Coool Hydraulic System Design Thesis

MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF
VARIABLE SPEED PUMP AND VALVE CONTROLLED HYDRAULIC

SERVO DRIVES

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES
OF
MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

BY

HAKAN ALIKAN

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SEPTEMBER 2009

Approval of the thesis:

MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF VARIABLE
SPEED PUMP AND VALVE CONTROLLED HYDRAULIC SERVO
DRIVES

submitted by HAKAN ALIKAN in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering Department,
Middle East Technical University by,

Prof. Dr. Canan zgen ________________
Dean, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences

Prof. Dr. Suha Oral ________________
Head of Department, Mechanical Engineering

Prof. Dr. Tuna Balkan ________________
Supervisor, Mechanical Engineering Dept., METU

Prof. Dr. Blent E. Platin ________________
Co-Supervisor, Mechanical Engineering Dept., METU

Examining Committee Members:

Prof. Dr. Metin Akkk _____________________
Mechanical Engineering Dept., METU

Prof. Dr. Tuna Balkan _____________________

Prof. Dr. Blent E. Platin _____________________

Asst. Prof. Dr. Yiit Yazcolu _____________________

Prof. Dr. Ycel Ercan _____________________
Mechanical Engineering Dept., TOBB ETU

Date: 11.09.2009
iii

I hereby declare that all information in this document has been
obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical
conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have
fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this
work.

Name, Last name : Hakan ALIKAN

Signature :

iv

ABSTRACT

MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF
VARIABLE SPEED PUMP AND VALVE CONTROLLED HYDRAULIC
SERVO DRIVES

alkan, Hakan
M.S., Department of Mechanical Engineering
Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Tuna Balkan
Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Blent E. Platin

September 2009, 209 pages

In this thesis study, a valveless hydraulic servo system controlled by two
pumps is investigated and its performance characteristics are compared with a
conventional valve controlled system both experimentally and analytically. The
two control techniques are applied on the position control of a single rod linear
actuator. In the valve controlled system, the flow rate through the actuator is
regulated with a servovalve; whereas in the pump controlled system, two variable
speed pumps driven by servomotors regulate the flow rate according to the needs of
the system, thus eliminating the valve losses.
To understand the dynamic behaviors of two systems, the order of the
differential equations defining the system dynamics of the both systems are reduced
by using the fact that the dynamic pressure changes in the hydraulic cylinder
chambers become linearly dependent on leakage coefficients and cylinder chamber
volumes above and below some prescribed cut off frequencies. Thus the open loop
speed response of the pump controlled and valve controlled systems are defined by
v
second order transfer functions. The two systems are modeled in MATLAB
Simulink environment and the assumptions are validated.
For the position control of the single rod hydraulic actuator, a linear state
feedback control scheme is applied. Its state feedback gains are determined by
using the linear and linearized reduced order dynamic system equations. A linear
Kalman filter for pump controlled system and an unscented Kalman filter for valve
controlled system are designed for estimation and filtering purposes.
The dynamic performances of both systems are investigated on an
experimental test set up developed by conducting open loop and closed loop
frequency response and step response tests. MATLAB Real Time Windows Target
(RTWT) module is used in the tests for application purposes.

Keywords: Fluid Power Control, Variable Speed Pump Control, Energy
Efficient, Valve Control, State Feedback, Kalman Filtering, Unscented Kalman
Filter.

vi

Z

DEKEN DEVRL POMPA VE VALF DENETML
SERVO HDROLK SSTEMLERN MODELLENMES VE DENEYSEL
DEERLENDRLMES

alkan, Hakan
Yksek Lisans, Makina Mhendislii Blm
Tez yneticisi: Prof. Dr. Tuna Balkan
Yardmc tez yneticisi: Prof. Dr. Blent E. Platin

Eyll 2009, 209 sayfa

Bu tez almas kapsamnda iki pompa denetimli valfsiz bir hidrolik sistem
incelenmi ve geleneksel valf denetimli hidrolik sistem ile deneysel ve analitik
olarak karlatrlmtr. Bu iki kontrol teknii tek milli bir hidrolik eyleyicinin
konum denetiminde uygulanmtr. Tez kapsamnda kurulan valf denetimli
sistemde eyleyiciye giden debi bir servo valf ile ayarlanrken, pompa denetimli
sistemde sistemin gerek duyduu debi pompa hz deitirilerek ayarlanmakta
bylelikle valf kayplar elenmektedir.
Sistemlerin dinamik davranlarn anlamak iin her iki sistemi tanmlayan
trevsel denklemlerin mertebesi eyleyici oda basnlarnn belirli kesim
frekanslarndan nce ve sonra sznt katsaylar ve silindir oda hacimleriyle doru
orantl olarak deitii gsterilerek azaltlmtr. Bylelikle iki sistemin ak dng
hz tepkileri ikinci mertebeden bir aktarm fonksiyonu ile ifade edilebilmitir. Her
iki sistem MATLAB Simulink ortamnda modellenerek yaplan varsaymlar
dorulanmtr.
vii
Tek milli hidrolik eyleyicinin konum denetimi iin dorusal durum geri
beslemesi uygulanmtr. Durum geri beslemesi katsaylar mertebesi drlm
dorusal ve dorusallatrlm dinamik sistem denklemleri kullanlarak
hesaplanmtr. Durum tahmini ve filtreleme amac ile pompa denetimli sistemde
dorusal Kalman filtre ve valf denetimli sistemde dorusal olmayan Kalman filtre
uygulanmtr.
Her iki sistemin dinamik performans tez kapsamnda kurulan test
dzeneinde ak dng ve kapal dng frekans tepkisi ve basamak girdi testleri
yaplarak incelenmitir. Testlerde denetim uygulamasnda MATLAB yazlmnn
Real Time Windows Target (RTWT) modl kullanlmtr.

Anahtar kelimeler: Akkan Gc Kontrol, Deiken Devirli Pomp
Denetimi, Valf Denetimi, Enerji Verimlilii, Durum Geri Beslemesi, Kalman
Filtre, Dorusal Olmayan Kalman Filtre

viii

To my country

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would, first of all, like to thank to Prof. Dr. Tuna Balkan and Prof. Dr.
Blent E. Platin for their guidance, suggestion and support throughout the thesis
study.
I would specially like to thank to Suat Demirer for his financial and
technical support and suggestions, also I would like to thanks to all the employees
of Demirer Teknolojik Sistemler Inc. for their support and friendship during the
production of the test set up.
I would like to thank to my colleagues for their useful discussions, support
and friendship.
I would, sincerely, like to thank to my family for their patience support and
love.

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................. iv
Z ................................................................................................................. vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. x
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................. xiviv
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................... xx
LIST OF SYMBOLS ................................................................................. xxii
CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and motivations ......................................................... 1
1.2 Literature Survey ........................................................................... 4
1.3 Objective of the Thesis .................................................................. 9
1.4 Thesis Outline ............................................................................. 10
2 HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEMS ......................................................... 12
2.1 Conventional Valve Controlled Hydraulic Power Systems ........ 12
2.2 Energy Efficient Hydraulic Power Systems ................................ 22
2.2.1 Energy Efficiency in Valve Controlled Circuits ..................... 22
2.2.2 Variable Displacement Pump Controlled Systems ................. 26
2.2.3 Variable Speed Pump Controlled Systems .............................. 30
3. SYSTEM MODELING AND SET UP CONFIGURATION ................. 35
xi
3.1 Experimental Test Set-up ............................................................ 35
3.2 Pump Controlled System ............................................................. 44
3.2.1 Principle of the Hydraulic Circuit ........................................... 44
3.2.2 Mathematical Modeling of the System ................................... 46
3.2.2.1 Pump Model ....................................................................... 47
3.2.2.2 Hydraulic Actuator Model .................................................. 54
3.2.2.3 Load Model ........................................................................ 57
3.2.3 Steady State Characteristics of the System ............................. 58
3.2.4 Dynamic Characteristics of the System .................................. 61
3.3 Valve Controlled System ............................................................ 71
3.3.1 Mathematical Modeling of the System ................................... 71
3.3.1.1 Valve Model ....................................................................... 72
3.3.2 Steady State Characteristics of the System ............................. 74
3.3.3 Linearized Valve Coefficients ................................................. 76
3.3.3.1 Extension Case ................................................................... 77
3.3.3.2 Retraction Case ................................................................... 79
3.3.4 Dynamic Characteristics of the System .................................. 81
4. CONTROLLER DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION ......................... 91
4.1 State Space Representation of Pump Controlled System ............ 91
4.1.1 4
th
Order State Space Representation of Pump Controlled
System ....................................................................................... 92
4.1.2 Reduced 3
th
Order State Space Representation of Pump
Controlled System ..................................................................... 94
4.2 State Space Representation of Valve Controlled System ............ 95
4.2.1 4
th
Order State Space Representation of the Valve Controlled
System ....................................................................................... 96
xii
4.2.2 Reduced 3
th
order state space representation of valve controlled
system ........................................................................................ 97
4.3 Controller Design for the Pump System ..................................... 98
4.4 Controller Design for the Valve System ................................... 105
4.5 Kalman Filter Theory and Design ............................................. 111
4.5.1 Discrete Kalman Filter .......................................................... 112
4.5.2 Application in Pump Controlled System ............................... 117
4.5.3 Unscented Kalman Filter ....................................................... 118
4.5.4 Application in Valve Controlled System .............................. 123
4.5.5 Filter Tuning .......................................................................... 124
4.5.5.1 Pump Controlled System .................................................. 126
4.5.5.2 Valve Controlled System .................................................. 132
5. PERFORMANCE TESTS OF THE SYSTEM ..................................... 133
5.1 System Identification ................................................................. 135
5.1.1 Hydraulic Pump Leakage Coefficients ................................. 135
5.1.2 Hydraulic Cylinder Friction .................................................. 139
5.2 Step Response of Pump Controlled System .............................. 144
5.3 Step Response of Valve Controlled System .............................. 147
5.4 Frequency Response Test .......................................................... 152
5.4.1 Test Signal ............................................................................. 153
5.4.2 Open Loop Frequency Response of Pump Controlled Hydraulic
System ................................................................................... 153
5.4.3 Close Loop Frequency Response of Pump Controlled Hydraulic
System ..................................................................................... 156
5.4.4 Open Loop Frequency Response of Valve Controlled Hydraulic
System ..................................................................................... 165
xiii
5.4.5 Closed Loop Frequency Response of Valve Controlled
Hydraulic System .................................................................... 167
5.5 Comparison of Two Systems .................................................... 174
6. DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 179
6.1 Outline of the Study and Discussions ....................................... 179
6.2 Conclusions ............................................................................... 182
6.3 Recommendations for Future Work .......................................... 184
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 187
APPENDICES
A. TRANSFER FUNCTION DERIVATION FOR PUMP CONTROLLED
SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 191
B. TRANSFER FUNCTION DERIVATION FOR VALVE CONTROLLED
SYSTEM ........................................................................................................ 197
C. MATLAB FILES ............................................................................................ 202
D. DRIVERS AND DAQ CARD CONNECTIONS .......................................... 207

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES

Figure 1-1 The Circuit Operation and Sum Pressure Principle [19] ........ 8
Figure 2-1 Conventional Valve Controlled Hydraulic Circuit ............... 13
Figure 2-2 Constant Pressure Valve Controlled Hydraulic Circuit ....... 15
Figure 2-3 Valve Characteristic Curves for Different Valve Openings . 17
Figure 2-4 Valve Losses of a Constant Pressure Valve Controlled Circuit
for Maximum Energy Efficiency ......................................... 18
Figure 2-5 Pressure Compensated Pump [23]........................................ 23
Figure 2-6 Load Sensing Pump Schematic [23] .................................... 24
Figure 2-7 Electro-Hydraulic Load Sensing System with Constant
Displacement Pump [8] ........................................................ 24
Figure 2-8 Individual Meter In Meter Out Valve Control System [24] . 25
Figure 2-9 Variable Displacement Pumps ............................................. 26
Figure 2-10 Hydrostatic Transmission System with Variable Displacement
Pump Control Technique ..................................................... 27
Figure 2-11 Single Rod Symmetric Linear Actuator [25] ....................... 28
Figure 2-12 Displacement Controlled Drive with Single Rod Cylinder in
Position Control [7] .............................................................. 29
Figure 2-13 Constant Displacement Pump Types a) Screw Type, b)
External Gear, c) Internal Gear ............................................ 30
xv
Figure 2-14 Electro Hydraulic Actuation System of Habibi and
Goldenberg with Symmetric Actuator [3] ............................ 31
Figure 2-15 Two Pump Control Circuit Configurations .......................... 32
Figure 3-1 A photograph of the Experimental Test Set-Up ................... 36
Figure 3-2 Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Test Set-Up ......... 37
Figure 3-3 Servovalve Frequency Response Diagram [27] ................... 41
Figure 3-4 Flow Rate versus Valve Spool Position Signal of the Servo
Solenoid Valve [27] ............................................................. 42
Figure 3-5 Variable Speed Pump Control Circuit .................................. 45
Figure 3-6 Hydraulic Pump Operation in 4 Quadrants .......................... 48
Figure 3-7 Representation of Flow Losses in Hydraulic Pumps and
Motors [28] ........................................................................... 50
Figure 3-8 Flow Rates of the Hydraulic Cylinder and Pumps ............... 53
Figure 3-9 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Pump/Motor
Unit ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 3-10 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Actuator ........ 56
Figure 3-11 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Cylinder
Chamber Volumes ................................................................ 57
Figure 3-12 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Overall System .............. 58
Figure 3-13 Electrical Analogy of the Pump Leakage Flow Rates .......... 59
Figure 3-14 Representation of the Hydraulic Pump Leakages with
Additional External Leakages .............................................. 65
Figure 3-15 Block Diagram Representation of the Open Loop Position
Response of the Variable Speed Pump Controlled System .. 68
Figure 3-16 Pump Dynamic Chamber Pressure Change Relations ......... 69
Figure 3-17 Schematic Representation of the Valve Controlled System . 72
xvi
Figure 3-18 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Proportional Valve with
Zero Lap ............................................................................... 74
Figure 3-19 Schematic Representation of the Valve Spool Opening for
Extension .............................................................................. 77
Retraction ............................................................................. 80
Figure 3-21 Dynamic Pressure Change Ratios ........................................ 85
Figure 3-22 Block Diagram Representation of the Valve Controlled System
for the Extension Case .......................................................... 87
Figure 4-1 Block Diagram Representation of the Close Loop Pump
Controlled System .............................................................. 100
Figure 4-2 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Closed Loop Pump
Controlled Position Control System ................................... 104
Figure 4-3 Block Diagram Representation of the Closed Loop Valve
Controlled System .............................................................. 105
Figure 4-4 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Closed Loop Valve
Controlled Position Control System ................................... 111
Figure 4-5 Kalman Filter Block Diagram ............................................ 113
Figure 4-6 Kalman Filter Algorithm .................................................... 116
Figure 4-7 MATLAB Simulink Kalman Filter Model for the Variable
Speed Pump Controlled System ......................................... 118
Figure 4-8 Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm .................................. 123
Figure 4-9 Position Transducer Measurement for Zero Reference Input ..
............................................................................................ 127
Figure 4-10 Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber B Pressure Transducer
Measurement for Zero Speed ............................................. 127
Figure 4-11 Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber A Pressure Transducer
Measurement for Zero Reference Signal ........................... 128
xvii
Figure 4-12 Kalman Filter Position Filtering Performance ................... 130
Figure 4-13 Kalman Filter Pressure Filtering Performance ................... 130
Figure 4-14 Kalman Filter Performance Load Pressure ........................ 131
Figure 5-1 MATLAB Simulink RTWT Controller of the Pump Controlled
System ................................................................................ 134
Figure 5-2 MATLAB Simulink RTWT Controller of the Valve Controlled
System ................................................................................ 135
Figure 5-3 Steady State Chamber Pressures ........................................ 137
Figure 5-4 Steady State Cylinder Position for the Given Offset Pump
Speeds................................................................................. 138
Figure 5-5 Friction Test Signal and System Response ........................ 140
Figure 5-6 Friction Force vs Cylinder Velocity ................................... 142
Figure 5-7 Mean Friction Force vs Cylinder Velocity ......................... 142
Figure 5-8 Body Force due to Acceleration ......................................... 143
Figure 5-9 Step Response of the Pump Controlled System with Dominant
Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -2.2n rad/s............ 145
Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -1u.2n rad/s ......... 147
Figure 5-11 Step Response of the Valve Controlled System with Dominant
Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -2.2n rad/s............ 149
Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -1u.2t rad/s ......... 150
Figure 5-13 Real System Valve Spool Position Command and Simulink
Model Spool Position Command ....................................... 151
Figure 5-14 Pump Controlled System Open Loop Frequency Response
Test Signal .......................................................................... 154
xviii
Figure 5-15 Experimental and Theoretical Open Loop Frequency Response
of the Pump Controlled System ......................................... 154
Figure 5-16 Hydraulic Cylinder Position in Open Loop Tests .............. 155
Figure 5-17 Position Response of Pump Controlled System ................. 157
Figure 5-18 Detailed View of Position Response of Pump Controlled
System ................................................................................ 158
Figure 5-19 Error Between the Measured and Filtered Position Signal 159
Figure 5-20 Pressure Response .............................................................. 160
Figure 5-21 Servomotor Response ......................................................... 161
Figure 5-22 Load Pressure ..................................................................... 162
Figure 5-23 Magnitude Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical
Frequency Response of Pump Controlled System with Desired
Dominant Pole Located at S.2n rad/s .............................. 163
Figure 5-24 Phase Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Frequency
Response of Pump Controlled System with Desired Dominant
Pole Located at S.2n rad/s ............................................... 164
Figure 5-25 Test Signal for Valve Controlled System Open Loop
Frequency Response ........................................................... 165
Figure 5-26 Magnitude Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Open
Loop Frequency Response of the Valve Controlled System166
Figure 5-27 Phase Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Open Loop
Frequency Response of the Valve Controlled System ....... 167
Figure 5-28 Valve Controlled System Position Response ..................... 169
Figure 5-29 Valve Controlled System Error Between the Measured and
Filtered Position Signal ...................................................... 170
Figure 5-30 Valve Controlled System Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber
Pressure Response .............................................................. 171
xix
Figure 5-31 Valve Controlled System Load Pressure Response ........... 172
Figure 5-32 Experimental and Theoretical Frequency Response of Valve
Controlled System with Desired Dominant Pole Located at
S.2n rad/s ......................................................................... 173

xx

LIST OF TABLES

TABLES

Table 3-1 Hydraulic Oil Properties ......................................................... 38
Table 3-2 Hydraulic Pump/Motor Unit Properties ................................. 39
Table 3-3 Hydraulic Actuator Properties ................................................ 40
Table 3-4 Servovalve Properties ............................................................. 41
Table 3-5 Pole and Zero Comparison of Reduced and Full Order Transfer
Functions ................................................................................. 71
Functions ................................................................................. 89
Table 3-7 Numerical Values of the System Parameters .......................... 90
Table 5-1 Pump Controlled System Step Response Test-1 Data .......... 144
Table 5-2 Pump Controlled System Step Response Test-2 Data .......... 146
Table 5-3 Valve Controlled System Step Response Test-1 Data .......... 148
Table 5-4 Valve Controlled System Step Response Test-2 Data .......... 150
Table 5-5 Pump Controlled System Frequency Response Test Data .... 157
Table 5-6 Valve Controlled System Frequency Response Test Data .... 168

