Double Frequency Buck Converter

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1 | P a g e
VJIT-HYD

A
Main Project report on
DOUBLE-FREQUENCY BUCK CONVERTER
Submitted In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of
B.TECH
in
Electrical & Electronics Engineering
BY
1. N.SAI SRINIVAS YASASWI 08911A0285
2. S.SRAVAN KUMAR 08911A0296
3. G.SANTHOSH 09915A0208

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
Prof. S.M. ZAFARULLAH (H.O.D, EEE)

Department Of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
VIDYA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to JNTU)
AZIZNAGAR, C.B.POST, MOINABAD, HYDERABAD 500075

VJIT-HYD

Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Hyderabad
DEPARTMENT OF ELETRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGENEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Main Project Work entitled
DOUBLE-FREQUENCY BUCK CONVERTER is a benefited
work of N.SAI SRINIVAS YASASWI, S.SRAVAN KUMAR, and
G.SANTHOSH Bearing Roll.nos 08911A0285, 08911A0296 and
09915A0208 submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING to VIDYA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
affiliated to JNTU university, Hyderabad.
The result embodied in this project has not been submitted to any
other university or institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Internal Guide Head of the Department
T.K SRINIVAS Prof. S.M. ZAFARULLAH
Assistant professor, EEE Dept Professor and HOD, EEE Dept
VJIT-HYD VJIT-HYD

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
VJIT-HYD

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

We are very much thankful to our internal Guide Sri T.K SRINIVAS Sir, Lecturer in Electrical &
Electronics Engineering Department for his excellent guidance and deep encouragement in
every step in to this project DOUBLE-FREQUENCY BUCK CONVERTER successfully.

We convey our special thankful to Sri Zafarullah sir, Head of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering Department for all those valuable hours they has spent with us in
every possible aspect to make our project a success.

We are thankful to Sri D.Srinivas, Sri Jyoshna and Sri Geshma , Lecturer in Electrical
& electronics Engineering Department who inspired us by his enthusiastic advises from time
to time and also responding for successful completion of our project.

We are very happy to our sincere thanks to our Principal Sri venu gopal sir , for his
valuable co-operation in the successful completion of his project.

Finally I am grateful to all the staff members and lab demonstrators of EEE Dept. and
those who are directly and indirectly helpful in completion of this project.

By:

STUDENTS OF THIS PROJECT
DOUBLE-FREQUENCY BUCK CONVERTER
VIDYA JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY.
During the Academic Year 2011-2012
VJIT-HYD

CONTENTS

Abstract i
List of symbols. ii
List of figures. iii
List of Tables. iii
Chapter- 1 (Introduction)
1.1 Introduction. 1
1.2 Organization of thesis. 3
1.3 Overview of thesis. 3
Chapter-2 (Basics of dc-dc converters)
2.1 Introduction. 5
2.1.1 Basics of dc-dc converters. 6
2.1.2 Buck converter. 9
2.3 Average model of Buck converter. 15
2.5 Conclusion. 16
Chapter-3 (Double Frequency Buck converter)
3.1 Introduction. 17
3.1.1 Proposed Double frequency buck converter. 19
3.2 Performance evaluation of DF buck converter. 24
3.2.1 Steady state response. 25
3.2.2 Transient response. 25

VJIT-HYD

3.3 Proposed double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor 26
3.3.1 Buck-converter Driven Dc Motor System 27
3.3.2 Modelling of Buck-converter Dc Motor System 28
chapter-4 (mat lab)
4.1 simulink: 31
4.2 connecting blocks 33
4.3 continuous and discrete systems: 35
4.4 making subsystems 39
Chapter-5 (Simulation and Simulation result)
5.1 Introduction. 40
5.2 PI controllers 40
5.2.1 Limitations of PI controllers. 46
5.3 Simulation. 47
5.3.1 Simulation diagrams. 47
5.3.2 Simulation result. 52
5.4 Efficiency analysis. 57
Chapter-6 (Conclusion and future work)
6.1 Conclusion. 60
6.2 Scope of future work. 60
References 61

VJIT-HYD

ABSTRACT

Improving the efficiency and dynamics of power converters is a concerned tradeoff in
power electronics. The increase of switching frequency can improve the dynamics of power
converters, but the efficiency may be degraded. A double-frequency (DF) buck converter is
proposed to address this concern. This converter is comprised of two buck cells: one works at
high frequency, and another works at low frequency. It operates in a way that current in the high-
frequency switch is diverted through the low-frequency switch. Thus, the converter can operate
at very high frequency without adding extra control circuits. Moreover, the switching loss of the
converter remains small. The proposed converter exhibits improved steady state and transient
responses with low switching loss. An ac small-signal model of the DF buck converter is also
given to show that the dynamics of output voltage depends only on the high-frequency buck cell
parameters, and is independent of the low-frequency buck cell parameters. Simulation results
demonstrate that the proposed converter greatly improves the efficiency and exhibits nearly the
same dynamics as the conventional high-frequency buck converter.
Furthermore, the proposed topology can be extended to other dcdc converters by the DF
switch-inductor three-terminal network structure.

VJIT-HYD

List of symbols

U
in
,U
on
. Input and output voltage of the converter.
i
L
, i
la
. Current through the high, low frequency inductor.
i
SD
. i
S
.... Current through the active, diode.
S, S
D
. High frequency active switches.
S
a
, D
a
. low frequency switch and diode.
L, L
a
.. . inductors of the double frequency buck converter.
F
h
, f
1
high, and low frequency of the switches.
T
s1
,T
sh
.. low and high switching time periods.
M Multiple integers.
U
ref
. Reference voltage.
U
on
. On state voltage of the active switch.
U
f
. Total time periods of the switches and diodes.
I
R
. Load current of the converter.
R Load resistance of the converter.
T
on
, T
off
. turn on and turn off times of the switches and diode.
C .. capacitor of the converter.
P
sf
..... the total losses of the single frequency buck converter.
P
scon
, P
ss
conduction , switching losses of the active switch.
P
dcon
, P
sd
conduction and switching of the diode.
I
L
inductor average current in efficiency analysis.
F
s
.. switching frequency.
I
lapk
.. peak to peak low frequency inductor current ripple.
P
conDf
total conduction losses in the double frequency buck
converter.
P
sDf
total switching losses in the double frequency buck

VJIT-HYD

List of figures
Fig.2.1.1 Simple DC DC Converter.
Fig:2.1.2: output voltage as a function of time.
Fig 2.1.3: The two circuit configurations of a Buck converter: (a)On state, when the switch is
closed, and (c) Off-state, when the switch is open.
Fig 2.1.4: Naming conventions of the components, voltages and current of the Buck converter.
Fig: 2.3.1 Average model of buck converter with the added CCS.
Fig(3.1.1 )Schematic of the proposed DF buck converter.
Fig 3.1.2(a) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-on,sa=on.
Fig 3.1.2(b) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-off,sa=on;
Fig 3.1.2(c) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-on,sa=off;
Fig 3.1.2(d) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-off,sa=off.
Fig 3.2.1 current programmed mode control circuit.
Fig4.1 Simulink library browser
Fig 4 .2 Connectung blocks
Fig.4.2.1 Sources and sinks
Fig.4.3 Continous and descrete systems
Fig.4.3.1 simulink blocks
Fig4.3.2 Simulink math blocks
Fig4..3.3 Signals and systems
Fig:4.4.1 setting simulation parameters:
Fig:5.2.1 discrete PI controller.
Fig 5.3.1(a) simulation model of a double frequency buck converter.
Fig5.3.1(b) simulation model of a high frequency buck converter.
Fig 5.3.3 simulation model of a low frequency buck converter.
Fig 5.3.2.(b)output voltage steady state response comparison of the double frequency, single high
and low frequency buck converter.
Fig 5.3.2.(b)output voltage transient response comparison of the double frequency, single high
and low frequency buck converter when load is step up.
Fig 5.3.2.(c)output voltage transient response comparison of the double frequency, single high
and low frequency buck converter when load is step down.
Fig 5.3.2(a) Switch current waveforms.

