all key items located on
the plan must be provided. Ensure that the plan provides accurate locations (accurate
within +− 5 metres), dimensions and sizes of all key components in the system. This is
particularly important for items buried underground.
Also provide a detailed plan of the pumping station and headworks, including below
ground components.
Provide the as-built plans within one month of commissioning or within one month of
making changes to the system.
Note: As-built plans may not be the same as initial design. That’s the point of them.

20 | Irrigation Development
References
The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Design Code of Practice (2012).
Irrigation New Zealand.
FAO Crop Water Needs: [Link]/docrep/S2022E/[Link]
The Irrigation Guide – A guide to decision making when going irrigating. [Link],
D. Attewell and R. Englebrecht (2004). South Canterbury Farmers’ Irrigation Group.
The Irrigation Development Checklist is available from Irrigation New Zealand:
[Link]
Crop & Food Research Confidential Report No. 2053. Hawke’s Bay Regional Council
crop info guide. Scott Shaw, Stephen Trolove & Jeff Reid. January 2008, Hawke’s Bay
Regional Council.
The New Zealand Piped Irrigation Systems Evaluation Code of Practice (2010).
Irrigation New Zealand.
Irrigation New Zealand, Irrigation schemes website: [Link]

References
All photos © and courtesy of Dan Bloomer, Paul Reese, Andrew Curtis and Annette Scott.

Disclaimer and Copyright

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for specific professional advice. While Irrigation New Zealand Limited (including its officers, employees, contractors and agents) (INZ) has taken all due care in
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Irrigation Development | 21
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