xxi

LIST OF SYMBOLS

SYMBOLS

b Viscous friction force coefficient
k
e
Priori state estimate error
k
e
Posteriori state estimate error
L
f
Force applied on the load
f
f
Friction force
| | f
Non-linear process model
g
Gravitational acceleration
| | h
Non-linear observation model
m
Mass
P
n
Pump drive speed
1
n
Dynamic drive speed of pump 1, output of the position control
loop
2
n
Dynamic drive speed of pump 2, output of the position control
loop
1o
n
Offset drive speed of pump 1, output of the pressure control loop
2o
n
Offset drive speed of pump 2, output of the pressure control loop
1t
n
Total drive speed of pump 1
2t
n
Total drive speed of pump 2
Pressure differential
Cap end hydraulic cylinder chamber pressure
Steady state cap end hydraulic cylinder chamber pressure
p A
A
p
_ A ss
p
xxii
Steady state cap end side cylinder chamber pressure while
extending
Steady state cap end side cylinder chamber pressure while
retracting
Hydraulic cylinder rod end side chamber pressure
Steady state rod end side hydraulic cylinder chamber pressure
Steady state rod end side cylinder chamber pressure while
extending
Steady state rod end side cylinder chamber pressure while
retracing
Load pressure
Static load pressure
Non dimensional load pressure
Supply pressure of the valve controlled hydraulic system
Sum of the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures
Hydraulic oil tank pressure
q
Flow rate
1
q
Flow rate through valve orifice opening 1
2
q
3
q
4
q
A
q
Flow rate entering the cap end side of the hydraulic cylinder
_ A ss
q
Steady state flow rate entering the cap end of the hydraulic
cylinder
B
q
Flow rate exiting from the rod end side of the hydraulic cylinder
_ B ss
q
Steady state flow rate exiting from the rod end of the hydraulic
cylinder
a
q
Flow rate of a general hydraulic pump input (suction) port
_ _ A ss ext
p
_ _ A ss ret
p
B
p
_ B ss
p
_ _ B ss ext
p
_ _ B ss ret
p
L
p
_ L s
p
L
p
s
p
sum
p
t
p
xxiii
b
q
Flow rate of a general hydraulic pump output port
_ a m
q
Flow rate of a general hydraulic motor output port
_ b m
q
Flow rate of a general hydraulic motor input port
ca
q
Compressibility flow losses of a general hydraulic pump/motor
port a
cb
q
Compressibility flow losses of a general hydraulic pump/motor
port b
ea
q
External leakage flow losses from hydraulic pump/motor port a
eb
q
External leakage flow losses from hydraulic pump/motor port b
i
q
Internal (cross-port) leakage flow of a general hydraulic
pump/motor
t
q
Theoretical hydraulic pump / motor flow rate
2 p A
q
Flow rate of the pump 2 outlet port (hydraulic cylinder cap end
side)
2 p B
q
Flow rate of the pump 2 inlet port (hydraulic cylinder rod end
side)
1 p A
q
Flow rate of the pump 2 outlet port (hydraulic cylinder cap end
side)
L
q
Load flow rate
L
q
Non dimensional load flow rate
max
q
Maximum flow rate of the valve
k
q
Kalman filter state vector at time step k
q
Priori state estimate vector
k
q
Posteriori state estimate vector
t
Time
u
Reference valve spool position signal in terms of voltage
v
u
Valve spool position
max
u
Maximum valve spool position
xxiv
ext
u
State feedback control signal for the extension of the hydraulic
cylinder
ret
u
State feedback control signal for the retraction of the hydraulic
cylinder
u
Control input vector
x
Hydraulic cylinder position
x
Hydraulic cylinder velocity
x
Hydraulic cylinder acceleration
ref
x
Reference hydraulic cylinder position
x
State vector
y
Output vector
v
Process noise vector
w
Measurement noise vector
o
w
Valve orifice perimeter
k
z
Discrete output vector
A
System matrix
ext
A
System matrix for the extension of hydraulic cylinder
ret
A
System matrix for the retraction of hydraulic cylinder
Hydraulic cylinder cap end side area
Hydraulic cylinder rod end side area
B
Input matrix
ext
B
Input matrix for the extension of hydraulic cylinder
ret
B
Input matrix for the retraction of hydraulic cylinder
C
Output matrix
Valve orifice discharge coefficient
Internal leakage coefficient of hydraulic pump
Pump internal and external leakage ratio
A
A
B
A
d
C
i
C
Ratio
ie
C
xxv
Artificial external leakage coefficient of hydraulic cylinder cap
end side
Artificial external leakage coefficient of hydraulic cylinder rod
end side
Equivalent leakages coefficient of the pump controlled system
External leakage coefficient of hydraulic pump port a
External leakage coefficient of hydraulic pump port b
D
Feed forward matrix
P
D
Pump displacement
E
Hydraulic oil bulk modulus
G
Input matrix in discrete time domain
H
Measurement matrix in discrete time domain
I
Identity matrix
v
K
Valve flow gain
K
State feedback gain vector
k
K
Kalman gain matrix
ext
K
State feedback gain vector for the extension of the hydraulic
cylinder
ret
K
State feedback gain vector for the retraction of the hydraulic
cylinder
2 _ u ext
K
Linearized valve spool position gain of orifice 2 for extension
4 _ u ext
K
Linearized valve spool position gain of orifice 4 for extension
2 _ p ext
K
Linearized valve pressure gain of orifice 2 for extension
4 _ p ext
K
Linearized valve pressure gain of orifice 4 for extension
1_ u ret
K
Linearized valve spool position gain of orifice 1 for retraction
3 _ u ret
K
Linearized valve spool position gain of orifice 3 for retraction
1_ p ret
K
Linearized valve pressure gain of orifice 1 for retraction
3 _ p ret
K
Linearized valve pressure gain of orifice 3 for retraction
Aext
C
Bext
C
Leak
C
ea
C
eb
C
xxvi
M
Controllability matrix
ext
M
Controllability matrix for the extension of hydraulic cylinder
ret
M
Controllability matrix for the retraction of hydraulic cylinder
k
P
Priori state estimate error covariance matrix
k
P
Posteriori state estimate error covariance matrix
P
Non dimensional power transmitted to the system over valve
max
P
Maximum non dimensional power transmitted to the system
_ loss RV
P
Non dimensional power lost on the relief valve
_ loss FCV
P
Non dimensional power lost on the flow control valve
Process noise covariance matrix
Measurement noise covariance matrix
T
Transformation matrix
ext
T
Transformation matrix for extension of hydraulic cylinder
ret
T
Transformation matrix for retraction of hydraulic cylinder
A
V
Hydraulic cylinder cap end side volume
B
V
Hydraulic cylinder rod end side volume
o
Hydraulic cylinder chambers volume ratio for a fixed cylinder
position
|
Offset pump speed ratio
Hydraulic cylinder area ratio
Dynamic pressure change ratio of the hydraulic cylinder

chambers
Non dimensional valve spool opening
Hydraulic oil density

n
e
Natural frequency
Damping ratio
Discrete state transition matrix

+
Conversion factor between the hydraulic cylinder chamber
pressures sum and pump 2 speed
Q
R
1
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Motivations
The history of fluid power transmission dates back to 1795 where a patent
was granted for a hydraulic press to transmit and amplify force by using a hand
pump [1]. In 1850s there were many other cranes, winches, presses and extruding
machines utilizing fluid power transmission. However control of these devices was
open loop. The first closed loop fluid power system was patented by Brown in
1870, where a mechanical feedback from the rudder to position a valve controlled
cylinder in a ship steering system [2]. The fluid power technology is boosted in
1940s by the demand for automatic fire control systems and military aircraft
control, till that time the electro hydraulic servo systems appeared and developed
steadily.
Today, in most of engineering fields the fluid power transmission is used
extensively such as in heavy duty industrial robots, presses, mining and
earthmoving machines, material handling, forestry and agricultural applications,
manufacturing, construction and so forth. Some of the main reasons why they are
used so extensively can be given as follows [3, 4].
- Comparatively small final actuator size,
- High power/mass ratio,
- Ability to apply high forces with high load stiffness,
2
- Easy heat dissipation of moving elements by means of hydraulic oil,
also it acts as a lubricant,
- Long operation life even in harsh environments.
However, there exist many important drawbacks to use hydraulic actuators
in engineering systems, which can be simply given as,
- Requirement for a bulky power system with large oil reservoir,
- Low efficiency, requirement of a constant supply pressure
depending on application,
- Leakage,
- Noise,
- Environmental risks of the oil,
- Complex control strategies due to its non-linear nature.
Most conventional hydraulic control systems are based on valve controlled
cylinders, in which valves located next to the actuator regulate the flow rate by
changing their orifice areas. In spite of their high precision and fast dynamic
behavior, a considerable amount of hydraulic energy is wasted as heat loss to the
environment due to throttling in control valves, increasing the oil temperature. This
is an important drawback for hydraulic systems.
In past, the power efficiency of hydraulic circuits was not an important
factor; much attention has been oriented to their high system performance.
However, in recent years, engineering systems are forced to be energy efficient due
to limited and high-priced energy resources and the increasing environmental
sense. For this reason, factors like the total energy usage, noise level, amount of oil
used and oil replacement cost are becoming important performance criteria
combined with the fast dynamic response.
Therefore, in todays hydraulic engineering, the energy efficiency becomes
an important subject. The basic approach to improve the energy efficiency in
hydraulic systems is to decrease or eliminate valve losses. To do so, several new
valve control circuits are developed which utilize programmable valves to decouple
the incoming and outgoing flow rate of the hydraulic cylinder and control them
3
independently. This new technique has more complex controllers but the added
control flexibility is used to significantly reduce the fluid power energy [5].
However, to eliminate the valve losses completely, the flow should be
completely regulated according to the load requirements, Thus, the final control
element of fluid power actuators and drives should be replaced with pumps and
motors instead of valves. Hence, in energy efficient hydraulic systems, pump
control techniques became the center of the focus [6].
There are mainly two methods to control the flow rate of a pump. In the first
method, the flow rate is regulated by changing the pump displacement whereas in
the second one, the flow rate is regulated by changing the drive speed of a constant
displacement pump. Furthermore, the combination of these two methods that is
changing the flow rate by both changing the displacement and drive speed of the
pump can also be used.
There are many advantages of pump control techniques over the
conventional valve control technique, which can be given as [7].
- improved utilization of energy,
- use of load and brake energy,
- smaller oil reservoir,
- less cooling power required,
- load independent system behavior,
- simpler systems, reduced number of interfaces and fittings,
- low filtration rate in main circuit,
- less fuel consumption and pollution.
Besides the numerous advantageous written above, the dynamic
performance of the pump controlled systems are considered not to have as high as
the valve controlled systems. This is due to the slow dynamic response of standard
pumps. However, today with the developing technology, it is possible to have a fast
dynamic response by utilizing specially designed hydraulic pump/motor units with
electrical servomotor drives.
4
1.2 Literature Survey
In a conventional valve controlled hydraulic circuit, most of the energy
transmitted to the system is converted into heat energy as a consequence of
pressure losses across throttling valves. To decrease the valve losses, there exist
several solutions utilizing the control of the power source without changing the
final control element, that is the flow control valve. One way to achieve energy
efficiency in valve controlled systems is to adjust the flow rate of the pump such
that no excess flow rate is delivered to the system, in the mean time maintaining a
constant supply pressure of the valve. These systems are called as "pressure
compensated systems" and generally a variable displacement pump is utilized to
regulate the flow rate.
Other type of energy efficient valve controlled systems is called load
sensing systems. In these systems, the pump flow rate is adjusted such that the
pressure drop across the flow control valve remains constant independent of the
load pressure. Variable displacement pumps with a controller inside are utilized in
these systems and they are favorable in mobile applications where the drive speed
is constant. Nowadays there are also systems where the flow rate is adjusted by the
drive speed of a constant displacement pump. These systems are called as "electro-
hydraulic load sensing systems". They are generally used in stationary applications
and the speed of the electric motor driving a constant displacement pump is
controlled via a frequency converter [8, 9].
Furthermore, different from the control of the power source, a distinctive
research area appears on the flow control valve itself nowadays. Instead of using a
typical 4-way valve, four or five cartridge type valves are used to regulate the meter
in and meter out flow rate of the hydraulic actuator. Here, the "meter-in" stands for
the flow rate from power supply to the hydraulic actuator, and "meter-out" stands
for the flow rate from the hydraulic actuator to the hydraulic tank. In this valve
configuration, different from a typical 4-way flow control valve, the meter-in and
meter-out flow rates are independent, as there is no mechanical connection between
5
the valve orifice openings, this gives a tremendous control flexibility as well as
ability to increase the energy efficiency if it is well utilized [5, 10].
In a valve controlled hydraulic circuit, whether it is pressure compensated
or load sensing, the throttling losses are inevitable. To get rid of throttling losses
completely the valve, as the final element of the hydraulic circuit, should be taken
out from the circuit. One such circuit can be made up by using variable
displacement pumps or variable speed pumps. In these circuits, the final control
element that regulates the flow rate going through the hydraulic actuator is the
pump itself. By adjusting the drive speed or the displacement of the pump, the flow
rate going through the hydraulic actuator is fully adapted to the load requirements;
thus, eliminating the throttling losses.
Using a pump as the final control element is not a new concept. The
hydrostatic servomotor control circuits utilize variable displacement pumps. In
these circuits, the speed and direction of the motor are adjusted by the swash plate
angle of the variable displacement pump. These type of drives are often employed
in machine tool control centers, tension control systems, gun turret drive, antenna
drives, and ship steering systems [11]. In electric-hydrostatic drives, the same
principle is applied by adjusting the drive speed of a constant displacement pump.
They are suitable for stationary applications like injection molding machines. The
position tracking control of the double rod clamping cylinder is accomplished by
adjusting the speed of an asynchronous AC motor driving a constant displacement
pump [12].
One important property of the hydrostatic systems is the use of symmetric
actuators. Here, assuming the leakages are compensated, the input flow rate of the
variable displacement pump or variable speed pump will be equal to the output
flow rate of the actuator making the control very simple. However if an asymmetric
single rod cylinder is used as the hydraulic actuator, then the flow entering the
actuator will not be equal to the flow exiting from the actuator. To overcome this
problem, a novel symmetric single rod actuator design is presented by Goldenberg
and Habibi [3]. However, manufacturing of this new design necessitate more
6
precision than the simple single rod cylinder and introduce more manufacturing
cost.
To compensate the asymmetric flow rate of a single rod hydraulic actuator,
hydraulic transformers are utilized. A hydraulic transformer converts an input flow
at a certain given pressure to an output flow at any other pressure level. Here, the
product of pressure and flow at the input is equal to the product of pressure of flow
at the output. It can be compared to an electric transformer where the product of
voltage and current in principle remains constant [13]. In 1988, Berbuer introduced
a hydraulic transformer for the volume flow compensation of the single rod
cylinder. The ratio of the transformer is designed according to the single rod
cylinder area ratio [14].
In 1994, a closed circuit displacement control concept was patented. It
utilizes a variable displacement pump and a low pressure charge line for
compensating the difference in volumetric flow through the cylinder [15]. A 2-
position 3-way valve is used to connect the charge line to the low pressure side of
the cylinder. A similar concept was developed by Ivantysynova and Rahmfeld [7]
which uses a variable displacement pump with differential flow compensation via a
low pressure charge line and two pilot operated check valves. This concept is not
only limited to variable displacement pumps, but also speed variable constant
displacement pumps can be used. In literature, there are also studies utilizing the
Rahmfelds circuit solution with speed variable pumps [16].
Another way to balance the unequal flow rates entering and leaving the
cylinder volumes is using the two pump control principle. In literature several
solutions utilizing two pump working dependently or independently for the control
of single rod cylinder. The pumps can be speed controlled or displacement
controlled.
The energy efficiency of displacement controlled and speed controlled
pump systems are compared by Helduser [17]. In this study, the total power usage
of a plastic injection machine was measured for one hour experimentally for a
predetermined duty cycle. It was seen that the speed controlled pump was more
7
energy efficient than the displacement controlled pump system, to due its energy
saving potential during the idling.
In the following two papers two variable speed pumps are utilized for the
position control of a single rod hydraulic actuator.
Long and Neubert utilized speed variable pumps to implement closed loop
differential cylinder control [18]. In the control circuit, two compound controlled
speed variable pumps were used to control the non-symmetric flow of the
differential cylinder. In their study, they used two control loops one for the control
of the sum of the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures, and one for the control of
the hydraulic cylinder position. The proposed circuit scheme of the control strategy
is shown in Figure 1-1. The aim of the pressure control loop is to maintain a
constant hydraulic cylinder chamber pressure sum so that in case of a loading the
dynamic pressure changes of the cylinder chambers are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. They proposed that the sum pressure control strategy can
automatically compensate the leakages of the pump and the cylinder and make the
system have the same technology characteristics as the valve controlled circuit,
where the sum of the hydraulic cylinder chambers are always equal to the supply
pressure. However, it should be noted that, in valve controlled circuits, the sum of
the hydraulic cylinder chambers is equal to supply pressure only when the actuator
is symmetric. Hence, this is not true for single rod actuators with unequal cylinder
areas. Long and Neubert used a PI controller for the pressure control loop and PID
controller for the position control loop. After pressurizing the cylinder chambers
and setting the position of the cylinder to a fixed value, they applied a 65 bar load
pressure as a step input, and measured the chamber pressure changes, the chamber
pressures vary toward opposite direction and with equal amplitude. In dynamic
state the maximum value of the position error was observed as 2.5 mm while in
steady state it was 0.6 mm.
In their latter study related to variable speed pump control circuit, Quan and
Neubert reduced the double degree of control principle to one, by omitting the
closed loop pressure control [20]. The new method is based on leakage
compensation. The leakage flow losses of the system are compensated in an open
8
loop manner, by driving the pumps with offset speeds. They showed
mathematically that the pressure responses of cylinder chambers to preloading act
as first order systems, where their time constants are determined by the bulk
modulus of the oil and the volume of the individual chamber. They concluded that,
as long as the speed loop is steady, the pressure response of each chamber will be
steady, the disturbance as the outer load does not affect these time constants. They
also concluded that the response speeds of the chamber pressures have hardly any
influence on the controlling process of the position loop. Different from the sum
pressure control principle, in this single loop circuit, the pressures in each chamber
changes in opposite direction but not in equal amplitude. Then they presented a
formula for the pressure changes of the chambers with respect to pump speed
variations, and concluded that for a certain pump leakage coefficient ratio, the
pressure change characteristics will be the same as the valve controlled system.