List of tables,
TABLE I: SWITCHING STATES.
TABLE 2.1: PI CONTROLLER TUNING METHOD.
TABLE 2.2: EFFECTS INCREASING PARAMETER IN PI CONTROLLER.

VJIT-HYD

1.INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction

The Demand of high-performance power converter is increased dramatically with the
broadening of power converters application elds. In order to improve the transient and steady
state performance of power converters and to enhance power density, high switching frequency
is an effective method. However, switching frequency rise causes higher switching losses and
greater electromagnetic interference. This, in turn, limits the increase of switching frequency and
hinders the improvement of system performance. Active and passive soft-switching techniques
have been introduced to reduce switching losses. While these can create more favorable
switching trajectories for active power devices, they will generally increase the complexity of
control and sometimes are affected by the variable input and output condition.
In the trends of using power modules, space is limited for placing the added elements.
The complexity of power stage and control circuit also reduces the reliability of soft-switched
converters. Multiconverter paralleling method, which employs low-power converters in parallel
to enhance the power rating, has been proposed to enhance the power processing capability.
However, parallel operation has interaction problem that causes circulating current. To avoid the
circulating current, approaches such as isolation, high impedance, and one-converter approach
are utilized. These efforts increase the control complexity. The interleaving operation employs N
converters to operate in parallel with interleaved clocks, so the total dynamics can reach higher
performance due to the fact that the equivalent frequency is N times the single converter
frequency. Nevertheless, the circulating current phenomenon also exists.
A single boost-type zero-voltage-transition(ZVT) pulse width modulated converter
proposed in adopts an additional shunt resonant network to form an additional Boost cell
torealize soft switching of the main switches. However, the auxiliary switches operate in hard
switch and high frequency .A similar topology of single-phase rectier is given in, where total
harmonic distortion of the input line current is reduced and the efficiency improved. Its operation
is different from the ZVT circuit.
VJIT-HYD

The boost-typetopology however, is not very effective to enhance the output voltage
performance that the capacitor ripple voltage is determined by the low frequency. Hence, this
topology is not in suitable for improvement of dc output transient and steady state performances.

Moreover, the main Boost circuit and the added cell are coupled, and the added Boost cell has
an effect on the inductor current input. Splitting the lter inductor of buck converter into two
parts with added auxiliary active switch and diode has been proposed to improve the output
voltage response at load current step-down transient situation, but not at load current step-up
transient situation. Additional transformer and switches are needed to realize the improvement at
step-up transient to make the circuits. function as designed, it is required to detect the load
transient event, then to trigger or shut down the auxiliary switch. This increases the complexity
of the control circuit.
Moreover, oscillations at the output voltage occur due to the frequent on and off
operations at each transient event. On the other hand, high-frequency switching converter or
linear power supply in parallel with low-frequency converter proposed and enhances the output
voltage response. Paralleling high-frequency converter approach also requires the load transient
information, while linear power supply method suffers from low efficiency. Moreover, the
parallel structure brings about the circulating current problem. Additional current sharing control
is needed to overcome this problem.
Morever to overcome this problems we are proposes a novel converter topology to
achieve high dynamic response and high efficiency of buck-type converters. This topology
consists of a high-frequency buck cell and a low-frequency buck cell; and we call it the double-
frequency buck converter (DF buck). The current owing through the high-frequency cell is
diverted by the low frequency one, which also processes the majority of the converter power.
This current decreases rapidly so that the high-frequency cell can work at very high frequency to
improve the dynamic response. Furthermore, the efficiency is enhanced due to the low-current
processing requirement of the high-frequency cell in the DF buck converter. Unlike the parallel
structure, the proposed converter does not incur the circulating current problem. Moreover, it is
not required to detect the load transient event for control. The circuit conguration and control
strategy will be described in detail. The frequency-domain and time-domain analyses are given
VJIT-HYD

to show that the proposed topology has the same transient and steady state performance with the
single high-frequency buck converter.

1.2 Organization of thesis:

Chapter 2: This chapter deals with basics of DC DC Converters, Buck Converter,
Average model of Buck Converter.

Chapter 3: This chapter deals with Double Frequency Buck Converter.
Chapter 4: This chapter deals with Mat lab introduction
Chapter 5: This chapter deals with Simulation model,Results and Efficiency Analysis.
Chapter 6: This chapter deals with Conclusion and Future Scope.

1.3 Overview of Project:

The buck converter works in the continuous conduction mode, then the inductor
current i
L
can be regarded as a current source. In each switching cycle, both the current
flowing through the switch and the voltage across the diode are averaged.
To enhance the steady-state response and the transient response of the buck
converter, the switching frequency should be increased; but higher switching frequency
steps up the switching loss dramatically. An CCS, which is in parallel with the load
terminal, is added to tackle this loss problem. Fig.2 shows such modication.The load
current through the active switch is diverted by the CCS.
The propose to use a buck cell working at lower frequency to realize the CCS.
The proposed converter is called the DF buck converter, because these buck cells work at
two different frequencies. Schematic of this DF buck converter is shown in Fig. 3. The
cell containing L, S , and S
D
works at higher frequency, and is called the high-frequency
buck cell. Another cell containing La, Sa, and Da works at lower frequency, and is called
the low-frequency buck cell. The high frequency buck cell is used to enhance the output
performance, and the low-frequency buck cell to improve the converter efficiency. An
VJIT-HYD

active switch, instead of a diode as in the conventional unidirectional buck converter, is
employed to realize S
D
in the high frequency buck cell. This active switch transfers the

energy stored in the low-frequency cell to the source during the transient stage of load
step-down. It works complementarily with high-frequency cell stage of load step-down. It
works complementarily with high-frequency cell switch S , and improves the transient
response.
The efficiency expression is analyzed in the double frequency buck converter. The
analysis is also applied to the single high frequency buck and low-frequency buck
converters.
A simple loss model is adopted here in that we just want to show the efficiency
relationship between the DF buck and single high-frequency buck, not to develop a new
loss model.
In the analysis, we have the following assumptions;
1. The conduction losses of active switch and diode are estimated, respectively,
according to their conduction voltages U
on
and U
F
.
2. The switching transient processes are assumed to satisfy the linear current and
voltage waveforms. Moreover, the turn-on time ton is the same for all switches and
diodes, so is the turn-off time t
o .
3. Since the switching loss usually dominates the total loss, losses of the output
capacitor and output inductor are not calculated here.
This result also can be reasoned from the fact that the total currents owing through the
DF buck switches and diodes are the same as that through a single-frequency buck. On
the other hand, the total switching loss is nearly the same as the single low-frequency
buck, and is much smaller than that of the single high-frequency buck. Hence, the DF
buck converter im proves the efficiency by current diversion to the low-frequency cell.
Although assumptions and approximations are made in the aforementioned analysis, it
reveals the efficiency mechanism of the DF buck converter.

