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g3dizeThis reference is a work in progress.
I have compiled this reference from various sources:
Analytical Mechanics, 7th ed. by Fowles and Cassiday
Wolfram Mathworld
Wikipedia.org
Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. by David J. Griths
Any errors or additions please send me an e-mail at i.am.brian.ford@gmail.com
Series Expansions
Taylor Series
A Taylor series is a series expansion of a function about a point. A one-dimensional Taylor
series expansion of a real function f(x) about a point x = a is given by:
f(x) = f(a) + (x a)f
(a) +
(x a)
2
2!
f
(a) +
(x a)
3
3!
f
(3)
(a) + +
(x a)
n
n!
f
(n)
(a)
f(x) =
n=0
(x a)
n
n!
f
(n)
(a)
MacLaurin Series
A MacLaurin series is nothing more than a Taylor series expansion about x = 0:
f(x) = f(0) + (x)f
(0) +
x
2
2!
f
(0) +
x
3
3!
f
(3)
(0) + +
x
n
n!
f
(n)
(0)
where
f
(n)
(x) =
d
n
dx
n
f(x)
Binomial Series
The most general form:
(x + a)
k=0
_
k
_
x
k
a
k
where the binomial coecient is:
_
k
_
=
!
( k)!k!
The series converges for
x
a
< 1.
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Often Used Expansions
e
x
= 1 + x +
x
2
2!
+ =
n=0
x
n
n!
for all x
sin x = x
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
=
n=0
(1)
n
(2n + 1)!
x
2n+1
for all x
cos x = 1
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
=
n=0
(1)
n
(2n)!
x
2n
for all x
sinh x = x +
x
3
3!
+
x
5
5!
+ =
n=0
x
2n+1
(2n + 1)!
for all x
cosh x = 1 +
x
2
2!
+
x
4
4!
+ =
n=0
x
2n
(2n)!
for all x
ln(1 x) =
n=1
x
n
n
for 1 x < 1
ln(1 + x) =
n=1
(1)
n+1
x
n
n
for 1 < x 1
tan x = x +
x
3
3
+
2
15
x
5
+ for |x| <
2
Complex Exponential
Setting x = i in the expansion for e
x
becomes:
e
i
= 1 + i +
i
2
2
2!
+
i
3
3
3!
+
because i =
1:
i
n
=
_
_
+1 : n = 0, 4, . . .
1 : n = 2, 6, . . .
+i : n = 1, 5, . . .
i : n = 3, 7, . . .
then:
e
i
=
_
1
2
2!
+
4
4!
_
+ i
_
3
3!
+
5
5!
_
= cos + i sin
from the series for cosine and sine.
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Useful Approximations
For small x, the following approximations are often used
e
x
1 + x
sin x x
cos x 1
1
2
x
2
1 + x 1 +
1
2
x
1
1 + x
1 x
1
1 x
1 + x
The last three are based on the binomial series and can be extended for other values of the
exponent:
(1 + x)
n
= 1 + nx +
1
2
n(n 1)x
2
+
Trigonometric Functions
Circular and Hyperbolic Functions
The following relations are useful
cos =
e
i
+ e
i
2
sin =
e
i
e
i
2i
cosh =
e
+ e
2
sinh =
e
2
tanh =
sinh
cosh
=
e
+ e
Relations between Circular and Hyperbolic Functions
sin i = i sinh
cos i = cosh
sinh i = i sin
cosh i = cos
Derivatives
d
d
sin = cos
d
d
sinh = cosh
d
d
cos = sin
d
d
cosh = sinh
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Trigonometric Identities
cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1
1 + tan
2
= sec
2
1 + cot
2
= csc
2
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin
cos( ) = cos cos sin sin
tan( ) =
tan tan
1 tan tan
sin 2 = 2 sin cos
cos 2 = cos
2
sin
2
tan 2 =
2 tan
1 tan
2
sin
2
2
=
1
2
(1 cos )
cos
2
2
=
1
2
(1 + cos )
tan
2
2
=
1 cos
1 + cos
sin + sin = 2 sin
_
+
2
_
cos
_
2
_
cos + cos = 2 cos
_
+
2
_
cos
_
2
_
tan tan =
sin( )
cos cos
Hyperbolic Identities
cosh
2
sinh
2
= 1
tanh
2
+sech
2
= 1
coth
2
csch
2
= 1
sinh( ) = sinh cosh cosh sinh
cosh( ) = cosh cosh sinh sinh
tanh( ) =
tanh tanh
1 tanh tanh
sinh 2 = 2 sinh cosh
cosh 2 = cosh
2
+ sinh
2
tanh 2 =
2 tanh
1 + tanh
2
sinh
2
2
=
1
2
(cosh 1)
cosh
2
2
=
1
2
(cosh + 1)
tanh
2
2
=
cosh 1
cosh + 1
sinh + sinh = 2 sinh
_
+
2
_
cosh
_
2
_
cosh + cosh = 2 cosh
_
+
2
_
cosh
_
2
_
tanh + tanh =
sinh( + )
cosh cosh
The del
Operator
The
operator is a vector dierential operator. Let denote a scalar eld, and
A a vector
eld. Common operations performed with del include
grad()
div(
A)
A
curl(
A)
A
The Laplacian of
The Vector Laplacian of
A
A
The Directional Derivative of
u,
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Cartesian coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,
A denote a vector eld.