Figure 1-1 The Circuit Operation and Sum Pressure Principle [19]

9
1.3 Objective of the Thesis
The main objective of this thesis study is to investigate a valveless hydraulic
servo system controlled by two independent servo pumps and compare it with the
conventional valve controlled hydraulic system both experimentally and
analytically. It is aimed to eliminate the valve losses without conceding from the
dynamic performance [21].
To this end, because one of the objectives is analytical comparison, both
valve and pump controlled systems are modeled mathematically. The novelty of
this thesis is the reduced order system modeling. Different from the previous
researches [18,20], in this thesis study, a transfer function between the hydraulic
cylinder chamber pressures is derived and it is shown that; the chamber pressure
changes become linearly dependent above and below some prescribed frequencies.
Thus, it is possible to derive a second order transfer function defining the open loop
speed response of the system indicating the system dynamics explicitly. Likewise,
the same procedure is applied to the linearized valve controlled system equations
and the two systems are compared mathematically.
For the objective of experimental comparison, an experimental test set-up
including both valve and pump control techniques is constructed. A single rod or
asymmetric hydraulic actuator with unequal cylinder area is utilized in the test set-
up, because it is the most common actuator type in industrial applications due to its
simple design and lower cost. Furthermore in the experimental test set-up, common
industrial use low cost sensors and drivers are used.
The position control of the single rod hydraulic actuator is aimed in this
thesis study. For this purpose, closed loop linear state feedback controllers are
designed both for pump and valve controlled systems. The state feedback gains are
calculated by using the reduced order linear and linearized dynamic system
equations of the pump and valve controlled systems, for the identical desired close
loop pole locations.
The other objective is to attenuate the highly noise on the measurement
signals due to the low cost measurement system, and estimate the unknown state
10
which is not measured and necessary for state feedback. For this purpose Kalman
filtering is utilized. A linear Kalman filter is designed for the pump controlled
system and an Unscented Kalman filter is designed for the valve controlled system.
The two filters smooth feedback position and pressure signals while estimating the
unmeasured actuator velocity.
To compare the performance of the two systems step response and open
loop and closed loop frequency response tests are conducted on the constructed
experimental test set-up.
1.4 Thesis Outline
This thesis study deals with the modeling, application and comparison of an
energy efficient variable speed pump controlled hydraulic system with the
conventional valve controlled hydraulic system. The thesis manuscript has three
principal parts: the first part deals with the mathematical modelings of the pump
controlled and valve controlled test systems, the second part deals with the
controller design and Kalman filter design based on the modeled systems, and the
third part concerns with the performance tests and the comparison of the two
systems in term of their dynamic performance. These parts are organized as five
chapters as summarized below.
In Chapter 2, some general features of hydraulic systems are investigated.
Energy losses in the conventional valve controlled hydraulic systems are
introduced and the proposed energy efficient hydraulic control systems are
presented.
In Chapter 3, the experimental hydraulic set-up which consists of a variable
speed pump controlled system and a valve controlled system is introduced. The
mathematical model of the two systems are developed and explained in detail.
In Chapter 4, the state space representations of the pump controlled and
valve controlled systems are given, and controller designs for the both systems are
explained. The design of a Kalman filter for the linear pump controlled system and
11
the design of an unscented Kalman filter for the non-linear valve controlled system
are explained and its details are provided.
In Chapter 5, the unknown system parameters are found experimentally and
the mathematical models of the two systems are validated with the test results. A
series of step response and frequency response tests are performed for both systems
and compared with their simulation results. At the end of this chapter, the
performances of two systems are compared.
In Chapter 6, the whole performed study is summarized, the conclusions
drawn from the investigations are presented, and the prospects for application and
further developments are discussed.
12
CHAPTER 2

HYDRAULIC POWER SYSTEMS

The subject of this thesis study is to investigate an energy efficient
hydraulic control system. Thus, to understand the importance of energy efficiency
in hydraulic systems, it would be useful to discuss the conventional valve
controlled hydraulic systems before investigating the variable speed pump
controlled hydraulic systems. For this reason, this chapter is devoted to investigate
the losses in conventional valve controlled hydraulic systems and introduce the
solutions to increase the energy efficiency.
In Section 2.1, the theoretical energy losses in a conventional valve
controlled hydraulic systems will be investigated. In Section 2.2 the methods to
increase the efficiency of a valve controlled system and the recently developed
valve technologies are introduced. In Sections 2.2.2 and 2.2.3, the control
principles, which eliminate the throttling losses completely by omitting the valve
and using the pump as the final control element will be introduced. In Section
2.2.3, several circuit solutions utilizing 2 pump control principle will be discussed
and the circuit which is the subject of this thesis study is introduced.
2.1 Conventional Valve Controlled Hydraulic Power Systems
A conventional hydraulic control system represented in Figure 2-1 consists
of the following components:
- Power source,
- Pump,
13
- Relief valve,
- Fluid reservoir,
- Control valve,
- Actuator
In the circuit illustrated in Figure 2-1, generally an AC electric motor or an
internal combustion engine (especially for mobile applications) is used as the
power source. The motor drives a positive displacement pump. It is a common
practice to use fixed displacement pumps since they are cheaper than other types of
pumps. The fixed displacement pump is driven in one direction with constant
speed; it sucks oil from the oil reservoir and delivers a constant flow rate through
the hydraulic cylinder. The direction of motion of the hydraulic cylinder and its
velocity are controlled by a flow control valve, which can be a proportional or
servovalve. This valve regulates the flow by changing its orifice area. Assuming
that the pressure drop across the valve is kept constant, there is a linear relationship
between the flow rate and the orifice area. To retard or decelerate the hydraulic
cylinder, the orifice area decreases, but this time as the valve resistance increases
the pump exit pressure increases.

Figure 2-1 Conventional Valve Controlled Hydraulic Circuit

Hydraulic
Valve
Hydraulic
Actuator
Relief
Valve
Power
source
Pump
Reservoir
14
To have a constant pressure, a pressure relief valve is used at the pump
outlet. This valve is normally closed, however, when the exit pressure of the pump
reaches the set pressure of the relief valve, it opens and the excess flow returns to
the oil tank through the relief valve. By this way, as long as an excess flow rate is
delivered to the system, the relief valve will be always open limiting the pump exit
pressure so that it does not affect by the changing valve orifices areas.
The circuit in Figure 2-1 is called as the "constant pressure (CP) valve
controlled hydraulic system". The other type of the valve controlled hydraulic
systems is the constant flow (CQ) systems. In constant pressure systems, the supply
pressure to the control valve is kept constant whereas, in constant flow systems the
rate of flow from the source through the control valve is kept constant. Therefore
the supply pressure of the valve at any instant depends upon the conditions of
operation at any time in CQ systems. The CP systems are the most popular one in
hydraulic applications. Because the valve characteristics of CQ systems are highly
non-linear compared with the CP systems, also with CQ systems it is not suitable to
drive multi actuators from the same source [11].
The following discussion covers the theoretical power losses in simple CP
valve controlled hydraulic systems. For simplicity, the hydraulic actuator is
assumed to be double rod with equal areas at each side of the piston and the
hydraulic servo/proportional valve is assumed to be zero lapped. In a zero lapped
valve, there is no dead band when the spool is centered. The orifice opening is zero
for the centered spool position and under constant pressure drop across the valve
the valve flow gain is constant for every spool position. The hydraulic circuit
representation of such a system is shown in Figure 2-2.
In Figure 2-2 only two of the arms are open at any time since the valve is
zero lapped [11]. When u
> u (extension of the hydraulic actuator), the

pressurized oil from the supply passes trough orifice 2 to the hydraulic cylinder
chamber A, and the oil in chamber B passes through the orifice 4 back to the oil
reservoir. When u
< u (retraction the hydraulic actuator), the pressurized oil

coming from the supply passes through orifice 3 to the cylinder chamber B and the
oil at chamber A passes through the orifice 1 back to the oil reservoir. This
15
configuration corresponds to a simple series circuit as shown in Figure 2-2 and it
simplifies the derivation of the characteristic equations.

Figure 2-2 Constant Pressure Valve Controlled Hydraulic Circuit

Because the actuator has a double rod with equal areas, the flow rates
passing through the orifices 2 and 4 for the extension and 1 and 3 for the retraction
will always be the same. Moreover, because the valve is symmetric the orifice
resistances are also identical. Therefore, in this series circuit, the pressure drop at
each orifice will be the same and can be expressed as
2
s t L
p p p
p

A = (2.1)
where,
s
p represents the supply pressure,
t
p represents the hydraulic tank pressure,
L
p represents the load pressure; that is, the pressure drop across the load.
t
p
s
p
3
1
L
p
M
2
A
p
B
p
3 4
1
t
p
s
p
L
p
4
2 v
u
s
p
t
p
A B
x
Extension Retraction
16
The hydraulic valve dynamics can be represented by the equations
presented by Merritt [22]. The flow rate through a servovalve is proportional to the
square root of the pressure drop across the port and the valve opening. The flow
rate through the load
L
q , is defined as,
2 2
2
s t L
L d o v d o v
p p p
q C w u p C w u

= A = (2.2)
where,
d
C represents the orifice discharge coefficient,
o
w represents the perimeter of the orifice,
v
u represents the orifice opening which is same as the spool position,
represents the hydraulic oil density.
By taking the squares of each side and rearranging the Eq. (2.2), the
expression for the load pressure is obtained as
2
2 2 2
L s t L
d o v
p p p q
C w u
| |
=
|
\ .
(2.3)
If Eq. (2.3) is nondimensionalized, the following non-dimensional load pressure
expression is obtained.
2
2
1
L
L
q
p
= (2.4)
where,
L
L
s t
p
p
p p
=
represents the non-dimensional load pressure,

max
L
L
q
q
q
= represents the non-dimensional load flow rate,
_ max v
u
u
= represents the non-dimensional valve spool opening,
17
max
q is the maximum flow rate,
_ max v
u is the maximum valve spool opening.
By using Eq. (2.4), valve characteristic curves for the constant pressure zero
lapped valve control circuit can be drawn as in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3 Valve Characteristic Curves for Different Valve Openings

In Figure 2-3, the nondimensional 1x1 area formed by the non-dimensional
flow and pressure axes represents the total power supplied to the system by the
pump. The area formed by drawing perpendicular lines from an arbitrary point A
on the valve characteristic curve to the non-dimensional pressure and flow axes
represents the power transmitted to the load by the valve. According to that graph
for the valve to transmit the maximum power to the load for maximum efficiency,
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Valve Characteristic Curves
Non-dimensional pressure
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

f
l
o
w
A
= 0.8
= 0.5
= 0.3
= 0.1
= 1
18
the point A should be on the curve drawn for maximum non-dimensional valve
opening; that is, 1 = .
Note that any characteristic curve of a drive whether it is an equivalent
valve curve or any other, should enclose the load locus completely to perform the
given operation fully [11]. The load locus is defined as the complete boundary of
the region of the
L
q -
L
p plane that may be swept out by the load during its full
cycle. It represents the pressure and flow requirement of the load. A load locus
curve for a fictitious load is drawn in Figure 2-4.

Figure 2-4 Valve Losses of a Constant Pressure Valve Controlled Circuit for
Maximum Energy Efficiency

In Figure 2-4, the region covered by the drive curve but not by the load
locus represents the uneconomical overdesign. For an efficient design, this load
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Valve Characteristic Curve
Non-dimensional pressure
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

f
l
o
w
A
= 1
1 Maximum power transmitted
to the load
% 38.5
3- Power loss on
flow control valve
% 19.2
2- Power loss on pressure
relief valve
% 42.3
Load locus
19
locus should be tangent to the drive curve at one or more points without yielding to
any excessive points above the drive curve.
The point of tangency of a fictitious load locus and a valve drive curve is
represented by point A in Figure 2-4. Now the problem is to determine the
coordinates of point A which will represent the peak power requirement of the
fictitious load is equal to the maximum power that can be transmitted by the valve.
In other words, this point A will represent the maximum theoretical output power
of an ideal constant pressure supply valve controlled circuit. This can be found by
writing the non-dimensional power equation transmitted to the load, which is the
area formed by drawing perpendicular lines to the axis.
The power transmitted to the load is
L L
P q p = (2.5)
From the Eq. (2.4) for maximum spool opening 1 = Eq. (2.5) becomes,
( )
2
1
L L
P q q = (2.6)
If the Eq. (2.6) differentiated with respect to non-dimensional flow
L
q and
set zero, the nondimensional flow rate required for maximum power output is
found as follows,
2
1 0
3
L
q
P = = (2.7)
1
3
L
q = (2.8)
and from Eq. (2.4) the corresponding non-dimensional pressure is found as,
2
3
L
p = (2.9)
Hence the maximum theoretical nondimensional power output of the CP
valve controlled system is found to be
max
0.385
L L
P q p = = (2.10)
20
which is equal to the 38.5% of the total power supplied by the pump to the system.
The remaining power is lost on the pressure relief valve and the flow control
valve. The excess flow rate of the pump which is equal to 1
L
q , returns to the tank
through the pressure relief valve with a nondimensional pressure drop value of 1.
Then, the power loss on the pressure relief valve can be found as
_
1
1 1 0.423
3
loss RV
P
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
(2.11)
The power loss on the flow control valve is equal to the multiplication of
non-dimensional load flow rate by the non-dimensional pressure drop across the
flow control valve which can be defined as
_
1 2
1 0.192
3 3
loss FCV
P
| |
= =
|
\ .
(2.12)
All these losses are represented in Figure 2-4. Area 1 represents the
maximum theoretical power that can be transmitted to the load. Area 2 represents
the power loss on the relief valve and the area 3 shows the power loss on the flow
control valve.
Note that all these calculations are carried out by assuming a fictitious load
whose peak power requirement is equal to the maximum power output of the series
valve circuit. Of course this is an unrealistic assumption as no load runs at its full
load. The analysis above is to find the efficiency for an instant of time
corresponding to the maximum power requirement of the load. During the duty
cycle of the load the efficiency of the hydraulic circuit will be less than 38.5%. For
example, the load locus of the fictitious load in Figure 2-4 is tangent to the valve
curve only at one point at A, that is in all remaining times of its duty cycle the
valve opening ratio , will be smaller than 1 so that decreasing the overall
efficiency.
The overall efficiency of the system not only depends on the load and its
duty cycle, but also on the nature of the power supply. As it can be understood
from the Figure 2-4, most of the power is lost on the relief valve, due to the excess
21
flow rate of the pump returning to the oil reservoir. Because the constant
displacement pump is running at a constant speed there will be always an excess
flow. However, the requirement of the hydraulic circuit is to obtain a constant valve
supply pressure independent of the load flow rate. Therefore, while supplying a
constant pressure, the flow rate supplied by the pump can be adjusted through
changing its displacement or its driving speed according to load flow rate
requirement. Theoretically, if the pump flow rate delivered to the system is
adjusted so that there is no excess flow over relief valve, then at point A the
maximum power output of the system will be 66.7%.
Another source of the power loss is the throttle losses on the zero lapped
flow control valve which corresponds to 19.2% of the total power supplied to the
system, at the instant of maximum power output. The valve used in the analysis is a
zero lapped 4-way valve which is modeled as a series circuit, where only two ports
of the valve remain open at any instant of time. As these two ports are
mechanically connected, their resistance to flow is the same for any spool
movement. Thus, half of the power lost is on the meter-in port, which is the port
where the flow coming from the supply pressure passes through the hydraulic
cylinder chamber, and the remaining half of the power is lost on the meter-out port
where the flow coming from the hydraulic cylinder chamber passes through the
tank. By utilizing mechanically decoupled meter-in and meter-out valves, the
power lost on the flow control valve can be decreased as their resistance will not
have to be the same and adjusted independently.
Remembering that the power loss in hydraulic circuits are absorbed by the
hydraulic oil, an additional power is lost for the cooling necessities, which also
increase the amount of the oil used, resulting in a bulky reservoir.
In the next sub-section, the solutions to power losses in hydraulic systems
will be discusses in much more detailed manner and the hydraulic circuit which is
the subject of the thesis will be introduced.
22
2.2 Energy Efficient Hydraulic Power Systems
There are several methods to increase the energy efficiency of a hydraulic
circuit. To avoid any confusion, they are classified into three categories.
- Energy efficient valve controlled systems,
- Variable displacement pump control systems,
- Variable speed pump control systems.
In the first class of systems, the control principle is not changed; still the
flow rate through the hydraulic actuator is controlled via flow control valve, but the
system efficiency is increased by modifying circuit components. In the second and
third class of systems, the control principle is completely changed. The flow rate
going through the hydraulic actuator is not adjusted via valves, but the pump itself,
thus eliminating all the throttle losses. In the following sub-section, the techniques
used to increase the efficiency of valve control system will be discussed, in Section
2.2.2 the variable displacement pump control circuits will be introduced, and in
Section 2.2.3 the variable speed pump control circuits will be introduced which is
the subject of this thesis study.
2.2.1 Energy Efficiency in Valve Controlled Circuits
In Section 2.1 it is stated that most of the power supplied to the hydraulic
system is lost on the relief valve in order to maintain a constant pressure at the
valve intake. It is also discussed that this lost should be minimized if the excess
flow passing through the relief valve is reduced by means of regulating the flow
rate delivered by the pump.
In order to decrease the power losses on the relief valve, pressure
compensated variable displacement pumps are used. This system is also referred as
the "demand flow system" because the pump supplies only the required flow rate to
minimize the excess flow passing through the relief valve. The schematic diagram
of this type of pump is shown in Figure 2-5.
23

Figure 2-5 Pressure Compensated Pump [23]

In this system, the pump is running at a constant speed; however, the flow
rate is adjusted by adjusting the pump displacement. When the pump output
pressure comes to its regulated pressure, the pump decreases its pump displacement
and supplies right amount of flow only to maintain the pump output pressure.
When a flow is demanded by the load, it increases its displacement and supplies
only the required rate of flow, without changing the pump output pressure. By this
way, theoretically, the relief valve losses represented by the area 2 of the Figure 2-4
is eliminated totally, thus the new power losses of the system is only on the flow
control valve and represented by the dashed area shown in Figure 2-5.
Another technique to increase the energy efficiency is to use load sensing
pumps. Like the pressure compensated pump, the load sensing pump delivers only
the required flow rate by the load but differently the pump output pressure changes
according to the load pressure. In this system, not the valve supply pressure but the
differential pressure across the valve is constant. The schematic diagram of load
sensing pump is shown in Figure 2-6.
In this system, the load pressure is fedback to the pump compensator. The
compensator control valve inside the pump adjusts the pump displacement to
maintain a constant pressure drop across the flow control valve and in the mean
time delivering the required flow rate. Because the valve supply pressure is not
constant, but changes to maintain a constant pressure drop over the flow control
Q
L
P
s

Var. Disp.
Pump
Pressure
Compensator
Control Valve
P
L

P
L
P
s

Q
L

Useful
Power
24
valve, the power loss on the flow control valve, which was represented by the area
3 in Figure 2-4, is reduced and represented by the dashed area in Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6 Load Sensing Pump Schematic [23]

There are also electro-hydraulic load sensing systems where the pump
output pressure and the flow rate delivered to the system are adjusted by changing
the drive speed of a constant displacement pump. Figure 2-7 shows the circuit
diagram of an electro-hydraulic load sensing system circuit diagram.

Figure 2-7 Electro-Hydraulic Load Sensing System with Constant
Displacement Pump [8]
Q
L
P
s

Var. Disp.
Pump
Pressure
Compensator
Control Valve
P
L

P
L
P
s

Q
L

Useful
Power
25
In Figure 2-7, the pump is driven by an AC asynchronous motor. The drive
speed of the motor is controlled by a frequency converter according to the feedback
pressure signals of the load pressure, pump output pressure, and the pump angular
velocity [8,9].
Except for the relief valve, there occurs a considerable amount of power
loss on the flow control valve itself. In recent years, a new valve technology is
developed to reduce the power loss on the flow control valve, by mechanically
decoupling the meter in meter out ports. The schematic diagram of the new valve
control concept utilizing individual metering is shown in Figure 2-8. In the first
circuit two 3/3 valves are used and in the second circuit four 2/2 valves are used.