VJIT-HYD

Chapter--2 (Basics of DC to DC Converters):
2.1 Introduction:
A dc-to-dc converter is used to change the dc voltage from one level to another. In this
case, the dc input voltage is fixed and the level of the dc output voltage depends upon the
converters topology. The dc output voltage can be higher or lower than the input voltage since
the advent of diodes; the techniques have been developed to obtain the dc voltage from the time-
varying sinusoidal (ac) supply. The half-wave rectifier and the bridge rectifier are used to obtain
dc voltage from a single-phase time-varying source. To control the ripple of the rectified output
voltage, large capacitor filters are used. These circuits now referred to as the linear regulators,
operate at the frequency of the ac voltage, which is usually either 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Until about
two or three decades ago, the linear regulators were the only reliable methods to meet all dc
requirements. Some of the major problems associated with the linear regulator is its size and
weight of its components such as the transformer. The voltage regulator element in these circuits
has a comparatively high voltage across its terminals and dissipates large amounts of power,
which results in low efficiency. For this very reason, the use of linear regulators is now limited to
low power applications.
As the power semiconductor devices became more reliable and efficient in their
operation, the switched mode power supplies came into existence. In the design of these power
supplies, the semiconductor devices are either switched on or switched off. Due to the low
voltage drop across the semiconductor device when it is on, its power consumption is low. For
this reason, the switched mode power supplies are highly efficient. Since the switching action,
which simply means to turn a power semiconductor device either on or off, is usually done at
high frequencies, the relative size and weight of the components needed for its design is
comparatively small. In this chapter, our aim is to obtain a dc output voltage, which may be
higher or lower, from a fixed dc input voltage.

A very simple scheme that illustrates the principle is shown in Figure. In this case, the dc
voltage applied to the resistor is controlled via a switch, which is usually a power semiconductor
device such as an SCR, a BJT, a MOSFET, an IGBT, etc.

VJIT-HYD

Fig.2.1.1 Simple DC DC Converter
switch is closed for a fraction of the time period T and is kept open for the remainder period. Let
us say that the switch is turned on at t = 0 and rem
on time
the duty cycle. The output voltage obtained by opening and closing of the switch is shown in
Figure 2.1.1

Fig:2.1.2: output voltage as a function of time
The time during which the switch remains closed is customarily referred to as the off time
(period). We can express the off time in terms of the duty cycle as T
off
= (1-D) T.
2..1.1
The average output voltage may be computed as
2.1.2
Substituting, D = T
on
/T, the output voltage in terms of the duty cycle is
V
0
= D V
s
2.1.3
In this case, the output voltage is directly proportional to the duty cycle. It is
therefore evident that the output voltage is less than the input voltage. For an ideal switch, the
efficiency of the dc-to-dc converter is 100%. This simple circuit can be designed to meet the dc
VJIT-HYD

output-voltage requirements. However, it has one major drawback. Its percent voltage ripple is
100%. The output voltage with such a high ripple content may be satisfactory for electric heaters,
light dimming circuits, etc., it is certainly not suitable for the operation of amplifiers and other
circuits requiring almost constant dc voltage. The high voltage ripple can be controlled by
placing a capacitor across the load.
The capacitor is large enough so that its voltage does not have any noticeable
change during the time the switch is off. Somewhat better circuit can be developed by including
an inductor, which is in series with the switch when the switch is on (closed), to limit the current
in rush. However, this creates another problem. Since the current in the inductor cannot change
suddenly, we have to provide at least one more switch, such a freewheeling diode, to provide a
path for the inductor current when the switch is off (open). In summary, a good dc-to-dc
converter may have, an inductor, a capacitor, and a freewheeling diode, and an electronic switch.
The placement of these elements in a circuit dictates the performance of the circuit. The three
configurations that utilize these circuit elements are (a) Buck Converter (lowering the output
voltage, step-down application), (b) Boost Converter (raising the output voltage, step-up
application), and (c) Buck-Boost Converter (lowering or raising the output voltage, step-down or
step up application).

But in these configurations, the energy transfer is not continuous. In the Buck converter,
the energy transfer from the input to the output side occurs when the static switch is in the ON
state. In the Boost & Buck-Boost converters, this transfer takes place when the static switch is
turned OFF. We overcome this limitation by providing adequate filtering. The filter consists of
energy storage elements such as an inductor or capacitor or both, which serve as reservoirs of
energy and ensure that the flow of energy into the load is continuous and ripple-free
In contrast to the above, three more configurations were developed in which
energy transfer from input to the output occurs both during the ON time and the OFF time of the
static switch. They are: Cuk converter, Sepic converter, Zeta converter.
The converter has been realized using lossless elements. To the extent that they
are ideal, the inductor, capacitor, and switch do not dissipate power. Hence, the efficiency of the
converter approaches 100%. But in real case, none of the components are ideal, therefore to
reach the real efficiency of the DC-DC converter the losses of each component should be
VJIT-HYD

considered. Duty ratio D is the control parameter in DC-DC converter electronics. In most cases, D is
adjusted to regulate the output voltage, V
out
.

2.1.1 Types of DC to DC Converters:
Buck Converter
Boost Converter
Buck Boost Converter
Cuk Converter

Buck converter:
A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter. Its design is similar to the
step-up boost converter, and like the boost converter it is a switched-mode power supply that
uses two switches (a transistor and a diode) and an inductor and a capacitor.
The simplest way to reduce a DC voltage is to use a voltage divider circuit, but
voltage dividers waste energy, since they operate by bleeding off excess power as heat; also,
output voltage isn't regulated (varies with input voltage). A buck converter, on the other hand,
can be remarkably efficient (easily up to 95% for integrated circuits) and self-regulating, making
it useful for tasks such as converting the 12-24V typical battery voltage in a laptop down to the
few volts needed by the processor.
Buck Converter Operation:

(a) Buck Converter circuit

(b) On state, when the switch is closed
VJIT-HYD

(c) Off-state, when the switch is open
Fig 2.1.3: The two circuit configurations of a Buck converter: (a)On state, when the switch is closed,
and (c) Off-state, when the switch is open.
The operation of the buck converter is fairly simple, with an inductor and two switches
(usually a transistor and a diode) that control the inductor. It alternates between connecting the
inductor to source voltage to store energy in the inductor and discharging the inductor into the
load.

Fig 2.1.4: Naming conventions of the components, voltages and current of the Buck converter.
Continuous mode:
A Buck converter operates in continuous mode if the current through the inductor (I
L
)
never falls to zero during the commutation cycle. In this mode, the operating principle is
described by the chronogram in figure 2.1.5

VJIT-HYD

Fig 2.1.5: Voltages & currents waveforms with time in an ideal Buck converter
continuous mode
- When the switch pictured above is closed, the voltage across the inductor is V
L
= V
i
V
o
.
The current through the inductor rises linearly. As the diode is reverse-biased by the
voltage source V, no current flows through it;
- When the switch is opened, the diode is forward biased. The voltage across the inductor
is V
L
= V
o
(neglecting diode drop). The current I
L
decreases.
The energy stored in inductor L is

2.1.4
Therefore, it can be seen that the energy stored in L increases during On-time (as I
L

increases) and then decrease during the Off-state. L is used to transfer energy from the input to
the output of the converter.
The rate of change of I
L
can be calculated from:

2.1.5
With V
L
equal to V
i
V
o
during the On-state and to V
o
during the Off-state. Therefore, the
increase in current during the On-state is given by:

2.1.6
Identically, the decrease in current during the Off-state is given by:

2.1.7
If we assume that the converter operates in steady state, the energy stored in each
component at the end of a commutation cycle T is equal to that at the beginning of the cycle.
That means that the current I
L
is the same at t=0 and at t=T (see figure 2.2.3).
VJIT-HYD

Therefore,

2.1.8
So we can write from the above equations as:

(
2.1.9
It is worth noting that the above integrations can be done graphically: In figure 4, is
proportional to the area of the yellow surface, and to the area of the orange surface, as
these surfaces are defined by the inductor voltage (red) curve. As these surfaces are simple
rectangles, their areas can be found easily: for the yellow rectangle and
for the orange one. For steady state operation, these areas must be equal.
As can be seen on figure 3, t
on
= DT & t
off
= D DT. D is a scalar called the duty cycle with a
value between 0 and 1. This yields:
(
( ) 2.1.10
This equation above can be rewritten as: V
0
= D.V
i
2.1.11

That yields a duty cycle being:
2.1.12
From this equation, it can be seen that the output voltage of the converter varies linearly
with the duty cycle for a given input voltage. As the duty cycle D is equal to the ratio between t
on

and the period T, it cannot be more than 1. Therefore, . This is why this converter is
referred to as step-down converter.
So, for example, stepping 12v down to 3v (output voltage equal to a fourth of the input
voltage) would require a duty cycle of 25%, in our theoretically ideal circuit.
VJIT-HYD

Discontinuous mode:
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time lower than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through
the inductor falls to zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described
above is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle. This has,
however, some effect on the previous equations.