d
l = dx x + dy y + dz z d = dxdy dz
Gradient:
=
x
x +
y
y +
z
z
Divergence:
A =
A
x
x
+
A
y
y
+
A
z
z
Curl:
A =
_
A
z
y
A
y
z
_
x +
_
A
x
z
A
z
x
_
y +
_
A
y
x
A
x
y
_
z
Laplacian:
2
=
2
x
2
+
2
y
2
+
2
z
2
Spherical polar coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,
A denote a vector eld.
d
l = dr r + r d
+ r sin d
d = r
2
sin dr d d
Gradient:
=
r
r +
1
r
+
1
r sin
Divergence:
A =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin A
) +
1
r sin
A
Curl:
A =
1
r sin
_
(sin A
)
A
_
r
+
1
r
_
1
sin
A
r
r
(r A
)
_
+
1
r
_
r
(r A
)
A
r
Laplacian:
2
=
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
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Cylindrical polar coordinates
Let denote a scalar eld,
A denote a vector eld.
d
l = ds s + s d
+ dz z d = s ds ddz
Gradient:
=
s
s +
1
s
+
z
z
Divergence:
A =
1
s
s
(s A
r
) +
1
s
A
+
A
z
z
Curl:
A =
_
1
s
A
z
z
_
s +
_
A
s
z
A
z
s
_
+
1
s
_
s
(s A
)
A
s
_
z
Laplacian:
2
=
1
s
s
_
s
s
_
+
1
s
2
2
+
2
z
2
Conversions between coordinate systems
Spherical and Cartesian
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
r =
_
x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= tan
1
_
_
x
2
+ y
2
z
_
= tan
1
_
y
z
_
x = sin cos r + cos cos
sin
y = sin sin r + cos sin
+ cos
z = cos r sin
r = sin cos x + sin sin y + cos z
= cos cos x + cos sin y sin z
= sin x + cos y
Cylindrical and Cartesian
x = s cos
y = s sin
z = z
s =
_
x
2
+ y
2
= tan
1
_
y
x
_
z = z
x = cos s sin
y = sin s + cos
z = z
s = cos x + sin y
= sin x + cos y
z = z
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Vector Identities
Triple Products
Let
A,
B,
C be vector elds.
A (
B
C) =
B (
C
A) =
C (
B) (1)
A(
B
C) =
B(
A
C)
C(
B) (2)
Product Rules
Let and be scalar elds.
() = (
) + (
) (3)
B) =
A(
B) +
B(
A) + (
A
)
B+ (
B
)
A (4)
(
A) = (
A) +
A (
) (5)
B) =
B (
A)
A (
B) (6)
(
A) = (
A)
A(
) (7)
B) = (
B
)
A(
A
)
B+
A(
B)
B(
A) (8)
Second Derivatives
A) = 0 (9)
) = 0 (10)
A) =
(
A)
2
A Vector Laplacian (11)
Fundamental Theorems
Note that d is a dierential element of volume, da is a dierential element of area as a vector,
and d
l is a dierential element of length as a vector.
Fundamental Theorem for Path Integrals
(Path Independence, Gradient Theorem):
_
b
a
(
) d
l = (
b) (a)
Divergence Theorem (Gauss Theorem):
_
V
(
A) d =
_
S
A da
Stokes Theorem (Circulation, Curl Theorem):
_
S
(
A) da =
_
C
A d
l
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