Figure 2-8 Individual Meter In Meter Out Valve Control System [24]

In a 4-way valve, the meter-in port and the meter-out port are mechanically
linked together, so that their resistances to flow are also dependent. But in an
individual meter-in meter-out valve, all ports are independent giving a control
flexibility to improve system efficiency by adjusting the port resistances
independently. For example, while extending the hydraulic cylinder with an
opposing resistive load, the valve resistance of the meter-in port is adjusted to
satisfy the velocity and force requirements. However, the resistance of the meter-
out port is adjusted only to deliver the flow back to the oil reservoir. This provides
26
a considerably energy saving as the power loss on the meter-out port will not be the
same as the meter-in port but lesser.
The individual meter-in meter-out valve control concept is a developing
research area; despite its complex control strategy it also allows energy
regeneration and energy recuperation [24].
Note that in all three techniques discussed above, the final control element
is the valve. Therefore, there is always a throttling loss to regulate the flow rate
through the actuator. Of course, the most obvious way to get rid of throttling losses
is not to use valves. In the next sections valveless hydraulic control systems are
discussed.
2.2.2 Variable Displacement Pump Controlled Systems
A variable displacement pump is a positive displacement pump, where its
displacement therefore the volume swept by the pump in one revolution can be
changed. Shown in Figure 2-9 are two different types of variable displacement
pump. The displacement of the vane type pump can be changed by changing the
eccentricity ratio defined by "e" in the Figure 2-9-a and the displacement of the
piston pump can be changed by changing the swash plate angle defined by "" in
Figure 2-9-b. Generally the variable displacement piston pumps are used in
hydraulic applications as they are more suitable to work with high pressures.

Figure 2-9 Variable Displacement Pumps a) Vane Pump, b) Piston Pump
a)
b)
27
The drive speed of the pump is kept constant; therefore, internal combustion
engines as well as electric motors can be utilized as the pump driver. This feature
makes them suitable especially for mobile applications.
Using the pump as the final control element is not a new concept. The
variable displacement pumps are generally utilized in hydrostatic transmission
systems, where the pump drives a hydraulic fixed displacement motor. The speed
and direction of the motor is adjusted by the swash plate angle of the variable
displacement pump. A simple circuit diagram of the hydro-static transmission
system is shown in Figure 2-10, where an auxiliary constant displacement pump is
utilized to keep a minimum pressure in each line and compensate the leakages of
the system.

Figure 2-10 Hydrostatic Transmission System with Variable Displacement
Pump Control Technique

Note that if the leakages are assumed to be zero, then the input flow rate of
the variable displacement pump will be equal to the output flow rate of the actuator.
This is due to the symmetric geometry of the hydraulic motor. The case will be the
same if a double rod symmetric actuator is to be utilized as the hydraulic actuator.
28
However, in industrial applications, single rod actuators have a common use
for space restriction reasons. This kind of asymmetric actuator cannot be controlled
by a single variable pump without additional devices for balancing unequal flow.
One solution to use of single rod actuator is presented by Goldenberg and Habibi
[3]. They designed a single rod actuator, with equal effective pressure area as
shown in Figure 2-11. As the ingoing and outgoing flow of the actuator is the same,
the simple hydro-static circuit can be applied to this new type actuator.

Figure 2-11 Single Rod Symmetric Linear Actuator [25]

The general use of single rod cylinders in industry is not only for space
requirements but also for its compact simple design and mostly for its low price,
however the design of Goldenberg and Habibi is not cost effective due to the
increased precision of the actuator.
For the control of a standard asymmetric cylinder Rahmfeld and
Ivantsysnova proposed a new circuit solution to control a differential cylinder as
shown in Figure 2-12 [7]. In this circuit the variable displacement pump (1) is the
final control element, a secondary pressure compensated pump (4) and a hydraulic
accumulator (5) are used for compensation of the in going and outgoing flow of the
cylinder chambers on the low pressure side. Two pilot operated check valves (3)
are used to make sure that the low pressure side of the hydraulic cylinder (2) is
29
always connected to the accumulator. Different from the conventional hydrostatic
systems, this circuit uses an hydraulic accumulator as an energy storage element.
When the load is working in motor mode, the low pressure side fills the
accumulator.

Figure 2-12 Displacement Controlled Drive with Single Rod Cylinder in
Position Control [7]

Using pumps as the final control element offers the most energy efficient
hydraulic control system, as all the throttling losses in the system are eliminated.
Rahmfeld compared the energy efficiency of the displacement controlled drive with
the load sensing system on a excavator. The load sensing system efficiency on the
excavator was always smaller than 40% while the displacement controlled systems
maximum efficiency was 70%.
Different from changing the pump displacement, the pump flow rate can
also be regulated by changing pump drive speed. Then the same variable
displacement pump control circuits can be used as the variable speed pump control
circuits. In the next section, the variable speed pump control will be introduced.
30
2.2.3 Variable Speed Pump Controlled Systems
The variable speed pump control techniques utilize constant displacement
pumps. Some types of constant displacement pumps are shown in Figure 2-13. The
first one in Figure 2-13-is a screw type pump, the second and third one are internal
and external gear pumps. Generally internal gear pumps are utilized as they are
more suitable to work with high pressures.

Figure 2-13 Constant Displacement Pump Types a) Screw Type, b) External
Gear, c) Internal Gear

It should be noted that, according to the type of the application, these
hydraulic pumps should be able to turn into reverse direction without a dead band
at zero velocity also; hence, in many applications, they are operated under high
pressure and nearly zero speed. This is a drawback of the speed controlled pump
systems, because standard pumps are not designed to run around zero speed and the
pump efficiency in component level around zero speed is very low. For this reason,
specially designed pumps with equal resistance for the flow rate turning both
directions should be used. Furthermore, they should be able to work as a hydraulic
motor. They should not only transmit the energy from the electrical drives to the
hydraulic system but also should be able to transmit the energy of the hydraulic
system back to the electrical drives. For example, while braking an inertial load,
a) b) c)
31
some of the energy is dissipated by friction and the remaining is to be transmitted
over the pump to an energy storage element like a hydraulic accumulator or to an
energy dissipation or transformer element like the servomotor drives.
Different from the variable displacement pumps, as the drive speed of the
pump is controlled to regulate the demanded flow rate of the system generally
electrical drives are utilized as the pump drive elements. This is another drawback
of variable speed pump control systems in mobile applications.
The variable speed pumps can be utilized in the hydrostatic circuits in place
of variable displacement pumps. In Figure 2-14, where the hydrostatic circuit of
Goldenberg and Habibi [15] is shown, a special symmetric single rod cylinder is
used as the actuator. The circuit is the same with the classical hydro-static circuits,
except a hydraulic accumulator is utilized to keep a minimum pressure in hydraulic
lines and compensate the leakages. The hydraulic pump is driven by a 3-phase AC
electrical motor. A high gain inner loop velocity controller is used for the electric
motor to alleviate the effect of dead band of the hydraulic system [15]. It has
demonstrated a high level of performance moving a load of 20 kg with an accuracy
of 10 m and a rise time of 0.2 seconds.

Figure 2-14 Electro Hydraulic Actuation System of Habibi and Goldenberg
with Symmetric Actuator [3]

32
Not only the symmetric actuators but also the asymmetric actuators like
single rod cylinder can be controlled by speed controlled pumps utilizing the same
circuit solutions of the variable displacement pumps. However, they are not given
here in order to avoid repeating similar points. Instead, different circuit
configurations for the control of single rod hydraulic actuators are discussed below.
They may be named as two pump control.
Shown in Figure 2-15 are the possible circuit schemes of two pump control
method offered by many researchers [26, 19] for the control of asymmetric
cylinder. The flow deviation of the inlet and outlet cylinder chambers due to area
ratio is compensated by utilizing a second pump.
The first two circuit solutions have an open circuit configuration, and the
last two have a closed circuit solution; that is, the oil returning from the hydraulic
actuator directly goes through the pump inlet instead of returning to the oil
reservoir. The open circuit solutions are advantageous to closed circuits, in terms of
heat dissipation; because, the returning oil to the reservoir can be cooled there. This
is a desired and mandatory process in valve controlled systems as much of the
power is used to heat the hydraulic oil; however in pump controlled systems as
there are no throttling losses cooling the hydraulic oil is not much of interest as in
the valve controlled case. Furthermore, in the closed circuits proposed not only all
the flow exiting from the cap end of the cylinder goes through the pump, but some
of it returns to oil reservoir.

Figure 2-15 Two Pump Control Circuit Configurations

33
In Figure 2-15 the 1
st
and 3
rd
circuit solutions use one angular rotation
source to actuate the both pumps, while in the 2
nd
and 4
th
circuit solutions use two
independent drive sources to actuate the pumps. This is a big advantage in
comparison as the number of power source directly affects the system's cost.
However, these solutions are proposed both for variable displacement and variable
speed pump control techniques. In variable displacement pump control technique,
because the flow rate is adjusted via pump displacement, the actuation of the
pumps from the same source is not much of interest. However in variable speed
pump control, this means a reduction in control elements. It should be noted that in
order to drive a load with a given speed and direction, one pump should deliver
hydraulic oil to the one cylinder chamber and the other pump should suck hydraulic
oil from the other cylinder chamber, assuming that they are turning in same
direction. However, to pressurize the cylinder chambers without moving the load,
both pumps should deliver hydraulic oil to the cylinder chambers, meaning that
they should be turning in reverse directions. The 1
st
and 3
rd
circuit solution can
accomplish both of these two missions if a variable displacement pump is used.
However, they cannot do so if a variable speed pump technique is used as they will
be forced to turn both in the same and in the reverse direction. Pressurizing the
cylinder chambers without moving the load is a necessary operation, because to
move a load one cylinder chamber pressure should is decreased while the other is
increased. Then, before applying a dynamic load pressure change, two chambers
should be pressurized at a static equilibrium in order not to be exposed to any
negative pressure.
The 2
nd
and 4
th
circuit solutions with independent pump actuators remain to
be convenient for the variable speed pump control technique. In the 2
nd
circuit
scheme, the direction and the velocity of the hydraulic cylinder are determined by
both pumps. However, in the second circuit solution, the velocity and direction of
the cylinder are determined by only one pump which is connected between the
cylinder chambers whereas the other pump connected to the hydraulic tank and cap
end of the cylinder only compensates the flow rate difference due to the area ratio.
This can be well understood if the cylinder areas are assumed to be constant, then
without any leakage only the pump connected to both cylinder chambers is to be
34
able to drive the load, resembles the hydrostatic circuit. Furthermore, in the open
circuit scheme, the two pumps work in 2-quadrant; the direction of flow of the
pumps change but the direction of load pressure on the pumps are fixed. However,
in the closed circuit scheme, the pump connected between the two chambers of the
hydraulic cylinder, work in 4-quadrant while the other pump works in 2 quadrant.
In this thesis, the closed loop hydraulic circuit solution utilizing two pumps
with independent actuators (circuit scheme 4) is adopted for the position control of
a hydraulic differential cylinder. In the next chapter, the constructed test set up is
explained, the working principle of the circuit and control scheme are presented in
detail, and the mathematical modeling of the whole system is given in depth.
35
CHAPTER 3

SYSTEM MODELING AND SET UP CONFIGURATION

In this chapter a detailed analysis and a description of the physical model of
the experimental test set-up and its components will be stated. In Section 3.1 the
test set-up components both for pump controlled and valve controlled system are to
be introduced. In Section 3.2 the mathematical model of the variable speed pump
controlled system and in Section 3.3 the mathematical model of the valve
controlled system is to be obtained.
3.1 Experimental Test Set-up
An experimental test set-up is constructed to test the two different; pump
controlled and valve controlled, control techniques. Because there will be a
comparison, all the components of the experimental test set up, that is the plant,
actuators, sensors, hardware and software are kept the same except for the control
elements. In the valve controlled system, the final control element is the servo
solenoid valve whereas in the pump controlled system the final control element is
the variable speed constant displacement pump units. Test set up is constructed in
such a flexible way that the same load is actuated with the same actuator, but with
different control element after changing the actuator connections.
A photograph of the constructed experimental test set-up is shown in Figure
3-1, and the schematic diagram of the experimental set up is represented in Figure
3-2. The blue lines represent the variable speed pump controlled circuit, and the
dashed red lines represent the valve controlled circuit. Switching between the valve
36
controlled and pump controlled circuits are accomplished by changing the coupling
connections 1, 2, 3.
In Figure 3-2, it is seen that the variable speed pump control system is
composed of three main parts; a hydraulic actuator, two constant displacement
pumps, and two servomotors to drive the pumps independently. The position of the
differential cylinder is controlled without any throttling elements by adjusting the
flow rates of the pumps via controlling the drive speeds of the servomotors. Both
pumps can rotate in both directions, according to the flow need of the system.

Figure 3-1 A photograph of the Experimental Test Set-Up

The two check valves shown in Figure 3-2 are for safety reasons of the
pump controlled circuit. The check valves permit flow in one direction, from tank
to the cylinder chambers A or B, and block the flow to the opposite direction. In
normal operation conditions, the check valves remain close as both the hydraulic
37
cylinder chambers are pressurized. In case of an unexpected pressure drop
(negative pressure) where the pressure differential across the valve is greater than
the cracking pressure, the check valve opens and a passage occurs between the
chamber lines A/B and the tank. Thus, the suction of the pump is done through the
check valve and the possibility of cavitations is prevented.

Figure 3-2 Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Test Set-Up

Valve controlled circuit is a conventional common use circuit. It is the same
that is investigated in Section 2.1 and represented in Figure 2-2. During the valve
control operation the pumps drive speeds and directions are constant. The two
pump both suck oil from the tank and deliver flow to the servovalve inlet. In order
to not to add any additional hoses to the system, the suction of the servo pump 2 is
kept the same; thus, it sucks oil through the check valve 2. At the pump outlet,
A
B
Pump 2
m
A
QC 1
P
Motor 2
Motor 1
Pump 1
Check
Valve 2
Pressure
Relief
Valve
T
Servo
Solenoid
Valve
Quick
Couplings
Mass
QC 2
QC 3
Hydraulic
Actuator
B
Check
Valve 1
Hydraulic Oil
Tank
38
there stays a pressure relief valve, it is used to limit the supply pressure of the
pump. The servo solenoid valve in the circuit serves as the final control element,
the direction and magnitude of the flow rate going through the hydraulic cylinder is
controlled by adjusting the servo solenoid valve spool position.
The experimental test set-up components are,
- Hydraulic oil,
- Hydraulic pumps (internal gear pump/motor unit),
- Hydraulic actuator,
- Transmission line elements,
- Load,
- Servo proportional valve and valve driver,
- Servomotors and motor drivers,
- Sensory elements,
- Computer environment and DAQ card.

Hydraulic Oil
Hydraulic oil is the main element of a hydraulic system as it serves as the
power transmission medium. Shell Tellus 37 type mineral hydraulic oil is used in
the experimental test set up. This oil is chosen due to its general use in most of the
industrial hydraulic applications because its very low viscosity variation with
temperature, high shear stability, outstanding anti-wear performance, and oxidation
resistant and corrosion protection properties. The physical properties of the
hydraulic oil are listed in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1 Hydraulic Oil Properties
Manufacturer and type Shell Tellus 37
Kinematic viscosity at 20 C 100 mm
2
/s
Density at 15

C 875 kg/m
3

Pour Point -33 C
Flash Point 207 C
Bulk Modulus 1300 MPa
39
Hydraulic Pump
Two Bucher Hydraulics QXM series internal gear pumps are used in the
experimental test rig. The pumps used in this project differ from the standard
pumps. Due to their symmetric design, these pumps can operate both as a hydraulic
pump or as a hydraulic motor and direction of rotation is not restricted. This is
called 4-quadrant operation. Some properties of the hydraulic pump/motor unit is
listed in Table 3-2.

Table 3-2 Hydraulic Pump/Motor Unit Properties
Manufacturer and Type Bucher Hydraulics QXM32-016
Fluids
HLP mineral oils to DIN51524
HFB, HFD and HFC fluids to VDMA 24317
Min. fluid cleanliness level NAS 1638, class 9 or ISO 4406
Minimum inlet pressure 0.85-2 bar.
Nominal and Effective
Displacements
16 -15.6 cm
3
/rev
Maximum Speed
3900 rpm as a pump
5500 rpm as a motor
Continuous / Intermitted
Pressure
210 / 250 bar
Torque 52.0 N.m

Because the pumps can operate both as a pump and as a motor, they are
named as QXM drive unit by the manufacturer, but throughout the thesis they will
be named as just "pump".

Hydraulic Actuator
Due to their compact design, low cost and ease of manufacture in most of
the industrial applications like presses, injection molding machines, cranes, single
rod hydraulic actuators are used. In the experimental test set up a differential
cylinder with an area ratio 1.96 is used. The hydraulic actuator at produced in
OSTIM Ankara.

40
Table 3-3 Hydraulic Actuator Properties
Rod diameter 35 mm
Piston diameter 50 mm
Stroke 100 mm

Transmission Line Elements
The transmission line elements consist of hoses, couplings, and fittings.
SEMPERPAC 2SNK .DIN 12 " W24 X oil resistant synthetic rubber hoses are
used in the low pressure lines of the hydraulic system. Since elastic hoses may act
as an accumulator and affect the system dynamics when building up pressure,
12.mm and 15 mm steel tubes are used in the high pressure lines of the system to
minimize their effects.

Load
A steel plate of mass 11.6 kg is used as the load element. However the total
mass of the load is 12.3 kg if the hydraulic cylinder piston mass is to be added. The
steel plate is fixed to the hydraulic cylinder via an M16 screw. To restrict the
rotation of the plate it is supported with two sliders at each end. The cylinder and
load are positioned in the vertical direction to the ground for the purpose of simple
construction.

Servo Proportional Valve and Valve Driver
BOSCH 4WRPH type servo solenoid valve with an electrical position
feedback is used as the flow control valve. The valve driver is occupied with spool
position feedback from the servo proportional valve LVDT, and receives its
reference spool position command and other parameters via an DAQ card interface.
The valve drive is able to return current spool position and diagnostic information.
The properties of the servo solenoid valve used in the test set-up are listed in Table
3-4. The cable connections of the valve driver are given in Appendix D.

41
Table 3-4 Servovalve Properties
Type 4WRPH 6 C4B24L 2X/G24Z4 /M
Material no 0 811 404 038
Nominal Flow Rate
24lt/min under 70bar valve pressure difference
(35bar/metering notch)
Reference Spool Position
Command
10 V
Working Hydraulic Oil Mineral oil (HL, HLP) to DIN 51524
Power Supply 24V DC

The valve is a single stage proportional valve; however, the position
feedback of the valve spool to its drive makes it a high a performance servovalve.
The bandwidth of the servovalve for 100% spool is given as 70.Hz, the frequency
response (Bode) diagram of the servo proportional valve is shown in Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3 Servovalve Frequency Response Diagram [27]

The valve used in the experimental set up is a zero lapped valve; this means
that there exists zero orifice opening when the valve is in center position.
Therefore, under constant pressure, the differential the valve gain, which is the ratio
between the input reference spool position voltage and the valve flow rate, is
constant and does not change with valve spool position. The valve flow gain with
42
respect to spool position under 7.MPa pressure differential is shown in Figure 3-4.
It is seen that the slope of the line is constant revealing that the valve is zero
lapped. It should be strictly noted that while finding the valve flow gain, not the
valve pressure differential but the pressure drop at the orifice, which is half of the
valve pressure differential for zero lapped valves, should be considered.