Fig 2.1.6: Voltages and currents with time in an ideal Buck converter discontinuous mode.
We still consider that the converter operates in steady state. Therefore, the energy in the
inductor is the same at the beginning and at the end of the cycle (in the case of discontinuous
mode, it is zero). This means that the average value of the inductor voltage (V
L
) is zero, i.e., that
the area of the yellow and orange rectangles in figure 2.1.6 are the same. This yields:
(
2.1.13
So the value of is:

2.1.14
VJIT-HYD

The output current delivered to the load (I
o
) is constant; as we consider that the output
capacitor is large enough to maintain a constant voltage across its terminals during a
commutation cycle. This implies that the current flowing through the capacitor has a zero
average value. Therefore, we have:
I
L
= I
0
2.1.15
Where is the average value of the inductor current. As can be seen in figure 2.2.6, the inductor
current waveform has a triangular shape. Therefore, the average value of I
L
can be sorted out
geometrically as follow:

()
2.1.16
The inductor current is zero at the beginning and rises during t
On
up to I
Lmax
. That means that
I
Lmax
is equal to:

2.1.17
Substituting the value of I
Lmax
in the previous equation leads to:

) ()
2.1.18
Substituting in the above expression yields:

) (
2.1.19
This latter expression can be written as:
VJIT-HYD

2.1.20
It can be seen that the output voltage of a Buck converter operating in discontinuous
mode is much more complicated than its counterpart of the continuous mode. Furthermore, the
output voltage is now a function not only of the input voltage (V
i
) and the duty cycle D, but also
of the inductor value (L), the commutation period (T) and the output current (I
o
).
2.2 Average model of buck converter with the added CCS:
The topology of a conventional buck converter In the steady state, the input (u
in
) and the
output (u
in
) of the converter are governed by
Uo = D Uin (2.2.1)

Fig: 2.3.1 Average model of buck converter with the added CCS
where D is the duty ratio .If the buck converter works in the continuous conduction mode, then
the inductor current i
L
can be regarded as a current source. In each switching cycle, both the
current flowing through the switch and the voltage across the diode are averaged. The average
model of buck converter is, shown in Fig.(2.3.1), excluding the added controlled current source
(CCS) I
La
, and its governing equations are,
I
S
= D IL (2.2.2)
U
D
= D U
in (2.2.3)
I
SD
= (1 D) I
L (2.2.4)
VJIT-HYD

To enhance the steady-state response and the transient response of the buck converter, the
switching frequency should be increased; but higher switching frequency steps up the switching
loss dramatically. An CCS, which is in parallel with the load terminal, is added to tackle this loss
problem. Fig.2 shows such modication.The load current through the active switch is diverted by
the CCS. The currents through the active switch and the diode can be expressed as,
I
S
= D (I
L
I
La
) (2.2.5)
I'
SD
=(1D) (I
L
I
La
). (2.2.6)
It can be seen from (5) and (6) that when the load current and the CCS are the same, both
the currents through the active switch and the diode are nearly zero.
2.3 Conclusion:
To enhance the steady-state response and the transient response of the buck converter,
the switching frequency should be increased; but higher switching frequency steps up the
switching loss dramatically. An CCS, which is in parallel with the load terminal, is added to
tackle this loss.
But the disadvantage of CCS(controlled current source),which is in parallel with the
load terminal causes a circulating current problem. To overcome this problem instead of
ccs the method proposed to use a buck cell working at lower frequency to realize the CCS. The
proposed converter is called the Double Frequency buck converter.

VJIT-HYD

Chapter-3
3 Proposed double frequency buck converter
3.1 Introduction
Improving the efficiency and dynamics of power converters is a concerned tradeoff in
power electronics. The increase of switching frequency can improve the dynamics of power
converters, but the efficiency may be degraded. A double-frequency (DF) buck converter is
proposed to address this concern. This converter is comprised of two buck cells: one works at
high frequency, and another works at low frequency. It operates in a way that current in the high-
frequency switch is diverted through the low-frequency switch. Thus, the converter can operate
at very high frequency without adding extra control circuits. Moreover, the switching loss of the
converter remains small. The proposed converter exhibits improved steady state and transient
responses with low switching loss. An ac small-signal model of the DF buck converter is also
given to show that the dynamics of output voltage depends only on the high-frequency buck cell
parameters, and is independent of the low-frequency buck cell parameters. Simulation and
experimental results demonstrate that the proposed converter greatly improves the efficiency and
exhibits nearly the same dynamics as the conventional high-frequency buck converter
To enhance the steady-state response and the transient response of the buck converter,
the switching frequency should be increased; but higher switching frequency steps up the
switching loss dramatically. For these purpose a novel converter topology used to achieve high
dynamic response and high efciency of buck-type converters. This topology consists of a high-
frequency buck cell and a low-frequency buck cell; and we call it the double- frequency buck
converter (DF buck)

VJIT-HYD

3.1.1 Proposed double frequency buck converter:

Fig(3.1.1 )Schematic of the proposed DF buck converter.

The proposed converter is called the Double Frequency(DF) buck converter, because
these buck cells work at two different frequencies. Schematic of this DF buck converter is shown
in Fig. 3.1.1.
The cell containing L, S , and S
D
works at higher frequency, and is called the high-
frequency buck cell. Another cell containing La, Sa, and Da works at lower frequency, and is
called the low-frequency buck cell. The high frequency buck cell is used to enhance the output
performance, and the low-frequency buck cell to improve the converter efficiency. An active
switch, instead of a diode as in the conventional unidirectional buck converter, is employed to
realize S
D
in the high frequency buck cell. This active switch transfers the energy stored in the
low-frequency cell to the source during the transient stage of load step-down. It works
complementarily with high-frequency cell stage of load step-down. It works complementarily
with high-frequency cell switch S , and improves the transient response.
The switch S is controlled to operate at the high frequency f
h
, and the corresponding
switching period is Tsh. On the other hand, the switch Sa is controlled to work at a low
frequency f
l
,and the corresponding switching period is T
sl
. Assume that the high frequency is an
integer multiples of the low frequency, i.e.,
f
h
= M f
1
. (3.1.1)
At each low-frequency cycle, four switching states exist Table I lists the switching
states according to the status of switches S and Sa The state a denotes that both switches S and S
a

VJIT-HYD

are on. The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.3.1.2(a). In a similar manner, the equivalent
circuits of states b, c, and d are shown in Fig.3.1.2(b)(d), respectively.

TABLE I
SWITCHING STATES

State
Active Switches
S Sa
a ON ON
b OFF ON
c ON OFF
d OFF OFF

State a :

Fig 3.1.2(a) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-on,sa=on.

In this state, the voltage u
L
across the inductor L is positive, and the voltage u
La
across
L
a
is zero. Hence, the current i
L
owing through L rises, and the current i
La
owing through L
a
does not change.