Figure 3-4 Flow Rate versus Valve Spool Position Signal of the Servo Solenoid
Valve [27]

Servomotors and Motor Drivers
TECO 9300 JS DA 30 AC servomotors are used as the pump driver. The
servomotors are driven with single phase 220.V AC source. The nominal power of
the servomotor is 1.kW. The servomotor driver has analog velocity or torque
output.

Position Transducer
Balluf BTL series contactless linear position transducer is utilized to
measure the position of the steel plate. The stroke of the transducer is 0-100 mm
43
and the resolution is 10 microns. The transducer has a 0-10 V analog output and the
supply voltage is 24 V DC.

Pressure Transducer
Stauff SPT B0400 series pressure transmitters are utilized to measure the
hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures. The operating range of the transducer is 0-
400 bar and the resolution is 4 bar. The output of the transducer is 4-20 mA. The
current is converted to 0-10 V analog output via Weidmuller WAS4 series
converter. The supply voltage of the pressure transducer and current to voltage
converter are 24 V DC.

Computer Environment and DAQ Card
MATLAB R2008b and Simulink software is used for modeling and
controller design purposes. The real time control of the system is performed by
using the MATLAB xPC Real Time Windows Target module. The discrete solver
is used in all real time control applications with a sampling frequency of 1,000 Hz.
National Instruments 6025E type data acquisition card is utilized in the test
set up. The card has 16 analog input channels and 2 analog output channels. The
analog input channels of the card are utilized to interface with the pressure and
position transducer and the analog outputs channels are utilized to interface with
the servomotor and servovalve drives.
All the connections of the data acquisition card for valve the valve
controlled and pump controlled system are shown in Appendix D.
A SCB 100 shielded connector block with 100 screw terminals is utilized to
interface between the transducer and drives signal cables and the data acquisition
card.
A standard desktop PC is utilized as a target PC.

44
Pressure Relief Valve
Bucher Hydraulics DVPA 10 HM series pressure relief valve is used to
limit the pump exit pressure. The pressure range of the relief valve is 10-210 bar.
The cracking pressure is set with a screw adjuster.
3.2 Pump Controlled System
In Section 3.2.1 a brief explanation of the variable speed pump controlled
system operation is given. In Section 3.2 the mathematical model of the pump
controlled hydraulic position system is obtained; the steady state characteristics of
the system is investigated; the relation between the steady state pumps speeds,
which are required to pressurize cylinder chambers and compensate for the
leakages, are obtained; the dynamic characteristics of the systems is investigated
and a transfer function between the second pump speed and hydraulic cylinder rod
velocity is derived.
3.2.1 Principle of the Hydraulic Circuit
Figure 3-5 shows a variable speed pump controlled differential cylinder
position control system. The system consists of two independent control loops;
namely, the pressure and position control loops. The inputs to the system are
ref
x
which is the reference position and
sum
p , which is the desired value of the chamber
pressure sum at steady state given as
_ _ sum A ss B ss
p p p = + (3.1)
The pressure control loop is an open loop static process, aiming to
pressurize the cylinder chambers to a predetermined value and to assure a static
force balance. At steady state, the cylinder chambers are pressurized to compensate
for the pump leakages; if not, the hydraulic cylinder will not be stable and move
freely under any disturbance due to pump leakages. Pump 2 turns in negative
direction and supply flow to the cylinder chamber B. Some of the oil is compressed
45
to form
B
p and some to compensate the internal and external leakages of the
chamber B. Pump 1 turns in positive direction some of the flow rate supplies the
need of pump 2, some of the flow is compressed to form
A
p and remaining is used
to compensate the leakages of chamber A.

Figure 3-5 Variable Speed Pump Control Circuit

It is important to note that the revolutions of pump 1 and 2 are not
independent. As the static balance of the cylinder is aimed, there exist a ratio |
which completely depends on the leakage characteristics of the system and assures
a stationary hydraulic cylinder. The definition of | is given as
1 2 o o
n n | = (3.2)
where
1o
n and
2o
n represent the offset pump speeds of pumps 1 and 2,
respectively. Note that since directions of rotations of the pumps is opposite, the |
p
sum

A
B
m
pump 2
n
2t
cylinder
cap end
rod end
n
1t
pump 1
Y

n
2
controller
1
X
ref

positon
n
1

2o
n
n
1o

+
-
+
+
+
+
46
constant has a negative value. The other constant in the pressure control loop is +
which determines the relation between desired sum pressure and the pump 2 speed.
The constants | and + can be found from the system continuity equations at
steady state.
The position control loop is a closed loop dynamic process. The position of
the hydraulic cylinder is measured and feedback to the controller. After comparing
with the reference position signal the controller creates manipulated input signal
2
n
and sends to the servomotor drivers.
Assuming all the leakages of the system are compensated, if the hydraulic
actuator is a double rod actuator having equal cylinder areas, then pump 2 will be
adequate to control the direction and the velocity of the actuator. However the
hydraulic actuator used in this thesis study is a single rod differential cylinder, with
an area ratio greater than one and defined by Eq. (3.3).
1
A
B
A
A
= > (3.3)
Therefore, the output flow of the chamber 2 is not equal to the inlet flow
rate of the chamber B due to the area difference of the differential cylinder for a
given cylinder speed. To compensate this asymmetric flow rate, there is a ratio
between the dynamic pump speeds determined by the area ratio and defined by Eq.
(3.4)
( )
1 2
1 n n = (3.4)
By this way, pump 2 controls the direction and speed of the actuator while
pump 1 compensates the asymmetric flow rate due to the difference in areas on two
sides of the piston. During the extension, pump 1 provides the lacking flow for the
cap end and during the retraction it absorbs the excess flow of pump 2.
3.2.2 Mathematical Modeling of the System
The pump controlled hydraulic position system consists of four main parts:
47
- Hydraulic pumps,
- Hydraulic differential cylinder,
- Servomotors,
- Transmission line elements.
Here, the mathematical modeling of the hydraulic pumps and the hydraulic
cylinder is explained in detail. The servomotors are not modeled and are assumed
to be ideal angular velocity sources, as each has a controller inside and both have
higher dynamics than the hydraulic system. Furthermore, all hydraulic transmission
lines are assumed to be lossless and not modeled. However, the hydraulic
capacitances constituted by the transmission line volumes which affect the
dynamics of the system heavily, are lumped into the associated hydraulic cylinder
chamber volumes. The mathematical models of the remaining parts of the system
are given below.
3.2.2.1 Pump Model
Two identical internal gear pumps are used in this application. The pumps
used in this project differ from the conventional pumps in terms of their symmetric
design. The inlet and outlet ports are of the same geometry and have equal
resistance to the flow in both directions. This gives the pumps the ability to operate
in 4-quadrants. The "4-quadrant" stands for the 4 quarter of the differential pressure
p A versus flow q plane. Operation in 4-quadrant is an important property as the
load locus is in 4-quadrants the pumps and the servomotor should be able to
operate in 4-quadrants.
Operation in 4-quadrant means that the pump unit can both work as a
hydraulic pump or a hydraulic motor that is both the high pressure port and the
flow direction can change. Figure 3-6 represents on the pump how the high and low
pressure ports and the flow direction changes in the 4-quadrant.

48

Figure 3-6 Hydraulic Pump Operation in 4 Quadrants

In Figure 3-6 the counter clockwise (CCW) rotation of the pump is assumed
to be positive. The high pressure port is designated with red arrow and the low
pressure port is designated with blue arrow. The A side (left side) of the pump is
defined as the outlet and the B side (right side) of the pump is defined to be the
inlet port.
- In the 1
st
quadrant the differential pressure between the inlet and the
outlet ports of the pump is positive, 0
A B
p p p A = > and the pump
is running in positive direction, thus the power transmitted to the
system is positive 0 p q A > and the pump is working on the pump
mode.
- In the 2
nd
outlet ports of the pump is positive, 0
A B
p p p A = > but the pump
is running in negative direction, thus the power transmitted to the
q
Pump mode
A
p
B
p
Motor mode
A
p
B
p
Motor mode
A
p
B
p
p A
Pump mode
A
p
B
p
I II
III IV
49
system is negative 0 p q A < , in other words system is doing work
on the pump and the pump is working on the motor mode.
- In the 3
rd
outlet ports of the pump is negative, 0
A B
p p p A = < and the pump
is running in negative direction, thus the power transmitted to the
system is positive 0 p q A > , and the pump is working on the pump
mode.
- In the 4
th
outlet ports of the pump is negative, 0
A B
p p p A = < and the pump
is running in positive direction, thus the power transmitted to the
system is negative 0 p q A < , in other words system is doing work on
the pump and the pump is working on the motor mode.

Flow Losses
There are factors like temperature, pressure, speed etc. affecting the leakage
coefficients meaning that machine performance is almost impossible to define in
general terms [28]. But, in literature, it is seen that simple linear terms may be
adequate to model the flow losses for systems performance studies. As the flow
rate of the leakage through its path is generally very small, the leakage flow can be
assumed to be laminar, and then the leakage flow will only depend on the pressure
differential.
The following assumptions are made for modeling the flow losses of a
pump/motor unit.
- The flow losses of the pump/motor unit consists of the internal
leakages, external leakages and the losses due to compressibility.
- The internal leak leakage of a pump/motor unit is proportional to the
differential pressure between the inlet and outlet ports.
- The external leakage flow contains two components. One
component of the external flow is from high pressure side to the
pump casing and the remaining part of the external leakage is from
50
low pressure side of the pump to the pump casing. The pressure
inside the casing is negligible.
According to the assumptions given above, the losses in a pump/motor unit
can be expressed as below.
i
q : Internal (cross-port) leakage flow
ea
q ,
eb
q : External leakage flow losses from high and low pressure sides
to the casing
ca
q ,
cb
q : Compressibility flow loss at the high and low pressure side
These loss terms are represented in Figure 3-7 on a hydraulic pump and a
hydraulic motor separately. The
t
q in the figure is the theoretical flow rate.

Figure 3-7 Representation of Flow Losses in Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
[28]

From Figure 3-7 the flow continuity equations are written in terms of flow
rates for the hydraulic pump at its outlet port
a t i ea ca
q q q q q = (3.5)
and at its inlet port
ca
q
cb
q
a
q
b
q
t
q
t
q
ea
q
eb
q
i
q
cb
q
t
q
t
q
eb
q
i
q
ca
q
ea
q
a
q
b
q
Pump Mode Motor Mode
51
b t i eb ca
q q q q q = + + (3.6)
for the hydraulic motor at its inlet port
_ a m t i ea ca
q q q q q = + + + (3.7)
and at its outlet port
_ b m t i eb ca
q q q q q = + (3.8)
The theoretical or ideal flow
t
q , is caused by gear displacement as defined
by the ideal equation,
t P p
q n D = (3.9)
It was assumed that the internal leakage is proportional to the differential
pressure across the ports
( )
i i a b
q C p p = (3.10)
The external leakages will be proportional to inlet or outlet port pressure
when the drain pressure is neglected.
ea ea a
q C p = (3.11)
eb eb b
q C p = (3.12)
The flow loss due to compressibility of the hydraulic fluid is modeled as
follows.
p
a
ca
D
dp
q
E dt
= (3.13)
p
b
cb
D
dp
q
E dt
= (3.14)
Where
p
D

is the pump displacement; and since it is very small with respect
to transmission lines and cylinder chamber volumes, the compressibility losses can
be neglected and lumped into the transmission lines and the cylinder.
From the flow continuity Eqs. (3.5) to (3.8), written for the hydraulic pump
and hydraulic motor, it seems that two different formulation should be written for
52
the internal gear pump unit whether it is operating in pump mode or motor mode.
However if the flow continuity equations are written in terms of port pressures,
then the signs of the coefficients will automatically be corrected, regardless of
pump mode or motor mode. Of course to do so, the inlet and the outlet ports of the
pump unit should be defined and fixed.
As shown in Figure 3-5, the counter clockwise rotation of the pumps are
assumed to be positive. Then, for pump 1, the port connected to the cap end of the
hydraulic cylinder (chamber A) is defined as the inlet port and the port connected
to the hydraulic tank is defined as outlet port and for pump 2, the port connected to
the rod end of the hydraulic cylinder (chamber B) is defined as the inlet port and
the port connected to the cap end of the hydraulic cylinder (chamber A) is defined
as the outlet port.
Neglecting the compressibility losses in the pump displacement volume and
assuming that the internal leakage flow coefficients of the pumps are the same,
since the two pumps used in the test set up are identical; the flow continuity
equations for the pump/motor units can be expressed as
for the outlet (A side) port of pump 2,
( )
2 p A P p i A B ea A
q D n C p p C p = (3.15)
for the inlet port (B side) port of pump 2,
( )
2 p B P p i A B eb B
q D n C p p C p = + (3.16)
for the outlet (A side) port of pump 1,
1 p A P p i A ea A
q D n C p C p = (3.17)
Note that these equations from Eq. (3.15) to Eq. (3.17) are valid in 4-
quadrants, the signs of the coefficients do not change according to the working
mode pump or motor. The terms
A
p and
B
p represent the hydraulic cylinder cap
end side and rod end side chamber pressures not the high and low pressure ports of
the hydraulic pump/motor.
53
In Figure 3-8, a positive
1 p A
q stands for a flow rate delivered by the pump 1
to the cap end side of the hydraulic cylinder (chamber A). A positive
2 p A
q stands
for a flow rate delivered by the pump 2 to the hydraulic cylinder chamber A, and a
positive
2 p B
q stands for a flow rate sucked by the pump 2 from the hydraulic
cylinder chamber B.

Figure 3-8 Flow Rates of the Hydraulic Cylinder and Pumps

According to the formulation defined from Eq. (3.15) to Eq.(3.17) , a linear
model of the two pumps are formed in MATLAB Simulink environment. The
model is shown in Figure 3-9.

A
B
m
Pump 2
2
n
cylinder
rod end
1
n
cap end
Pump 1
2 p A
q
2 p B
q
1 p A
q
A
q
B
q
x
54

Figure 3-9 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Pump/Motor Unit

The input to this Simulink sub-system is the pump drive angular velocity in
terms of revolution per second [rps] and the output is the pumps' inlet and outlet
flow rates in terms of [mm
3
/s]. Note that no torque losses are mentioned in the
pump model because servomotors are assumed to be ideal angular velocity sources
as they have an inner control loop.
The leakage coefficients of the pumps can be determined through an
experimental study by measuring the inlet and outlet flow rates under a known
pressure differential. In this study, due to the lack of flow meters, the leakage
coefficients are not found experimentally and but their values on the
manufacturers manual are used instead. However, in the open loop tests, it is seen
that the real system response is not consistent with the modeled system response
due to the incorrect values of the leakage coefficients. For this reason, the leakage
coefficients are found indirectly by using the steady state chamber pressure
response of the test set up.
3.2.2.2 Hydraulic Actuator Model
As there are a lot of hydraulic actuator models in literature, the hydraulic
cylinder model is given below without going in its details.
The assumptions used to model the hydraulic cylinder are
MPa
1
Qp1_A
Dp
Cea
Ci Pa
1
Speed
rps
mm^3/s
mm^3/s
2
Qp2_B
1
Qp2_A
Dp
Ceb
Cea
Ci
Pb
Pa
1
Speed
rps
MPa
MPa
55
- The leakage coefficient between the two chambers of the hydraulic
cylinder is laminar flow and it is proportional with the differential
pressure between them. Note that, in the mathematical model of the
overall system, the cylinder leakage coefficient will be coupled with
the pump internal leakage coefficient. As the pump leakage
coefficient is expected to be much higher than the cylinder leakage
coefficient, it can be neglected.
- The friction force between the hydraulic cylinder and the piston
sealing is assumed to be proportional with the cylinder velocity.
Only viscous friction is included in the system linear model. The
frictional characteristics of the system are found experimentally.
- The hydraulic piston is assumed to be a distinct load and lumped
into the mass which is connected to the hydraulic cylinder.
- The chamber volumes are assumed to be constant in linear
mathematical model. However in the MATLAB Simulink model,
the chamber volumes are changing proportional to the cylinder
position.
In the hydraulic actuator model the hydraulic cylinder chamber A (cap-end)
is assumed to be inlet and the hydraulic cylinder chamber B (rod-end) is assumed
to be the outlet. Thus, the upward movement of the cylinder is assumed to be
positive. In Figure 3-8, the positive flow rate
A
q that is entering the chamber A, and
the positive flow rate
B
q that is leaving the chamber B are shown.
The continuity equations for the hydraulic cylinder chambers can be written
as
A A
A A
V dp
q A x
E dt
= + (3.18)
B B
B B
V dp
q A x
E dt
= (3.19)
and the load pressure is defined as
( )
A A B B B A B
p A p A A p p = (3.20)
56
L A B
p p p = (3.21)
Then, the force transmitted to the load will be expressed by the equation,
L L B
f p A = (3.22)
The MATLAB Simulink model of the hydraulic actuator is represented in
Figure 3-10. The inputs to this sub-system are the flow rates of the inlet and outlet
ports of the pump 1 and pump 2 in terms of [mm
3
/s] and the outputs of the sub-
system are the chamber A and chamber B pressures
A
p ,
B
p in terms of [MPa] and
the load force
L
f in terms of [N].

Figure 3-10 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Actuator

In the MATLAB Simulink model of the system, the hydraulic cylinder
chamber volumes are not constant but changing with the hydraulic cylinder
position. In fact, this does not affect the simulation results much as the dead
volume due to the transmission lines are much more than the volume change due to
the cylinder position. Hydraulic cylinder chamber volume models in MATLAB
Simulink environment are given in Figure 3-11. The common input of both sub-
systems is the hydraulic cylinder position, x, in terms of [mm], and the outputs of
the sub-systems are the chamber volumes
A
V ,
B
V in terms of [mm
3
].

mm3
1
FLoad
-K-
-K-
Vb
Vol ume B
Va
Vol ume A
Ab
Ab
Aa
Aa
1
s
1
s
Pb
Pa
ydot
ydot
2
Qb
1
Qa
mm/s
mm/s
mm^3/s
Pa dot
Pb dot
MPa
MPa
N
mm3
mm^3/s
57

Figure 3-11 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber
Volumes

3.2.2.3 Load Model
The test system load can simply be thought as a mass-damper system. The
mass consists of the hydraulic piston and the steel plate attached to it, and
represented by m . The friction force which is assumed to be viscous constitutes the
damping part of the load and the viscous friction coefficient is represented by b .
The friction force acting on the load is highly non-linear. However to have a
linear model, there assumed to be viscous friction between the hydraulic cylinder
and piston sealing. The friction is not a parameter that can be measured directly or
specified by manufacturer. In this thesis, the friction characteristics of the hydraulic
cylinder is determined through an experimental procedure by measuring the
hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures.
After modeling the system as a mass-damper system, the structural equation
for the load by using the Newtons 2
nd
law, can be written as,
L
f mx bx mg = + + (3.23)
The mg term in Equation (3.23) represents the weight of the hydraulic load
consisting of the steel plate and the hydraulic cylinder piston. It is not included in
the dynamic analysis of the system.
The overall MATLAB Simulink model of the pump controlled hydraulic
system is given in Figure 3-12. The inputs to the pump controlled hydraulic system
are the pump 2 speed
2
n , in terms of [rps] and the set pressure
set
P , in terms of
1
Va
Aa y
DeadVol _A
1
Vb
Ab Stroke
y
DeadVol _B
58
[MPa], which is the desired sum of the chamber pressures. The output of the
system is the cylinder position, y in terms of [mm].