The governing equations of statea are expressed as
u
L
= U
in
U
0
(3.1.2)

(3.1.3)
u
La
= 0 (3.1.4)
VJIT-HYD

(3.1.5)

State b :

Fig 3.1.2(b) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-off,sa=on;
At this state, the voltage u
L
across L is negative, so the current i
L
decreases. The
voltage u
La
across L
a
is positive, and the current i
La
owing through L
a
rises.
The governing equations of state b can be described by
u
L
= -U
0
(3.1.6)

(3.1.7)
u
La
= U
in
(3.1.8)

(3.1.9)

State c :

Fig 3.1.2(c) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s=on, sa=off;
VJIT-HYD

The voltage u
L
across L is positive, so the current i
L
rises. Since the voltage u
La
across La
is negative, the current i
La
through L
a
decreases.
In state c, the equivalent circuit equations are derived as,
u
L
= U
in
U
0
(3.1.10)

(3.1.11)
u
La
= - U
in
(3.1.12)

(3.1.13)

State d :

Fig 3.1.2(d) Equivalent circuit of DF buck converter when s-off, sa=off;

In state d, the equivalent circuit equations are derived as
u
L
= - U
0
(3.1.14)

(3.1.15)
U
La
= 0 (3.1.16)

(3.1.17)

The voltage u
L
across L is negative, so the current i
L
owing through L decreases. The
voltage u
La
across L
a
is zero, and the current i
La
owing through L
a
remains the same.
The current i
La
owing through L
a
remains the same cell does not affect the output
inductor voltage, which has the same waveform and value as that of the conventional buck
converter. That is, the voltage across the output inductor is U
in
U
o
when the switch is on, and is
U
o
when the switch is off. The voltage and current waveforms of DF buck in one low frequency
VJIT-HYD

cycle T
sl
are shown in Fig. 5, where M = 4. In the conduction mode of low-frequency switch, the
voltage across the low-frequency inductor La alternates between zero and U
in
.
Thus, the equivalent slope of the current i
La
is positive. At the switch-off interval, u
La

varies from zero to U
in
, the equivalent slope of i
La
becomes negative. As a result, if we employ
proper control method, the low-frequency inductor can be controlled to follow the output
inductor current.

Fig3.1.3: Voltage and current waveforms in one switching period T
sl
.

VJIT-HYD

3.2 Performance evaluation of double frequency buck converter:
The current programmed mode (CPM) control circuit used to control the proposed DF
buck converter is shown in Fig.3.2.1. In the control diagram, the output voltage is fed back and
compared with U
ref
. The quantity R
f
ic is used as the current reference for the buck cells. The
currents owing through inductors L and La are expected to be equal to this reference value in
the steady state. The low-frequency buck cell diverts the current owing through high-frequency
switches S and S
D
. This control circuit, like standard current mode control, does not need
additional load transient information, which is not the case in other methods.
Since no specic control circuit is required, complexity of the control circuitry of the DF
buck converter is similar to that of the conventional buck converter. The implementation is
simple and can be done by commercial CPM chips.

Fig 3.2.1 current programmed mode control circuit

VJIT-HYD

3.2.1 Steady state performance:
Performance of the DF buck converter is evaluated by looking at the steady-state and
transient responses of three circuits a DF buck, a single high-frequency buck converter whose
switching frequency is the same as the higher frequency of DF buck, and a single low-frequency
buck converter whose switching frequency is equal to the lower frequency of DF buck.
Parameters used in the simulation are

u
in
= 48 V, U
o
= 10 V, C= 470 F

DF buck : L = 100 H, L
a
= 1 mH, f
l
= 10 kHz

f
h
= 100 kHz

High-frequency buck : L = 100 H, f= 100 kHz

Low-frequency buck : L
a
= 1 mH, f= 10 kHz.

In the steady state we can observe that output voltage waveforms of various buck
converters. It can be seen that the steady state performance of DF buck and that of single high-
frequency buck converter are almost the same
3.2.2 Transient Performance Analysis
This section investigates the transient response of the DF buck converter. If the load
resistance is reduced from 2R to R, the load current will increase from 0.5 I
R
to I
R
. Since the
currents through inductor L and L
a
cannot change abruptly, at this transient instant, the output
voltage decreases due to the increased load current that is partially supplied by the output
capacitor. The feedback control loop regulates the duty ratio of each buck cell to control the
current of inductor L, i
L
, and the current of L
a
, i
La
. It increases the duty ratio of the high
frequency switch so that i
L
rises Then, i
La
rises too. Note that the low-frequency inductance is
selected to be larger than the high-frequency one to reduce the current ripple of i
La
.
VJIT-HYD

If the inductor has larger inductance, the current owing through it will have
lower dynamic response speed with the same voltage excitation. As shown in Fig. 5, when low-
frequency switch is on, the average voltage applied to low-frequency inductor is(1d) times the
input voltage U
in
. This is the same as the voltage across the high-frequency inductor, U
in
U
o
,
when high-frequency switch is on. On the other hand, when the low-frequency switch is off, the
average voltage across low frequency inductor is d times U
in
. This average voltage is also the
same as that across the high-frequency inductor when high-frequency switch is off. Hence, i
La

rises slower than i
L
. Moreover, the current through the high-frequency switch increases
momentarily, but soon back to the steady state level due to the current feedback loop.
If the load resistance is increased from R to 2R, then the load current will
decrease from I
R
to 0.5 I
R
, so is the low-frequency inductor current i
La
. At this moment, i
La
can
freewheel through S
D
when the switch S is off. When S is on, the energy stored in La can be fed
back to the source via the switch S .
As a result, the impact to output response by the low-frequency inductor is
largely alleviated. it is observed that the DF buck and the single high-frequency buck converters
exhibit almost the same transient responses during load changing, and much better than the
single low-frequency buck converter does. The effect of switch current diversion of the high-
frequency cell and the low frequency cell is also investigated

3.3 Proposed double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor
Dc motor has good speed control respondence, wide speed control
range. It is widely used in speed control systems which need high control requirements, such as
rolling mill, double-hulled tanker, and high precision digital tools. When it needs control the
speed stepless and smoothness, the mostly used way is to adjust the armature voltage of motor.
One of the most common methods to drive a dc motor is by using PWM signals with respect to
the motor input voltage. However, the underlying hard switching strategy causes unsatisfactory
dynamic behavior. The resulting trajectories exhibit a very noisy shape. This causes large forces
acting on the motor mechanics and also large currents which detrimentally stress the electronic
components of the motor as well as of the power supply. Since it is usually necessary to add a
power supply component, anyway, this contribution shall present a control for the entire system
VJIT-HYD

of buck-converter/dc motor. The combination of dc to dc power converters with dc motors has
been reported.
In particular, the composition of a buck converter with a dc motor has been proposed. The buck
type switched dc to dc converter is well known in power-electronics. Due to the fact that the
converter contains two energy storing elements, a coil and a capacitor, smooth dc output voltages
and currents with very small current ripple can be generated. The control issue of the
converter/motor is to design the controller so that the dc motor can track a prescribed trajectory
velocity precisely with minimum error. In order to achieve these objectives, various methods
using different technique have been proposed. DC machines are extensively used in many
industrial a pplications such as servo control and traction tasks due to their effectiveness,
robustness and the traditional relative ease in the devising of appropriate feedback control
schemes, especially those of the PI and PID types. The increasing availability of feedback
controller design techniques and the rapid development of circuit simulations programs, such as
PSpice, offer much wider possibilities to analyze, and redesign, currently used dc motor drive
systems.. The smooth trajectory input track ing using dynamic feedback controller for buck-
converter
3.3.1 Buck-converter Driven Dc Motor System:
The simplified model of the overall system buck-converter driven dc motor is shown in Figure 1.
The switching devices have been replaced by an ideally switched volta ge source. This is
indicated by the multiplication of Ue with the switching variable An additional resistance R L
coil windings. The motor has been modeled by an inductance L M with ohmic resistance R M
and electromagnetic voltage source K E An input voltage U e has been used which value is
equal to the maximum voltage of the dc motor. In this st udy, the buck converter circuit with coil
inductance, L, coil resistance, R L and capacitance, C is considered.