Figure 3-12 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Overall System

Note that there is a single control input to the system which is the pump 2
speed. The pump speed 1 is determined according to this speed. The relation
between these two pump speeds will be explained in the following sections.
3.2.3 Steady State Characteristics of the System
In Section 3.2.1, it is explained that there should be offset pump speeds
1o
n ,
2o
n to pressurize the cylinder chambers. The offset speeds of the pumps are
adjusted to compensate the leakage flows; so that the hydraulic cylinder is not
moving but is stationary. Thus, at steady state, the system can be thought as a
simple resistance which is a function of the internal and external leakages
coefficients, the input to the system is the ideal flow rate generated by the two
pumps revolutions and the output is the chamber pressures of the hydraulic
cylinder. This simple resistance analogy of the system is shown in Figure 3-13.
At steady state, the two chamber pressures
A
p and
B
p are not independent
variables, for the zero loading case the from the Eqs. (3.20) (3.22) and (3.23), the
relation between the chamber pressures is;
1
Pos [mm]
Beta
gama-1
PSI
Speed
Qp2_A
Qp2_B
Pump 2
Speed Qp1_A
Pump 1
1/M
Load
1
s
1
s
y
ydot
b
Qa
Qb
FLoad
Cyl i nder
2
DP
1
N2
rps mm/s rps
mm3/s
mm3/s
MPa
mm N
59
_ _ _ L s A ss B ss
p p p = (3.24)
where
_ L s
p term stand for the static load pressure which is caused by the mass of
the hydraulic cylinder and the load. It is equal to;
_ L s
B
mg
p
A
= (3.25)

Figure 3-13 Electrical Analogy of the Pump Leakage Flow Rates

Note that, according to Eq. (3.24), as the chamber pressures are not
independent at steady state, there should be a single pressure output of the
resistance circuit shown in Figure 3-13 and it is selected as the sum of the chamber
pressures. Sum pressure is expressed as.
_ _ sum A ss B ss
p p p = + (3.26)
Likewise there should be a single input, that is the pumps speeds must be
dependent otherwise the hydraulic cylinder will not be stationary and the flow rate
supplied by the pumps will not only compensate the leakage flows, but moves the
cylinder upwards or downwards.
From Eq. (3.24) and Eq. (3.25), the steady state chamber pressures can be
written in terms of static load
_ L s
p , pressure and sum pressure
sum
p as follows,
_
_
1
sum L s
A ss
p p
p
+
=
+
(3.27)
sum
p ,
Hydraulic cylinder
chambers pressure sum
Internal and external
leakages of the pumps
Theoretical pump flow
rate
60
_
_
1
sum L s
B ss
p p
p

=
+
(3.28)
At steady state, the compressibility term in the flow continuity equation of
the hydraulic cylinder chamber B drops and Eq. (3.19) becomes,
_
0
B B
B ss B
V dp
q A x
E dt
= = (3.29)
From continuity, as there are no flow losses at the transmission lines the
flow rate exiting the cylinder chamber B, is equal to the flow rate entering the
hydraulic pump 2 which is defined by Eq. (3.16)
_ 2 B ss p B
q q = (3.30)
( )
2 _ _ _
0
P o i A ss B ss eb B ss
D n C p p C p = +
( )
2 _ _ P o i A ss i eb B ss
D n C p C C p = + (3.31)
Substituting Eq. (3.27) and Eq. (3.28) into Eq. (3.31), the relation between
the pump 2 speed and the sum pressure becomes
( )
( ) ( )
2 _
1 2
1 1
i eb i eb
o sum L s
P p
C C C C
n p p
D D

+ +
= +
+ +
(3.32)

For the hydraulic cylinder chamber A at steady state, the flow rate defined
by Eq (3.18), the compressibility terms will drop and this equation becomes,
_
0
A A
A ss A
V dp
q A x
E dt
= + = (3.33)
From continuity, this flow is equal to the sum of the output flow rates of the
pump 1 and the pump 2, defined by the equation,
_ 1 2 A ss p A p A
q q q = + (3.34)
( ) ( )
1 _ 20 _ _ _
0
P o i ea A ss P i A ss B ss ea A ss
D n C C p D n C p p C p
( ( = + +

( )
1 2 _ _
2 2
P o P o ea i A ss i B ss
D n D n C C p C p + = + (3.35)
61
Substituting Eq. (3.27) and Eq. (3.28) and Eq. (3.31) into Eq. (3.35), the
relation between the pump 1 speed and the sum pressure becomes
( ) ( )
1 _
2 2
1 1
ea eb i i ea eb
o sum L s
P p
C C C C C C
n p p
D D

+ + +
= +
+ +
(3.36)
Note that if the static load pressure is neglected due to the low mass, then
the ratio between these two offset speeds defined can be found by using Eq.(3.32)
and Eq.(3.36) ,
( )
1
2
2
1
o i ea eb
o i eb
n C C C
n C C
|

+ +
= =
+
(3.37)
Note that the constant | is a negative value that is the pumps rotate in
opposite direction with respect to each other. To pressurize the cylinder chambers
pump 2 turns in CW direction (negative), while the pump 1 turns in CCW direction
(positive).
The relation between the desired sum pressure and the offset pump 2 speed
is obtained from Eq. (3.32) as
( )
( )
2
1
1
i eb
o sum sum
P
C C
n p p
D

+
= + =
+
(3.38)
( )
( )
1
1
i eb
P
C C
D

+
+ =
+
(3.39)

3.2.4 Dynamic Characteristics of the System
In this section, a general transfer function between the input pump 2 speed
and the output cylinder position is obtained. The formulation is the same as the
steady state analysis but this time, flows due to the rod movement and
compressibility is added to the continuity equations defined by Eq. (3.30) and
Eq..(3.34).
62
For the rod end side of the hydraulic cylinder if the continuity equation is
written by using Eq. (3.19) and Eq. (3.16),
2 B p B
q q = (3.40)
( )
2
B B
B P i A B eb B
V dp
A x D n C p p C p
E dt
= + (3.41)
For the cap end side of the hydraulic cylinder if the continuity equation is
written by using Eq. (3.15), Eq. (3.17) and Eq.(3.18),
1 2 A p A p A
q q q = + (3.42)
( ) ( )
1 2
A A
A P i ea A P i A B ea A
V dp
A x D n C C p D n C p p C p
E dt
+ = + + (3.43)
Note that the pump speeds
1
n and
2
n written in Eq. (3.41)and Eq. (3.42) are
the manipulated input speed signals generated from the position control loop. The
offset speeds are not included to the formulation, because they are static and do not
affect the dynamic behavior of the system. Also it should be pointed out that the
pump speeds
1
n and
2
n are not independent; due to the area difference there should
always be relation as explained in Eq. (3.4) in Section 0.
( )
1 2
1 n n = (3.44)
If Eq.(3.3) and Eq.(3.44) are substituted into Eq.(3.41) and Eq. (3.43), then
rearranged the continuity equations can be written in s-domain as,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
B
P B i A i eb B
V
D N s A sX s C P s s C C P s
E
| |
= + +
|
\ .
(3.45)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
A
P B i ea A i B
V
D N s A sX s C C s P s C P s
E
| |
= + + (
|
\ .
(3.46)
From Eq. (3.20), Eq. (3.22) and Eq. (3.23) the force balance on the load
gives,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
A B B
P s P s A ms b sX s = + (

(3.47)
63
The two continuity and the one structural equations, Eq. (3.45), Eq. (3.46),
Eq..(3.47), written above are the general equations that defines the overall variable
speed pump controlled system dynamics. Arranging these three equations, the
transfer function between the drive speed of pump 2 and the hydraulic cylinder rod
velocity can be written as follows,
( )
( )
1 2
3 2
2 1 2 3 4
V s a s a
N s b s b s b s b
+
=
+ + +
(3.48)
where
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 2
2
2
1 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
3
2 2 2 2
4
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
B
P B
i eb ea P B
B
B B
i ea eb
B B
i ea eb i ea eb i ea eb B
i ea eb i ea eb i eb ea B
V
a D A
E
a C C C D A
V
b m
E
V V
b m C C C b
E E
V V
b m C C C C C C b C C C A
E E
b b C C C C C C C C C A
o

o
o
o o
o o o

= +
= + + +
=
= + + + +
= + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + +

Here the term o represents the hydraulic cylinder chambers volume ratio
for a predetermined fixed position,
A
B
V
V
o = (3.49)
Since the order of the denominator is three and cannot be written in factored
form, it is very hard to interpret how the system parameters affect the roots of the
characteristic equation. However, if the numerical values of the system parameters
are used in this transfer function it will be seen that the system has a zero and a
pole next to each other. This is due to the chamber pressure relations. By writing an
appropriate relationship between the dynamic pressures changes of the cylinder
chambers the order of the system can be reduced by one.
64
Note the relationship between Eq. (3.45) and Eq. (3.46), it is seen that left
hand sides of the equations are proportional with the area ratio . From these two
equations if Eq. (3.45) is multiplied by and subtract from Eq. (3.46) the relation
between the hydraulic cylinder chambers pressures can be written as follows,
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2
B
i eb
A B
A
i ea
V
C C s
E
P s P s
V
C C s
E

+ +
=
+ +
(3.50)
It is strictly noted that in the above equation,
A
P and
B
P terms are the
dynamic pressure changes of the hydraulic cylinder chambers under an applied
load. It does not represent the magnitude of the real pressure in the cylinder
chambers. The real pressure is the sum of the steady state pressures due to the
offset pump speeds plus the dynamic pressure change due to loading.
Eq. (3.50) implies that for the specific volume ratio and leakage coefficients
if the time constants of the numerator and the denominator are identical then the
relation between the chamber pressure changes will be linearly dependent and can
be represented as,
( ) ( )
A B
P s P s = (3.51)
where the dynamic pressure change ratio is,
( )
( )
1
2 2
i eb
B
A i ea
C C V
V C C

+
= =
+
(3.52)
To satisfy this condition, the external and internal leakages of the pumps
have to be adjusted, however this is practically impossible. For this reason one way
to hold this condition is to add external leakage paths to the transmission lines. In
Figure 3-14, the pump internal and external leakages paths are represented with the
additional external leakage paths to the transmission lines.
As it can be understood from Figure 3-14 the additional external leakage
paths are parallel to the external leakage paths of the pumps. Therefore, nothing
65
will be changed if the following replacements defined by Eq. (3.53) are made in the
formulations,
2 2
ea ea Aext
eb eb Bext
C C C
C C C
+
+
(3.53)

Figure 3-14 Representation of the Hydraulic Pump Leakages with Additional
External Leakages

The desired values of the additional external leakage coefficients
Aext
C ,
Bext
C
, so that the condition defined by Eq. (3.51) holds, can be found by equating the
time constants of the numerator and denominator of the transfer function defined
by Eq. (3.50).
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2
i eb Bext i ea Aext
B A
C C C C C C
V V
E E

+ + + +
= (3.54)
A
B
m
pump 1
2
n
i
C
ea
C
ea
C
Bext
C
1
n
i
C
ea
C
Aext
C
pump 2
66
Taking the external leakage coefficient on line B, 0
Bext
C = , the resulting
Aext
C is,

( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2
A
Aext i eb i ea
B
V
C C C C C
V

= + (3.55)
When the condition defined by Eq. (3.51) holds, and the order of the
transfer function between the drive speed of pump 2 and hydraulic cylinder rod
velocity reduces from 3 to 2, then a much simpler and understandable transfer
function can be derived by using Eq. (3.45), Eq. (3.46), Eq. (3.47) and Eq. (3.51).
The derivation of the reduced order transfer function between the drive speed of
pump 2 and hydraulic cylinder rod velocity is given in the Appendix A in detail.
Below, the second order transfer function defining the open loop velocity response
of the hydraulic cylinder to the pump 2 speed is given,
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
P B
B B
Leak Leak B
D A
V s
V V N s
m s b mC s bC A
E E
o
o o
o
+
=
| |
+ + + + +
|
\ .
(3.56)
where
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1
i ea eb
Leak
C C C
C
o o o
+ + + + +
=
+
(3.57)
stands for the equivalent leakage flow coefficient of the pump and the parameter
represents the assumed dynamic pressure change ratios of the hydraulic cylinder
chambers, defined by Eq. (3.52).
Note that the 2
nd
order transfer function defined by Eq. (3.56) is identical to
the 3
rd
order transfer function defined by Eq. (3.48). Because after adding an
external leakage to the system defined by Eq.(3.57), one of the roots of the
denominator of the 3
rd
order transfer function becomes equal to the root of its
numerator and reduces to a 2
nd
order transfer function.
The transfer function defined by Eq. (3.56) is more meaningful, than the
transfer function defined by Eq. (3.48). This second order transfer function can be
used to understand the dynamic behavior of the system. The natural frequency and
67
the damping ratio of the variable speed pump controlled hydraulic system can be
written as,
( )
2 2
Leak B
n
B
bC A
E
m V
o
e
o
+ +
= (3.58)

( ) ( )
2 2
1
2
B
Leak
B Leak B
b V E
mC
E
m V bC A
o
o o
| |
= +
|
\ . + +
(3.59)

It is seen that the equivalent leakage resistance term
leak
C increases the
natural frequency and damping of the system. Then after adding external leakage
paths on the transmission lines the system becomes faster as it will increases the
equivalent leakage flow coefficient
leak
C so that the natural frequency of the
system. However, it should be remembered that the additional leakage paths
decreases the efficiency of the system due to the throttling losses. Another
important factor which determines the natural frequency of the system is the
hydraulic cylinder chamber volumes. Different from the valve controlled hydraulic
systems, where the valve is mounted next to the cylinder, in the pump controlled
system there are transmission lines between the pump inlet/outlet and cylinder
inlet/outlet. From the equations above, it is seen that the dead volume of these
transmission lines decreases both the natural frequency and the damping ratio.
Lastly, the term
2
o + appearing in the above equations indicate that increasing
the area ratio and dead volume ratio, increases the natural frequency of the system
while decreases the damping ratio.
The equivalent block diagram representation of the open loop position
response of the variable speed pump controlled system is given below in Figure
3-15.
Mathematically adding an external leakage element to the system with a
pre-determined value is simple, but practically this does not seems rational.
Furthermore, this additional leakage element reduces the energy efficiency of the
system.
68

Figure 3-15 Block Diagram Representation of the Open Loop Position
Response of the Variable Speed Pump Controlled System

If the frequency response of the transfer function between the dynamic
pressure changes of the hydraulic cylinder chambers ( ) ( ) /
A B
P s P s , which is
defined by Eq. (3.50) is plotted, it will be seen the relation is linear below and
above some predetermined cut off (corner) frequencies. For simplicity, the dynamic
pressure change relation is written in a standard first order transfer function form.
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2
1
1
1
2 2
B
i eb
A
A
B
i ea
V
s C C
P s T s
E
K
V
P s T s
s C C
E

+ +
+
= =
+
+ +
(3.60)
where
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
i eb
OL
i ea
B
i eb
A
i ea
C C
K
C C
V
T
E C C
V
T
E C C

+
=
+
=
+
=
+
(3.61)
If the frequency response of this first order transfer function defining the
dynamic chamber pressure change relation is investigated, it is seen at low
excitation frequencies ( - u) the dynamic pressure change ratio is equal to the
open loop gain
OL
K which is fully determined by the pump leakage coefficients. At
higher excitation frequencies ( - ), the dynamic pressure change ratio is equal
( ) X s
L
p
L
p
leak
C
B
E
V o
( )
2
P
D o +
B
A
L
f

1
ms

1
s

( )
2
B
A o +
p
q

1
s

b

( )
2
N s
x
+
- -
-
+
69
to the ratio of time constants which is fully determined by the hydraulic cylinder
volumes and area ratio. For the frequencies between the cut off frequencies, which
are determined by
1
T and
2
T , the dynamic pressure change ratio will be determined
by both leakage flow coefficients and hydraulic cylinder volumes together with the
area ratio.
From the investigation above, it can be concluded that, for low excitation
frequencies the hydraulic oil tends to leak out and the leakage flow coefficients
determines the change of chamber pressures, while for high excitation frequencies
the hydraulic oil tends to compress and the hydraulic cylinder chamber volumes
determines the change of chamber pressures. The frequency response of the
dynamic pressure change ratio is plotted in Figure 3-16 by using the numerical
values defined in Table 3-7.

Figure 3-16 Pump Dynamic Chamber Pressure Change Relations
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
0
5
10
15
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
B
]
Dynamic Chamber Pressure Change, P
A
/ P
B
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
140
150
160
170
180
Frequency [Hz]
P
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
70
It is seen that at low excitation frequencies ( - u) the dynamic pressure
changes ratios of the cylinder chambers are 13.17 dB (magnitude 4.55) which is
equal to the gain
OL
K of the transfer function (Eq.(3.61)), and at higher frequencies
( ) e that are larger than 3 Hz, the dynamic pressure change ratio drops to
0.39dB (magnitude 1.05) which is equal to the / /
B A
V V o = = value.
Practically this means that under a sinusoidal dynamic loading whose
frequency is higher than 3 Hz, to compensate the dynamic load pressure, the
chamber pressure
B
p will reduce p A value from its steady state value, while the
chamber pressure
A
p will increase 1.05 p A value from its steady state value. Thus
the order of the position control system will reduce from 4 to 3 as the chamber
pressures become linearly dependent.
Therefore, it will be a reasonable assumption to use the linear dynamic
pressure change relation
A B
p p = instead of adding an additional leakage path
to the system. Because, the inertial effects of the load on the chamber pressures are
very small and negligible for low excitation frequencies, value should be
calculated for higher excitation frequencies ( - ). Then, the linearly dependent
chamber pressure relation is equal to the ratio of time constants and written as
follows,
1
2
B
A
T V
T V
= =
(3.62)

To verify the linear dynamic pressure change assumption the numerical
values of the system defined in Table 3-7 will be used. Below in the first row of
Table 3-5, the poles and zeros of the general 3
rd
order transfer function defined by
Eq. (3.48) between the drive speed of pump 2 and hydraulic cylinder rod velocity
are given. In the remaining rows, the poles of the reduced 2
nd
order transfer
function defined in Eq.(3.56) between the drive speed of pump 2 and hydraulic
cylinder rod velocity for different values are given.