VJIT-HYD

3.3.2 Modelling of Buck-converter Dc Motor System:
This section provides a brief description on the modelling of the buck-converter driven dc motor,
as a basis of a simulation environment for development and assessment of the proposed control
techniques. The dynamic system composed from converter/motor is considered in this
investigation and derived in the transfer function and state-space forms. Considering the dynamic
system of the convert er/motor, the system can be modelled as

Advantages of DC motor:
Ease of control
Deliver high starting torque
Near-linear performance
Disadvantages:
High maintenance
Large and expensive (compared to induction motor)
Not suitable for high-speed operation due tocommutator and brushes
Not suitable in explosive or very clean Environment

VJIT-HYD

CHAPTER-4
MATLAB
Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math and
computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics Application
development, including graphical user interface building.
Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar no interactive language such as C or Fortran.
The name matlab stands for matrix laboratory. Matlab was originally written to provide
easy access to matrix software developed by the linpack and eispack projects. Today, matlab
engines incorporate the lapack and blas libraries, embedding the state of the art in software for
matrix computation.
Matlab has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, matlab is the tool of choice for high-
productivity research, development, and analysis.
Matlab features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very
important to most users of matlab, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of matlab functions (M-files) that extend
the matlab environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are
available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets,
simulation, and many others.
The matlab system consists of five main parts:
VJIT-HYD

Development Environment. This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use matlab
functions and files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the matlab
desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for
viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.
The matlab Mathematical Function Library. This is a vast collection of computational
algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to
more sophisticated functions like matrix inverse, matrix eigenvalues, Bessel functions, and fast
Fourier transforms.
The matlab Language. This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow
statements, functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It
allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away programs,
and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.
Matlab has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as
annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-dimensional and
three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation graphics. It
also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully customize the appearance of graphics as
well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your matlab applications.
The matlab Application Program Interface (API). This is a library that allows you to
write C and Fortran programs that interact with matlab. It includes facilities for calling routines
from matlab (dynamic linking), calling matlab as a computational engine, and for reading and
writing MAT-files.

VJIT-HYD

4.1 SIMULINK:
INTRODUCTION:
Simulink is a software add-on to matlab which is a mathematical tool developed by The
Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in Natick. Matlab is powered by
extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a tool used to visually program a dynamic
system (those governed by Differential equations) and look at results. Any logic circuit, or
control system for a dynamic system can be built by using standard building blocks available in
Simulink Libraries. Various toolboxes for different techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural
Networks, dsp, Statistics etc. are available with Simulink, which enhance the processing power
of the tool. The main advantage is the availability of templates / building blocks, which avoid the
necessity of typing code for small mathematical processes.
CONCEPT OF SIGNAL AND LOGIC FLOW:
In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by lines
connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks dynamic /
static).Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks, which could be
scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected from one block to another,
can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is processed and transferred only at
Discrete times, since all computers are discrete systems. Thus, a simulation time step (otherwise
called an integration time step) is essential, and the selection of that step is determined by the
fastest dynamics in the simulated system.

VJIT-HYD

Fig4.1 Simulink library browser
VJIT-HYD

4.2 CONNECTING BLOCKS:

Fig 4 .2 Connectung blocks
To connect blocks, left-click and drag the mouse from the output of one block to the
input of another block.
4.2.1 SOURCES AND SINKS:
The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a dynamic
system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave, a step, a repeating
sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test disturbance effects, and can use
the random signal generator to simulate noise. The clock may be used to create a time index for
plotting purposes. The ground could be used to connect to any unused port, to avoid warning
messages indicating unconnected ports.
VJIT-HYD

The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most cases, we
would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The data could be
displayed or even stored to a file. the stop block could be used to stop the simulation if the input
to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3 shows the available blocks in the
sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be terminated, to prevent warnings about
unconnected signals.

Fig.4.2.1 Sources and sinks

VJIT-HYD

4.3 CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE SYSTEMS:
All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems. Simulink
allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration blocks, delay blocks
etc.

Fig.4.3 Continous and descrete systems
VJIT-HYD

4.3.1 NON-LINEAR OPERATORS:
A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate non-linear
systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very difficult to arrive at
an analytical solution for a system having non-linearities such as saturation, signup function,
limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are analyzed using iterations, non-linearities
are not a hindrance. One such could be a saturation block, to indicate a physical limitation on a
parameter, such as a voltage signal to a motor etc. Manual switches are useful when trying
simulations with different cases. Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in
programming.

Fig.4.3.1 simulink blocks
VJIT-HYD

4.3.2 MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS:
Mathematical operators such as products, sum, logical operations such as and, or, etc.
.can be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication becomes easy with the
matrix gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan inverse (at an) are also available.
Relational operators such as equal to, greater than etc. can also be used in logic circuits

Fig4.3.2 Simulink math blocks

VJIT-HYD

4.3.3 SIGNALS & DATA TRANSFER:
In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from one portion
to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That signal could be
dumped into a goto block, which is used to send signals from one subsystem to another.
Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes
matrix(column/row) visualization easier.

Fig4..3.3 Signals and systems

VJIT-HYD

4.4 MAKING SUBSYSTEMS
Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the parent block
where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends on the purpose of the
block. In general one will use the standard subsystem but other subsystems can be chosen. For
instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block, which is enabled only when a trigger signal is
received.
Open (double click) the subsystem and create input / output PORTS, which transfer
signals into and out of the subsystem. The input and output ports are created by dragging them
from the Sources and Sinks directories respectively. When ports are created in the subsystem,
they automatically create ports on the external (parent) block. This allows for connecting the
appropriate signals from the parent block to the subsystem.
4.4.1 SETTING SIMULATION PARAMETERS:
Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique to solve a
differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system or a discrete system
based on the blocks inside. The simulation start and stop time can be specified. In case of
variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be specified. A Fixed step size is
recommended and it allows for indexing time to a precise number of points, thus controlling the
size of the data vector. Simulation step size must be decided based on the dynamics of the
system. A thermal process may warrant a step size of a few seconds, but a DC motor in the
system may be quite fast and may require a step size of a few milliseconds.

Fig:4.4.1 setting simulation parameters:
VJIT-HYD

Chapter-5
5 Simulation Results:
5.1 Introduction:

A proportional-integral controller (PI controller) is a generic control loop feedback
mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. A PI controller attempts to correct the
error between a measured process variable and a desired set point by calculating and then
outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process accordingly.

The PI controller calculation involves two parameters; the Proportional, the Integral
values. The Proportional value determines the reaction to the current error, the Integral
determines the reaction based on the sum of recent errors and the Derivative determines the
reaction to the rate at which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three
actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve
or the power supply of a heating element. By "tuning" the three constants in the PI requirements.
The response of the controller can be described in terms of the controller algorithm the PI can
provide control action designed for specific process responsiveness of the controller to an error,
the degree to which the controller overshoots the set point and the degree of system oscillation.

5.2 PI controllers:
5.2.1 Proportional term:
The proportional term makes a change to the output that is proportional to the current
error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp,
called the proportional gain.
The proportional term is given by:

P
out
= K
p
e(t) (4.1)

Where
- P
out
: Proportional output
VJIT-HYD

- K
p
: Proportional Gain, a tuning parameter
- e : Error = SP PV
- t : Time or instantaneous time (the present)

A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the
error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (See the section on
Loop Tuning) In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error,
and a less responsive (or sensitive) controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control
action may be too small when responding to system disturbances.

In the absence of disturbances pure proportional control will not settle at its target value,
but will retain a steady state error that is a function of the proportional gain and the process gain.
Despite the steady-state offset, both tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that it is the
proportional term that should contribute the bulk of the output change.