71
Functions
Poles Zeros Error Between
the poles of
3
rd
order TF and
2
nd
order TF
General 3
rd
order TF

-120.02 +1874.63i
-120.02 -1874.63i
-6.9582
-6.9588
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
1.047
B
A
V
V
= =
-120.02 +1874.63i
-120.02 -1874.63i
0 0.00047+0.0030i
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
4.555 K = =
-119.21 +1874.59i
-119.21 -1874.59i
0 0.81359+0.0368i
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
2 =
-119.58 +1874.61i
-119.58 -1.874.61i
0 0.44623+0.01878i

From Table 3-5, it is seen that third pole and zero of the general 3
rd
order
transfer function are very close, canceling each other, and the remaining complex
conjugate pole pairs are very close to the pole pair of the reduced second order
system. Furthermore, the error between the third order transfer function poles and
second order transfer function poles are much smaller if the dynamic chamber
pressure change ratio, , is determined for higher excitation frequencies.
3.3 Valve Controlled System
In the valve controlled system, the load and the hydraulic actuator are the
same with the pump controlled circuit. As the mathematical models for the
hydraulic actuator and the load are derived in Section 3.2.2, they will not be
modeled again. Additionally, the mathematical model of the valve used in the test
set up is derived.
3.3.1 Mathematical Modeling of the System
As explained in Section 3.1, the valve driver has a spool position controller
which takes spool position feedback from the LVDT on the valve. The bandwidth
of the valve used in this study for 100% command input signal is around 70 Hz
72
which is very high with respect to the hydraulic applications, and can be assumed
to be an ideal flow rate source for a given reference spool position command.
Therefore, of the valve controlled system the valve dynamics is neglected in the
mathematical modeling given below and the servovalve opening is directly related
to the reference spool position command.
3.3.1.1 Valve Model
Shown in Figure 3-17 is the schematic of representation of the valve
controlled asymmetric cylinder. According to the defined direction for a given
positive spool position
v
u , the following cylinder movement is upwards, in positive
direction.
The valve used in the test set up is a servo proportional close centered zero-
lap valve; therefore, as there is no dead zone or initial opening, the valve orifice
area is proportional to the spool displacement at any time. Thus, under constant
pressure differential across the valve, the flow gain is constant and does not change
with the spool position. The flow gain versus command signal graph is shown in
Figure 3-4.

Figure 3-17 Schematic Representation of the Valve Controlled System
S
p
t
p
t
p
2
1
3 4
A
p
B
p
A
A
B
A
u
v

x
73
In the zero lap valve, only two of the arms are open at any time, therefore
only two orifice equations can represent the valve dynamics. Assuming zero tank
pressure, these expressions can be written as follows.
For positive spool position, 0
v
u >
( )
2
4
2
2
d o v S A
d o v B
q C w u p p
q C w u p
=
=
(3.63)
For negative spool position 0
v
u <
( )
1
3
2
2
d o v A
d o v S B
q C w u p
q C w u p p
=
=
(3.64)
Note that the valve and oil parameters
d
C , w, and are constants and
generally not given in the manuals. Instead, they are represented by a flow gain,
v
K
, that can be obtained from the valve manual from the relation between the flow
rate and valve input current u.
2
v d o
K C w
= (3.65)
Then the valve flow equations becomes,
2
4
1
3
0
0
v S A
v B
v A
v S B
q K u p p
u
q K u p
q K u p
u
q K u p p
=

>
`
=

)
=

<
`
=

)
(3.66)
74
It is important to note that the parameter u is an electrical signal
representing the reference spool position command of the driver not the spool
position.
The MATLAB Simulink model of the valve is shown in Figure 3-18. Here
the input to valve sub-system is the spool position signal in terms of Volt, and the
output of the system is the flow rate in terms of mm
3
/s.

Figure 3-18 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Proportional Valve with Zero
Lap

3.3.2 Steady State Characteristics of the System
The symmetric or single rod cylinders have different characteristics for
extending and for retracting motions. This is due to the area difference between two
faces of the hydraulic cylinder piston. The steady state chamber pressures
A
p and
B
p for a given valve spool position input is derived below for both extending and
retracting case.
1
QA
Kv
Val ve Gai n
Kv
Val ve Gai n
Pt
Tank Pressure
Swi tch1
Swi tch
Ps
Suppl y Pressure
X
Spool Posi ti on
X
Spool Posi ti on
Product1
sqrt
sqrt
0
Ini ti al Spool Posi ti on
0
Ini ti al Spool Posi ti on
Pa
Pa
0
0
|u|
Abs1
|u|
Abs
Q1
Q2
75
At steady state, the compressibility terms in the flow continuity equations of
the hydraulic cylinder chambers A and B drop and Eq. (3.18) and Eq. (3.19)
become,
_ B ss B
q A x = (3.67)
_ A ss A B
q A x A x = = (3.68)
From the equations above, the steady state relation between the flow rate
entering the cylinder chamber A and leaving the cylinder chamber B is obtained as
_ _ A ss B ss
q q = (3.69)
Assuming that there exist no flow losses at the transmission lines, the
continuity requires that the steady state inlet and outlet flow rates of the cylinder
are equal to the valve flow rates.
Hence, for the extending case,
_ 2 A ss
q q = (3.70)
_ 4 B ss
q q = (3.71)
and for the retracting case,
_ 1 A ss
q q = (3.72)
_ 3 B ss
q q = (3.73)
Substituting Eq. (3.66), Eq. (3.70) and Eq. (3.71) into Eq. (3.69) the relation
between the steady state chamber pressures can be found.
Hence, for extending case,
_ 2 _ _ 4 _ A ss v S A ss v B ss B ss
q q K u p p K u p q q = = = = =
(3.74)

2 2 2 2
_ _ A ss B ss S
p p p + = (3.75)
and for retracting case,
_ 1 _ _ 3 _ A ss v A ss v S B ss B ss
q q K u p K u p p q q = = = = = (3.76)
76
2 2 2 2 2
_ _ A ss B ss S
p p p + = (3.77)
For zero loading case, the static equilibrium is written as,
_ _
0
A ss B ss
p p = (3.78)
Then, the steady state chamber pressures for extracting and retracting in terms of
supply pressure can be written by using Eq.(3.75), (3.77) and (3.78).
Hence, for extending case,
_ _ 3
1
S
A ss ext
p
p
=
+
(3.79)
_ _ 3
1
S
B ss ext
p
p

=
+
(3.80)
and for retracting case
2
_ _
3
1
S
A ss ret
p
p

=
+
(3.81)
3
_ _
3
1
S
B ss ret
p
p

=
+
(3.82)
3.3.3 Linearized Valve Coefficients
As the valve flow equation is highly non-linear, in order to obtain a linear
relationship between the input spool position and output cylinder position, the
characteristic flow equation of the valve should be linearized. Another non-linearity
comes from the differential area of the cylinder, the chamber pressures shows
different characteristics for extension and retraction. In this section, the
characteristic valve flow equation is linearized both for extending and retracting
cases.
To linearize the valve flow equation it is assumed that, under a dynamic
loading, the chamber pressures are at steady state, and the dynamic pressure
changes due to compensate the load pressure are small with respect to the steady
77
state pressures. Then the flow continuity equations defined by Eq. (3.66) can be
linearized at the steady state pressures defined by Eq. (3.79) through Eq. (3.82) for
a given constant reference spool position input
o
u u = .
3.3.3.1 Extension Case
For the extension case, the pressurized oil coming from the supply passes
through the orifice 2 and goes to the chamber A and the oil in chamber B passes
through orifice 4 and goes to the tank. Therefore, for the extension case, the
linearization of the orifices 2 and 4 for a given spool input position
o
u at steady
state extension chamber pressures
_ _ A ss ext
p and
_ _ B ss ext
p should be performed.

Extension

Orifice 2
The flow rate passing through the orifice 2 can be linearized as follows,
2 2_ 2_ v S A u ext p ext A
q K u p p K u K p = = (3.83)
Here the terms
2 _ u ext
K is valve spool position gain of orifice 2 linearized at
the spool position
o
u and steady state chamber pressure
_ _ A ss ext
p .
_ _ A ss ext
p
_ _ B ss ext
p
A
A
B
A
S
p
t
p
t
p
2 1 3 4
2
q
u
Extension
4
q
o
u
x
78
_ _
2
2 _ _ _
3
3
2 _ 3
1
1
o
A A ss ext
s
u ext v S A ss ext v s
u u
p p
s
u ext v
p q
K K p p K P
u
p
K K
=
=
c
= = =
c +
=
+
(3.84)
The term
2 _ p ext
K is the valve pressure gain of orifice 2 which is also
linearized at the spool position
o
_ _ A ss ext
p .
_ _
2
2 _
_ _
3
2 _
3
3
2
2
1
2
1
o
A A ss ext
v o v o
p ext
u u
A
S A ss ext S
p p
S
v o
p ext
S
K u K u q
K
p
p p p
p
K u
K
p
=
=
c
= = =
c

=
+
(3.85)
If a comparison is made with the variable speed pump controlled system,
the valve spool position gain
2 _ u ext
K defines the relation between the valve spool
position and the flow generated. Therefore, it can be thought as the pump
displacement
P
D , which is the gain between pump drive speed and pump flow rate.
The valve pressure gain
2 _ p ext
K defining flow losses of the valve for a given spool
position can be thought as the leakage flow coefficients of the pump.

Orifice 4
4 4_ 4_ v B u ext p ext B
q K u p K u K p = = + (3.86)
Here the terms
4 _ u ext
the spool position
o
_ _ B ss ext
p
_ _
2
4 _ _ _ 3
4 _
3
1
1
o
B B ss ext
s
u ext v B ss ext v
u u
p p
s
u ext v
p q
K K p K
u
p
K K
=
=
c
= = =
c +
=
+
(3.87)
79
The term
4 _ p ext
o
_ _ B ss ext
p
_ _
4
4 _
_ _
3
4 _
3
2
2
1
2
1
o
B B ss ext
v o v o
p ext
u u
B
B ss ext s
p p
v o
p ext
s
K u K u q
K
p
p p
K u
K
p
=
=
c
= = =
c
+
=
+
(3.88)
Note that the valve spool position gain of the orifice 2 is times the valve
spool position gain of orifice 4.
2 _ 4 _ u ext u ext
K K = (3.89)
The valve pressure gain of the orifice 4 is times the valve pressure gain of
orifice 2.
4 _
2 _
p ext
p ext
K
K
= (3.90)
3.3.3.2 Retraction Case
Shown in Figure 3-20, to retract the hydraulic cylinder, the pressurized oil
coming from the supply passes through the orifice 3 and goes to the chamber B, the
oil in chamber A passes through orifice 1 and goes to the tank. Therefore, for the
retraction case, the linearization of the orifices 1 and 3 for a given spool input
position
o
u at steady state retraction chamber pressures
_ _ A ss ret
p ,
_ _ B ss ret
p , should
be performed.

Orifice 3
3 3_ 3_ v S B u ret p ret B
q K u p p K u K p = = (3.91)
80
Here the terms
3 _ u ret
the spool position
o
_ _ B ss ext
p
_ _
3
2
3_ _ _
3
3_
3
1
1
o
B B ss ext
s
u ext v S B ss ext v s
u u
p p
s
u ext v
p q
K K p p K P
u
p
K K
=
=
c
= = =
c +
=
+
(3.92)
The term
3 _ p ret
o
_ _ B ss ext
p
_ _
2
3 _
3
_ _
3
3 _
3
2
2
1
2
1
o
B B ss ext
v o v o
p ret
u u
B
S B ss ext
S
p p
S
v o
p ret
S
K u K u q
K
p
p p
p
p
K u
K
p
=
=
c
= = =
c

=
+
(3.93)

Retraction

Orifice 1
1 1_ 1_ v A u ret p ret B
q K u p K u K p = = + (3.94)
_ _ A ss ret
p
_ _ B ss ret
p
A
A
S
p
t
p
t
p
2 1 3 4
u
Retraction
1
q
3
q
o
u
B
A
x
81
Here the terms
1_ u ret
the spool position
o
_ _ A ss ext
p
_ _
1
1_ _ _
2
1_ 3
1
o
A A ss ext
u ext v A ss ext
u u
p p
s
u ext v
q
K K p
u
p
K K

=
=
c
= =
c
=
+
(3.95)
The term
1_ p ret
o
_ _ A ss ext
p
_ _
1
1_
2
_ _
3
1_
2
3
2
2
1
2
1
o
A A ss ext
v o v o
p ext
u u
A
A ss ext
s
p p
v o
p ext
s
K u K u q
K
p
p
p
K u
K
p
=
=
c
= = =
c
+
=
+
(3.96)
Note that the valve spool position gain of the orifice 1 is times the valve
spool position gain of orifice 3.
1 _ 3 _ u ext u ext
K K = (3.97)
The valve pressure gain of the orifice 3 is times the valve pressure gain of
orifice 1.
3 _
1_
p ext
p ext
K
K
= (3.98)
3.3.4 Dynamic Characteristics of the System
In this section, a transfer function between the input valve spool position
and the output cylinder rod velocity is derived. In order to obtain a linear
relationship, the linearized valve flow coefficients found in the previous sub-
section are to be used. A dynamic analysis for the extending case is carried out
below. Since the procedure is the same; the transfer function derivation for the
retraction case is not explained.
82
Likewise in the pump controlled system, two flow continuity equations of
the cylinder chambers and valve and one structural equation of the load define the
system dynamics.
For the cap end of the hydraulic cylinder, the flow continuity equation can
be written by using the linearized valve flow equation Eq. (3.83) and the flow
continuity equation of the cylinder chamber Eq.(3.18),
2 A
q q = (3.99)
2 _ 2 _
A A
u ext p ext A A
V dp
K u K p A x
E dt
= + (3.100)
For the rod end of the hydraulic cylinder, the flow continuity equation can
be written by using the linearized valve flow equation Eq.(3.86) and the flow
continuity equation of the cylinder chamber Eq.(3.19),
4 B
q q = (3.101)
4 _ 4 _
B B
u ext p ext B B
V dp
K u K p A x
E dt
+ = (3.102)
The structural equation of the load is the same with the pump controlled
system given by Eq. (3.47) and it is repeated here as,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
A B B
P s P s A ms b sX s = + (

(3.103)
These 3 equations, with one known control input u, and 3 unknowns which
are cylinder chamber pressures
A
p ,
B
p and cylinder rod velocity x , can be solved
to find the transfer function between the input spool position u, and output cylinder
rod velocity x . The derivation of the transfer function is explained in detail in
Appendix B.
The transfer function between the reference input spool position command
( ) U s and the cylinder rod velocity ( ) V s for the extension case is as follows,
83
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
3 2
1 2 3 4
2
1 4 _
3
2 4 _ 2 _
2
1 2
2
2 2 _
2
2 2 2
3 2 _ 2 _
2 3 2
4 2 _ 2 _
1
1
1
1
B
u ext B
u ext B p ext
B
B B
p ext
B B
p ext p ext B
p ext p ext B
V s a s a
U s b s b s b s b
V
a K A
E
a K A K
V
b m
E
V V
b mK b
E E
V V
b m K bK A
E E
b b K K A
o
o
o
o
o o

+
=
+ + +
= +
= +
=
= + +
= + + + +
= + +
(3.104)

The result is a 3
rd
order transfer function. Since the characteristic equation
cannot be written in a factored form; it is very hard to interpret how the system
parameters affect the roots of the characteristic equation. Therefore, likewise in the
variable speed pump controlled system a relationship between the chamber
pressures will be defined to reduce the order of the system.
By using Eq.(3.89), Eq.(3.90), Eq. (3.100) and Eq. (3.102) the relation
between the chamber pressures can be written. Inserting Eq.(3.89) into Eq. (3.100),
Eq.(3.90) into Eq. (3.102), multiplying Eq. (3.102) by and subtracting from Eq.
(3.100) the relation between
A
p and
B
p in s-domain can be obtained as follows,
( ) ( )
2
2 _
2 _
B
p ext
A B
A
p ext
V
s K
E
P s P s
V
s K
E
+
=
+
(3.105)
This equation represents the dynamic pressure changes under an applied
load. Likewise in the pump controlled system, if the frequency response of the
transfer function between the dynamic chamber pressure changes is investigated, it
will be seen the relation is linear below and above some predetermined frequencies.
By this way a linear relationship between the dynamic pressure changes can be
defined as follows,
84
( ) ( )
A B
P s P s = (3.106)
Similar to the variable speed pump control system case at high frequency
excitations the chamber pressure change ratio will be determined by the chamber
volumes and cylinder area ratio and will be equal to,
B
A
V
V
= (3.107)
For low frequency excitations the chamber pressure change ratio will be
determined by the cylinder area ratio, and will be equal to
2
= (3.108)
Note that if the valve pressure coefficients are linearized for zero spool
opening 0
o
u = , then the valve pressure flow gain will be zero
2 _ 2 _
0
p ext p ext
K K = = , and the dynamic pressure changes relation will be,
( ) ( )
B
A B
A
V
P s P s
V
= (3.109)
That is, for an applied loading independent of excitation frequency, the
chamber pressure,
A
p , will change /
B A
V V times greater than the change of the
chamber pressure,
B
p .
The frequency response of the dynamic pressure change ratios are shown in
Figure 3-21. Here the valve pressure coefficients are linearized at a spool position
0.1
o
u V = and for supply pressure 12
s
P MPa = .
It is seen at low excitation frequencies that the dynamic pressure ratio of the
cylinder chambers is 11.7 dB (magnitude 3.85) which is equal to
2
. At higher
frequencies larger than 1 Hz, the dynamic pressure change ratio drops to 4.dB
(magnitude 1.047) which is equal to the / /
B A
V V o = = value. Practically, this
means that under an oscillatory dynamic loading whose frequency is higher than
1.Hz, to compensate the dynamic load pressure, the chamber pressure
B
p will
reduce P A value from its steady state value, while the chamber pressure
A
p will
85
increase 1.047 P A value from its steady state value. Thus, the order of the open
loop velocity response of the valve controlled system reduces by one, as the
chamber pressures become linearly dependent.

Figure 3-21 Dynamic Pressure Change Ratios

Of course, the valve pressure coefficient linearized at a higher spool
position will increase the cut off frequency as it will increase the
2 _ p ext
K , but it
should be noted that in closed loop control applications the spool movement is not
constant and always changing during the transient zone, and at steady state it
becomes zero. Then assuming the spool position value as zero or a very small value
will be reasonable rather than assuming spool position values like 1 or 2.
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
0
5
10
15
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

[
d
B
]
Dynamic Chamber Pressure Change, P
A
/ P
B
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
180
190
200
210
220
Frequency [Hz]
P
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
86
Practically it will be a reasonable assumption to use the linear dynamic
pressure change relation Eq. (3.106) calculating the dynamic pressure change ratio
, for higher excitation frequencies. That is,
B
A
V
V
= (3.110)
When the dynamic chamber pressure changes are linearly dependent, the
order of the system reduces from 4 to 3. Then a much simpler and understandable
transfer function can be derived by using the same continuity equations of the valve
and cylinder chambers and structural equation of the load. The derivation of the
transfer function is explained in detail in Appendix B.
The transfer function between the reference input spool position command
( ) U s and the cylinder rod velocity ( ) V s for the extension case is as follows,

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
4 _
2 2 2
2 _ 2 _
1 1
u ext B
B B
p ext p ext B
K A
V s
U s m V b V
s m K s b K A
E E
o
o o o o
o

+
=
| | + +
+ + + + +
|
+ +
\ .
(3.111)

In Figure 3-22 the equivalent block diagram representation of this reduced
order differential cylinder valve controlled system is given for the extension case.
Note that it is very similar to the variable speed pump controlled system block
diagram representation which is shown in Figure 3-22. The pump displacement
term is replaced with the valve spool position gain and the pump leakage term is
replaced with the valve pressure gain, as expected and explained in Section 3.3.3.1.