5.2.2 Integral term:
The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error
and the duration of the error. Summing the instantaneous error over time (integrating the error)
gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error
is then multiplied by the integral gain and added to the controller output. The magnitude of the
contribution of the integral term to the overall control action is determined by the integral gain,
K
i
.
The integral term is given by:
I
out
=K ()
(4.2)

Where
I
out
: Integral output
K
i
: Integral Gain, a tuning parameter
e : Error = SP PV
: Time in the past contributing to the integral response
VJIT-HYD

The integral term (when added to the proportional term) accelerates the movement of the
process towards set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a
proportional only controller. However, since the integral term is responding to accumulated
errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the set point value (cross over the
set point and then create a deviation in the other direction). For further notes regarding integral
gain tuning and controller stability, see the section on Loop Tuning.

The output from the three terms, the proportional, and the integral terms are summed to
calculate the output of the PI controller.

Fig:5.2.1 Discrete PI controller

First estimation is the equivalent of the proportional action of a PI controller. The integral
action of a PI controller can be thought of as gradually adjusting the output when it is almost
right. Derivative action can be thought of as making smaller and smaller changes as one gets
close to the right level and stopping when it is just right, rather than going too far. Making a
change that is too large when the error is small is equivalent to a high gain controller and will
lead to overshoot. If the controller were to repeatedly make changes.
VJIT-HYD

Those were too large and repeatedly overshoot the target, this control loop would be
termed unstable and the output would oscillate around the set point in either a constant, a
growing or a decaying sinusoid. A human would not do this because we are adaptive controllers,
learning from the process history, but PI controllers do not have the ability to learn and must be
set up correctly. Selecting the correct gains for effective control is known as tuning the
controller.
If a controller starts from a stable state at zero error (PV = SP), then further changes by the
controller will be in response to changes in other measured or unmeasured inputs to the process
that impact on the process, and hence on the PV. Variables that impact on the process other than
the MV are known as disturbances and generally controllers are used to reject disturbances
and/or implement set point changes.
In theory, a controller can be used to control any process which has a measurable output
(PV), a known ideal value for that output (SP) and an input to the process (MV) that will affect
the relevant PV. Controllers are used in industry to regulate temperature, pressure, flow rate,
chemical composition, level in a tank containing fluid, speed and practically every other variable
for which a measurement exists. Automobile cruise control is an example of a process outside of
industry which utilizes automated control. K
p
: Proportional Gain - Larger K
p
typically means
faster response since the larger the error, the larger the feedback to compensate. An excessively
large proportional gain will lead to process instability. K
i
: Integral Gain Larger K
i
implies steady
state errors are eliminated quicker. The trade-off is larger overshoot: any negative error
integrated during transient response must be integrated away by positive error before we reach
steady state. K
d
: Derivative Gain - Larger K
d
decreases overshoot, but slows down transient
response and may lead to instability

5.2.3 Loop tuning:

If the PI controller parameters (the gains of the proportional, integral terms) are chosen
incorrectly, the controlled process input can be unstable, i.e. its output diverges, with or without
oscillation, and is limited only by saturation or mechanical breakage. Tuning a control loop is the
adjustment of its control parameters (gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset) to the optimum
values for the desired control response.
VJIT-HYD

Some processes must not allow an overshoot of the process variable beyond the set point
if, for example, this would be unsafe. Other processes must minimize the energy expended in
reaching a new set point. Generally, stability of response (the reverse of instability) is required
and the process must not oscillate for any combination of process conditions and set points.
Some processes have a degree of non-linearity and so parameters that work well at full-load
conditions don't work when the process is starting up from no-load. This section describes some
traditional manual methods for loop tuning.
There are several methods for tuning a PI loop. The most effective methods generally
involve the development of some form of process model, and then choosing P, I, based on the
dynamic model parameters. Manual "tune by feel" methods have proven time and again to be
inefficient, inaccurate, and often dangerous. The choice of method will depend largely on
whether or not the loop can be taken "offline" for tuning, and the response time of the system. If
the system can be taken offline, the best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a
step change in input, measuring the output as a function of time, and using this response to
determine the control parameters.

VJIT-HYD

If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I value to zero.
Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates, and then the P should be left set to be
approximately half of that value for a "quarter amplitude decay" type response. Then increase I
until any offset is correct in sufficient time for the process. However too much I will cause
instability. Finally, increase D, if required, until the loop is acceptably quick to reach its
reference after a load disturbance. However too much D will cause excessive response and
overshoot. A fast PI loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set point more quickly;
however, some systems cannot accept overshoot, in which case a "critically damped" tune is
required, which will require a P setting significantly less than half that of the P setting causing
oscillation.

VJIT-HYD

5.2.4 Limitations of PI control

While PI controllers are applicable to many control problems, they can perform poorly
in some applications. PI controllers, when used alone, can give poor performance when the PI
loop gains must be reduced so that the control system does not overshoot, oscillate or "hunt"
about the control set point value. The control system performance can be improved by
combining the PI controller functionality with that of a Feed-Forward control output as described
in Control Theory. Any information or intelligence derived from the system state can be "fed
forward" or combined with the PI output to improve the overall system performance. The Feed-
Forward value alone can often provide a major portion of the controller output. The PI controller
can then be used to respond to whatever difference or "error" that remains between the controller
set point and the feedback value. Since the Feed-Forward output is not a function of the process
feedback, it can never cause the control system to oscillate, thus improving the system response
and stability.

Another problem faced with PI controllers is that they are linear. Thus, performance of PI
controllers in non-linear systems (such as HVAC systems) is variable. Often PI controllers are
enhanced through methods such as gain scheduling or fuzzy logic. Further practical application
issues can arise from instrumentation connected to the controller. A high enough sampling rate
and measurement precision and measurement accuracy (more relevant to FF and MPC).
A problem with the differential term is that small amounts of measurement or process
noise can cause large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it is helpful to filter the
measurements, with a running average, also known as a low-pass filter. However, low-pass
filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by instrumentation
means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band can be turned off in most
systems with little loss of control. This is equivalent to using the PI controller as a PID
controller.

VJIT-HYD

5.3 Simulation:

5.3.1(a) Simulation Model of a Double Frequency Buck Converter.

Fig 5.3.1(a) simulation model of a double frequency buck converter
VJIT-HYD

5.3.1(b) simulation model of a high frequency buck converter:

Fig5.3.1 (b) simulation model of a high frequency buck converter

VJIT-HYD

5.3.1(C) simulation model of a low frequency buck converter:

Fig 5.3.1(c) simulation model of a low frequency buck converter
\

VJIT-HYD

5.3.1(D) Simulation model of a double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor

Fig 5.3.1(d) simulation model of a double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor

Discrete,
Ts = 1e-006 s.
powergui
v
+
-
te
To Workspace3
wm
To Workspace2
i a
To Workspace1
t
To Workspace
Step
Scope6
Scope3
Scope2
Scope1
Scope
S
R
Q
!Q
S-R
Fl i p-Fl op1
S
R
Q
!Q
S-R
Fl i p-Fl op
<=
Rel ati onal
Operator1
<=
Rel ati onal
Operator
10
Reference vol tage
Pul se
Generator1
Pul se
Generator
Product1
Product
g
m
D
S
Mosfet4
g m
D S
Mosfet1
g m
D S
Mosfet
L2 L1
yy
[SA]
Goto5
[SD]
Goto4
[S]
Goto3
[i s]
Goto1
[i sa]
Goto
[SD]
From5
[S]
From4
[i sa]
From3
[i s]
From1
[SA]
From
PI
Di screte
PI Control l er
Diode1
Convert
Data Type Conversi on2
Convert
Data Type Conversi on
va
Tl
ia
wm
te
DC
MOTOR
i
+
-
i
+
-
i
+
-
10
Constant1
10
Constant
Cl ock
C
<MOSFET current> <MOSFET current>
<MOSFET current> <MOSFET current>
VJIT-HYD

5.3.1(e) Simulation result for double frequency buck converter fed
with dc motor

Fig : 5.3.1(e) Double frequency buck converter fed with dc motor output
armature current ,eletromagentic torque ,speed wave forms

VJIT-HYD

5.3.2 Simulation result:
5.3.2(a) steady state response:

Fig 5.3.2.(b) output voltage steady state response comparison of the double frequency, single
high and low frequency buck converter.
Ripple voltage in double frequency buck converter = 5x
v
Ripple voltage in single high frequency buck converter = 1x
v
Ripple voltage in single low frequency buck converter = 1x
v

The output voltage waveforms of various buck converters are shown in Fig. 7.in the above large
magnitudes denote that the low frequency buck converter output voltage in steady state. It can be
seen that the steady state performance of DF buck and that of single high-frequency buck
converter are almost the same.

DF
HF
Lf
VJIT-HYD

5.3.2(b) transient response when load is step up:

Fig 5.3.2.(b)output voltage transient response comparison on of the double frequency, single
high and low frequency buck converter when load is step up

Output voltage Transient response comparison of the double frequency, high frequency and low
frequency buck converter when load is increased from R to 2R as shown in above fig
4.3.2(b).transient response of the double frequency buck converter is same as the transient
response of the single high frequency buck converter.

Df
Hf
Lf
VJIT-HYD

5.3.2(c) transient response when load is step down:

Fig 5.3.2.(c): output voltage transient response comparison of the double frequency, single high
and low frequency buck converter when load is step down

Output voltage Transient response comparison of the double frequency, high frequency and
low frequency buck converter when load is decreased from 2R to R as shown in above fig
4.3.2(c). Transient response of the double frequency buck converter is same as the transient
response of the single high frequency buck converter. In single low frequency transient response
is increased.

Df
Hf
Lf
VJIT-HYD

5.3.2(d) step change waveforms

Fig 5.3.2(c) step change waveforms of the double frequency buck converter, single high
frequency, and low frequency buck converter.

The above figure shows step change wave forms of the double frequency buck converter, single
high frequency, and low frequency buck converter. Load current is changes when load resistance
is reduced from 4 to 2 . Then the load current will increase from 0.5 I
R
to I
R.
(2.5 to 5A).as
shown in above figure.

.

Df
Hf
Lf
VJIT-HYD

5.3.2(e) switching states of the switches(S, S
d
, S
a
)

Fig 5.3.2(e) switching states of the high frequency buck cell switches(S, S
d
),and low frequency
switch S
a
of the double frequency buck converter.

The above figure shows the switching states of the high frequency buck cell switches (S,
S
d
), and low frequency switch S
a
of the double frequency buck converter. That shows high
frequency is 10 times of the low frequency. Where S
a
is the low frequency switch and its
switching frequency is 10khz, and S, S
d
are the high frequency switch and its switching
frequency is 100khz.

S
Sa
Sd
VJIT-HYD

Fig 5.3.2(a): Switch current waveforms.

The current waveforms are shown in Fig. 4.3.2(a). The waveform with large magnitude
denotes the current flowing through the low-frequency switch i
sa
, and the small magnitude is the
current of the high-frequency switch i
s
. The load is changed from 4 to 2 at the 12-ms time
instant. A major portion of the increased load current (shown in Fig. 4.3.2) is diverted to the low-
frequency buck cell, while the current through the high-frequency switch remains the same. The
current diversion enables the reduction of switching loss in high-frequency buck cell and
improves the efficiency.

VJIT-HYD

5.4 Efficiency Analysis:

In order to analyze the efficiency improvement of the proposed Double Frequency
buck converter, the efficiency expression is analyzed in the section. The analysis is also applied
to the single high frequency buck and low-frequency buck converters.
A simple loss model is adopted here in that we just want to show the efficiency relationship
between the DF buck and single high-frequency buck, not to develop a new loss model
In the analysis, we have the following assumptions;

4. The conduction losses of active switch and diode are estimated, respectively,
according to their conduction voltages U
on
and U
F
.
5. The switching transient processes are assumed to satisfy the linear current and
voltage waveforms. Moreover, the turn-on time ton is the same for all switches and
diodes, so is the turn-off time t
o .
6. Since the switching loss usually dominates the total loss, losses of the output
capacitor and output inductor are not calculated here.

In a single-frequency buck converter, the total loss P
SF
comes from four parts, the
conduction loss P
scon
and switching loss P
ss
of the active switch S , and the conduction loss P
dcon

and switching loss P
sd
of the diode. When the input voltage is U
in
, duty ratio is D, the inductor
average current is I
L
, and the switching frequency is fs, the losses can be estimated according to
the following equations.

4.4.1(a)

( )
4.4.1(b)

) 4.4.1(c)

VJIT-HYD

) 4.4.1(b)

For single-frequency buck converter, the conduction losses are the same; the difference is
on the switching frequencies f
h
and f
l
. For DF buck, the losses consist of two portions: high
frequency cell losses and low-frequency cell losses. The current chopped by the high-frequency
cell is the difference between high-frequency inductor current i
L
and low-frequency inductor
current i
La
. This difference is roughly equal to 0.5 I
Lapk
, where I
Lapk
is the peakpeak low-
frequency inductor current ripple, because the inductor current ripple of the high-frequency cell
is small compared with that of the low-frequency cell. Moreover, the average current in low-
frequency inductor is I
L
0.5 I
Lapk
with the peak current control. The loss break down can be
expressed as follows:

The losses in the high-frequency cell are,

4.4.2(a)

( )
4.4.2(b)

) 4.4.2(c)

) 4.4.2(d)

The losses in the low-frequency cell include,

) 4.4.3(a)

( )
) 4.4.3(b)

)(
) 4.4.3(c)

)(
) 4.4.3(d)

VJIT-HYD

Then, from (24)(26), the total conduction loss P
conDF
in the DF buck is approximately the
same as that in the single frequency buck converter,

4.4.4

In the case the low-frequency inductor current is small with reference to the inductor average
current, the total switching loss P
sDF
can be approximated as,

) 4.4.5

It follows from (4.4.2)(4.4.5) that the total conduction loss of DF buck converter is the
same as the single-frequency buck conductor. This result also can be reasoned from the fact that
the total currents owing through the DF buck switches and diodes are the same as that through a
single-frequency buck. On the other hand, the total switching loss is nearly the same as the single
low-frequency buck, and is much smaller than that of the single high-frequency buck. Hence, the
DF buck converter improves the efficiency by current diversion to the low-frequency cell.
Although assumptions and approximations are made in the aforementioned analysis, it reveals
the efficiency mechanism of the DF buck converter.

VJIT-HYD

Conclusion

Double frequency buck converter not only exhibits the same steady state and
transient performance but also improves the efficiency of conventional buck converter
The Double frequency buck converter does not need the load transient change
information for accurate current control and does not have the current circulating problem.
The proposed converter greatly improves the efficiency and exhibits nearly the same
dynamics as the conventional high-frequency buck converter and efficiency of the double
frequency converter is nearer to the low frequency buck converter.

Scope of the future work:

Future work will investigate whether the proposed buck converter is applicable for high current
or high dynamics specifications.

VJIT-HYD

REFERENCES

Electronic Components -D.V.Prasad

Electrical Machines by J.B. Gupta

Power Electronics by P.S.Bimbhra

www.electrotechnik.net
www.wikipedia.com
answers.yahoo.com

Double Frequency Buck Converter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Double Frequency Buck Converter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Double Frequency Buck Converter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering 1 | P a g e

You might also like