87

Figure 3-22 Block Diagram Representation of the Valve Controlled System
for the Extension Case

Note that, for the retraction case, the following replacements for the
linearized valve spool position and valve pressure coefficients, in Eq.(3.104), Eq.
(3.111) and in Figure 3-22 should be made
4_ 3_
2 _ 1_
u ext u ret
p ext p ret
K K
K K
(3.112)
This second order transfer function can be used to understand the dynamic
behavior of the system. The natural frequency and the damping ration of the valve
controlled hydraulic system can be written as,
( )
2 2
2 _
1
p ext B
n
B
b K A
E
m V
o
o
e
o
+
+ +
+
= (3.113)
( )
2 _
2 2
2 _
1 1
2
1
B
p ext
B p ext B
b V
E m K
E
m V b K A
o o

o
o o
| | +
+
|
+
\ .
=
| | +
+ +
|
+
\ .
(3.114)
From the natural frequency and damping ratio equations defined above if a
comparison is to be made with the pump controlled system it is seen that valve
pressure gain
2 _ p ext
K , which is found through the linearization of the valve flow
( ) X s

1
s

L
p
L
p
B
E
V o
( )
2
4_ u ext
K o +
( )
2
B
A o +
B
A
L
f

1
s

1
ms

p
q
2_
1
p ext
K
o

+
+
b
( ) U s
x
+
- -
-
+
88
equation around a fixed spool position and a constant supply pressure is similar to
the equivalent leakage coefficient term
leak
C of the pump controlled system.
Depending on the spool position where the linearization is performed, as the
valve pressure gain decreases with the increasing supply pressure, it seems that the
natural frequency of the open loop system will decrease with the increasing supply
pressure. However it should be noted that as the valve spool position gain
2 _ u ext
K ,
also depends on the supply pressure, the response of the closed loop system will
increase by increasing the supply pressure as it will increase the valve spool
position gain which is the open loop gain and shown in Figure 3-22.
Other important parameters which determine the natural frequency of the
system is the hydraulic cylinder chamber volumes, bulk modulus of the hydraulic
oil and cylinder area. The natural frequency of the system increases with the
cylinder area and bulk modulus of the oil, whereas decreases with the hydraulic
cylinder volume. Furthermore, the load mass decreases the natural frequency of the
system as expected. Lastly, likewise in the pump controlled system, the term
2
o + appearing in the above equations indicate that increasing the area ratio and
dead volume ratio, increases the natural frequency of the system while decreases
the damping ratio.
Lastly the linear dynamic chamber pressure change assumption is checked.
Table 3-6 gives the roots of the characteristic equations of the reduced second order
transfer function defined by Eq. (3.111), and the third order transfer function
defined by Eq. (3.104). The numerical values of the system parameters for the
calculation of the transfer functions are taken from Table 3-7 and the valve flow
coefficients are linearized at the spool position 0.1
o
u V = for supply pressure
12
s
p MPa = .

89
Functions
Poles Zeros Error between
The poles of
3
rd
order TF and
2
nd
order TF
General 3
rd
order TF

-108.79 +1978.14
-108.79 -1978.14
-9.2330
-9.2339
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
1.047
B
A
V
V
= =
-108.78 +1978.15
-108.78 -1978.15
0 0.00062+0.00431i
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
2
3.844 = =
-107.85 +1978.10
-107.85 -1978.10
0 0.92891+0.04406i
Reduced 2
nd
order TF
2 =
-108.24 +1978.12
-108.24 -1978.12
0 0.05493+0.02422i

Likewise the pump controlled system, in valve controlled system it is seen
in Table 3-6 that third pole and zero of the general 3
rd
order transfer function are
very close, canceling each other, the remaining complex conjugate pole pairs are
very close to the pole pair of the reduced second order system. Furthermore, the
error between the real third order transfer function poles and second order transfer
function poles are much smaller if the dynamic chamber pressure change ratio, ,
is determined for higher excitation frequencies

90
Table 3-7 Numerical Values of the System Parameters
Hydraulic Cylinder Parameters
Cap side area

mm
2
1963.5
Rod Side area

mm
2
1001.4
Area ratio - 1.9608
Initial Cylinder Position

mm 50
Cylinder Stroke

mm 100
Cap side chamber Volume (Pump System)

mm
3
172030
Rod Side Chamber Volume (Pump System)

mm
3
91842
Volume Ratio (Pump Sys) - 1.8731
Cap side chamber Volume (Valve System)

mm
3
154387
Rod Side Chamber Volume (Valve System)

mm
3
82455
Volume Ratio (Valve Sys) mm
3
1.8724
Load Parameters
Mass Ton 0.0123
Viscous friction coefficient N s/mm 2.6
Pump Parameters
Pump displacement

mm
3
/rev 15600
Internal leakage coefficient

mm
3
/(s.MPa) 1027
External leakage coefficient (cap side) mm
3
/(s.MPa) 120
External leakage coefficient (rod side) mm
3
/(s.MPa) 120
Hydraulic Oil Parameters
Bulk Modulus MPa 1300
Valve Parameter
Valve Gain

mm
3
/(s.V) 21380

A
A
B
A
in
x
max
x
A
V
B
V
o
A
V
B
V
o
M
b
P
D
i
C
_ e a
C
_ e b
C
E
v
K
91
CHAPTER 4

CONTROLLER DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

This section is devoted to the controller and Kalman filter design for the
variable speed pump and valve controlled systems. A state feedback control
scheme is applied to both systems, as their performance is to be compared; the
desired pole locations are chosen to be the same for the both systems. The linear
state equations of the pump controlled system is used for pole placement in pump
controlled system, whereas, the linearized state equations are used for the non-
linear valve controlled system. As not all the states are measured directly and the
measured ones are noisy, for filtering and estimation purposes a Kalman filter is
designed. For the linear pump controlled system linear discrete time Kalman filter
is designed, and for the non-linear valve controlled system a non-linear unscented
Kalman filter is designed.
In this chapter the dynamic equations, which are already obtained in
Chapter 3 for the pump controlled and valve controlled systems are expressed in
state space form, the linear state feedback controller design and Kalman filter
design are explained.
4.1 State Space Representation of Pump Controlled System
In order to design a state feedback controller and a Kalman filter, the
systems should be defined in the form of state space. Thus, in this sub-section the
state space representation of the variable speed pump controlled system will be
obtained by using the dynamic equations defined in Section 3.2.4.
92
In Section 3.2.4, the order of the transfer function defining the speed
response of the variable speed pump controlled system is found as 3. However,
after showing that the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures are linearly dependent
below and above two prescribed cut off frequencies, it is concluded that the speed
response can be represented by a 2
nd
order open loop transfer function. However if
the position response is to be considered, then the order of the open loop transfer
functions increases by one, due to the integration.
In this section, a general 4
th
order and a reduced 3
rd
order state space
representation of the variable speed pump and valve controlled system are given.
The reduced 3
rd
order state space representations of the systems will be used in the
controller design. Because the cylinder chamber pressure changes are assumed to
be dependent, the system can be defined and controlled by 3 states. The general 4
th

order state space representation will be used in Kalman filter design, because both
of the hydraulic actuator chamber pressures are measured and filtered
independently.
4.1.1 4
th
Order State Space Representation of Pump Controlled System
The system equations can be written in the standard state space form as,
= +
= +
x Ax Bu
y Cx Du
(4.1)
where
x : state vector
y: output vector
u: control input
A: system matrix
B: input matrix
C: output matrix
93
D: feedforward matrix
The state variables,
1
x ,
2
x ,
3
x and
4
x are chosen as
( )
( )
1
2
3
4
Hydrauliccylinder position
Hydrauliccylinde velocity
Hydrauliccylinder chamber A capend pressure
Hydrauliccylinder chamber B rodend pressure
A
B
x x
x x
x p
x p
=
=
=
=
(4.2)
Then from the definition of the state variables and Eq.(3.37), Eq. (3.38), Eq.
(3.41), Eq. (3.43), Eq.(3.44) and Eq. (3.47) the state equations are obtained as,
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
2 2 3 4
3 2 3 4 2
4 2 3 4 2
2 2 1
B B
B i ea i p p sum
A A A A A
B i i eb p p sum
B B B A A
x x
A A b
x x x x
m m m
E E E E E
x A x C C x C x D n D p
V V V V V
E E E E E
x A x C x C C x D n D p
V V V V V
|
=
= +
= + + + + + +
= + + +
(4.3)
Note that in the pump control system, there are two control signals
determining the total pump drive speed. One of them is the open loop pressure
control signal
2o
n , which is used to compensate the leakages and pressurize the
cylinder chambers to a desired sum pressure value
sum
p . This control input
determines the static chamber pressures. The other control signal is the closed loop
position control signal
2
n . The position control signal determines the dynamic
characteristics of the system that is the change of position, velocity and chamber
pressures. To find the absolute value of the chamber pressures not only the position
control signal
2
n , but also the static pressure control signal
2o
n is required. Thus
the control inputs are defined as,
2
sum
n
p
(
=
(

u (4.4)
Then the state equations can be rewritten in standard vector matrix from as,
94
( )
( )
( )
1 1
2 2 2
3 3
4 4
0 1 0 0
0 0
0 0 0
1
2 2
0
0
B B
p p
i ea i B
sum A A
A A A
p p
i eb i B
B B
B B B
A A b
x x
m m m
D E D E n x x
C C E C E A E
p x x V V
V V V
x x D E D E
C C E C E A E
V V
V V V
(
(
(
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
(
+ +
( (
( ( +
( = +
( (
( (
(
(
( (
(
( +

(
+
(
(
(

(4.5)
In Kalman filter application, all the states are estimated. There is no feed
through element as the control input does not affect the output directly. Then the
output expression can be written in standard vector matrix form as,
1
2 2
3
4
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
sum
x
n x
p x
x
( ( (
( ( (
(
( ( (
= +
(
( ( (

( ( (

y (4.6)
4.1.2 Reduced 3
th
Order State Space Representation of Pump Controlled
System
The reduced order state space equations will be used to in controller design.
To reduce the order of the system it is assumed that the dynamic changes of
chamber pressures are linearly dependent, as it is explained in Section 3.2.4.
A B
p p = (4.7)
Then the structural equation of the load can be written in terms of dynamic
load pressure
L
p instead of hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures
A
p and
B
p .
L A B
p p p =
(4.8)

Then the states
1
x ,
2
x and
3
x of the system will be,
1
2
3
Hydrauliccylinder velocity
Dynamicload pressurechange
L
x x
x x
x p
=
=
=
(4.9)
and the state equations will be,
95
( ) ( )
1 2
2 2 3
2 2
3 2 3 2
B
B leak P
B B B
x x
A b
x x x
m m
E E E
x A x C x D n
V V V
o o
o o o
=
= +
= + + +
(4.10)
Note that only the position control signal
2
n appears as a control input in
the state equations. Because the offset pressure control signal
2o
n does not affect
the dynamics of the system, but only steady state chamber pressures, it is not
included.
The output of the system is the hydraulic cylinder position which is to be
controlled, and then the corresponding state equations and the output expressions
can be written in standard matrix form as,
( )
( )
1 1
2 2 2
2
3 3 2
0 1 0
0
0 0
0
B
P
B
leak
B
B B
x x
A b
x x n
m m
x x
D E
A E
E
C
V
V V
o
o
o
o o
(
(
(
(
(
( ( (
(
( ( (
( = +
( ( (
(
( ( (
+
(
+
(
(

(

(

(4.11)
| | | |
1
2 2
3
1 0 0 0
x
y x n
x
(
(
= +
(
(

(4.12)
4.2 State Space Representation of Valve Controlled System
In Section 3.3 it is explained that, in valve controlled hydraulic circuit, there
are two main non-linearities, affecting the system dynamics. The first one is the
pressure flow relationship defined by Eq.(3.66). This non-linear flow equation is
linearized around steady state chamber pressures and a prescribed spool position.
Another main non-linearity is the result of the single rod cylinder with unequal
piston areas, this result in unequal flow gains for the retracting and extraction of the
96
hydraulic circuit. As a result, a piecewise linearized system is formed, the
linearized dynamic equations are written both for extension and retraction cases.
4.2.1 4
th
Order State Space Representation of the Valve Controlled System
Likewise the pump control system, the valve controlled system is also
defined fully by the same four states. Here, to be compatible with the pump
controlled circuit, the state space representation of the 4
th
order system will be
given by using the linearized valve dynamic equations. However different from the
pump controlled system the 4
th
order state space representation of the valve system
will not be used in Kalman filter design, as it is a non-linear filter.
The states of the system are,
( )
( )
1
2
3
4
Hydrauliccylinde velocity
Hydrauliccylinder chamber A capend pressure
Hydrauliccylinder chamber B rodend pressure
A
B
x x
x x
x p
x p
=
=
=
=
(4.13)
Then from the definition of the state variables and Eq. (3.100), Eq. (3.102),
Eq. (3.103) and Eq. (3.89), Eq. (3.90) the state equations for the extension case are
obtained as
1 2
2 2 3 4
3 2 2 _ 3 4 _
4 2 2 _ 4 4 _
B B
B p ext u ext
A A A
B p ext u ext
B B B
x x
A A b
x x x x
m m m
E E E
x A x K x K u
V V V
E E E
x A x K x K u
V V V
= +
= +
=
(4.14)
where the control input of the system is the valve spool position, u

| | u u = (4.15)
Then the state equations can be rewritten in standard vector matrix from as,
97
| |
1 1
4 _ 2 2
2 _
3 3
4 4 4 _
2 _
0 1 0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0 0
B B
u ext
B
p ext
A
A A
u ext
B
p ext
B
B B
A A b
x x
m m m
K E x x
A E E u
K
V x x
V V
x x K E
A E E
K
V
V V
(
(
(
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
= + (
(
( (
(
(
( (
(
(
(
(

(

(4.16)
Note that the state equations above are written for the extension case, for the
retraction case the pressure flow gain,
2 _ p ext
K should be replaced with
1 _ p ext
K and
the valve spool position flow gain
4 _ u ext
K should be replaced by
3 _ u ext
K . The
output expression in standard vector matrix form is,
| |
1
2
3
4
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
x
x
y u
x
x
( ( (
( ( (
( ( (
= +
( ( (
( ( (

(4.17)
4.2.2 Reduced 3
th
Order State Space Representation of Valve Controlled
System
The reduced order state space equations will be used to in controller design.
Likewise the pump controlled system, in valve controlled system, the order of the
system can be reduced by assuming a linear relationship between the dynamic
pressure changes of the hydraulic cylinder chambers and using dynamic load
pressure
L
p instead of hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures
A
p and
B
p .
A B
p p = (4.18)
L A B
p p p = (4.19)
then the states
1
x ,
2
x and
3
x of the system will be,
1
2
3
Hydrauliccylinder velocity
Dynamicload pressurechange
L
x x
x x
x p
=
=
=
(4.20)
98
The corresponding state equations can be written if the assumed chamber
pressure relations defined by Eq. (4.18) and Eq. (4.19) are substituted in the general
form of state equations. The arrangement of the equations in more detail is given in
Appendix B.
( ) ( )
1 2
2 2 3
2 2
3 2 2 _ 3 4 _
1
B
B p ext u ext
B B B
x x
A b
x x x
m m
E E E
x A x K x K u
V V V
o
o o
o o o
=
= +
+
= + + +
+
(4.21)
The corresponding state equations and the output expressions for the
extension case of the hydraulic cylinder can be written in standard matrix for as,
( )
( )
1 1
2 2
2
3 3 2
4 _
2 _
0 1 0
0
0 0
0
1
B
u ext
B
p ext
B
B B
x x
A b
x x u
m m
x x
K E
A E
E
K
V
V V
o
o
o
o
o o
(
(
(
(
(
( ( (
(
( ( (
( = +
( ( (
(
( ( (
+
(
+
( +
(

(

( +

(4.22)
| | | |
1
2
3
1 0 0 0
x
y x u
x
(
(
= +
(
(

(4.23)
Note that for the retraction case the pressure flow gain in the above the
reduced order state equations,
2 _ p ext
K should be replaced with
1 _ p ext
K and the
valve spool position flow gain
4 _ u ext
K should be replaced by
3 _ u ext
K .
4.3 Controller Design for the Pump System
In Table 3-5 the dominant open loop pole pairs of the transfer function
defining the speed response of the pump controlled system is given as -120.02
1874.63i indicating a damping ratio of 0.064. Low damping is a drawback of the
hydraulic systems, as it causes the system to oscillate; therefore, critical damping
ratio is also a desired property to avoid overshoot as well as high bandwidth. From
99
the transfer function given in Eq. (3.56) or the block diagram representation of the
system given in Figure 3-15, it is obvious that the damping ratio of the system can
be increased by increasing the equivalent leakage coefficient
leak
C , meaning adding
external leakage elements to the system resulting in additional energy losses.
However the damping ratio of the system can be increased without conceding from
energy efficiency, by control means.
To increase the damping of the hydraulic system, load pressure feedback or
acceleration feedback can be applied. Because the load pressure feedback is
directly proportional to the acceleration, they have the same effect on the closed
loop system. In practical means, the load pressure feedback corresponds to an
increase in the leakage coefficient. In Figure 4-1, if a block diagram reduction is
made then the equivalent leakage coefficient will becomes
( )
2
leak LP P
C K D o + + .
Then, the closed loop poles can be moved to desired locations by simply adjusting
the gain of a proportional controller. However, in position control systems, in
addition to complex conjugate pole pairs, there appears to be a pole at the origin
pulling the root locus to the right half of the complex s-plane. Therefore, the
desired closed loop pole locations are limited and the system will have a poor
stability and even instability with the increasing gain value.
To have a critically damped system, that is dominant closed loop poles
without imaginary parts, a compensator is necessary. For example if a second order
compensator is utilized and the complex zero pair of the compensator are chosen
such that they cancel the lightly damped pole pair of the plant, then the desired
dominant closed loop pole locations can be specified by adjusting the pole pair of
the compensator.
Another way is the pole placement, where not only the dominant closed
loop pole locations, as in the conventional design approached discussed above, but
all the closed loop pole locations are specified. If the system is fully state
controllable and all the states are available then the closed loop pole locations can
be chosen freely only limited by the saturation of the control element. By this way
the dynamic characteristics of the system can be specified easily.
100
In this thesis study, the controller is designed through a pole placement via
linear state feedback for the position control of the variable speed pump controlled
system. The control system is designed using the linear set of reduced order system
equations defined in Section 4.1.2.
The system is defined by three states which are
- cylinder position,
- cylinder velocity,
- load pressure.
The block diagram representation of the closed loop position control of the
variable speed pump controlled system with the defined states is given in Figure
4-1. The parameters
pos
K ,
vel
K ,
PL
K represent the state feedback gains of the
position, velocity, and the load pressure signals.

Figure 4-1 Block Diagram Representation of the Close Loop Pump Controlled
System

After applying state feedback, the closed loop transfer function of the
position control system becomes,
2
n
x
L
p
leak
C
B
E
V s o
( )
2
P
D o +
B
A
L
f 1
ms b +
1
s
( )
2
B
A o +
p
q
-
-
+
PL
K
vel
K
-
+
pos
K
- -
+
ref
x
x
101
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
2
3 2
1 2 3 4
1
2
2
2 2
3
2
4
P B pos
ref
B
B
leak LP P
leak LP P B vel P B
P B pos
D A K
X s
X s a s a s a s a
V
a m
E
V
a m C K D b
E
a b C K D A K D A
a D A K
o
o
o
o
o o
o
+
=
+ + +
=
= + + +
= + + + + +
= +
(4.24)
While designing the controller, it is assumed that all the state variables are
available for feedback. The position and chamber pressures are measured and
filtered through the Kalman filter, and the cylinder velocity is estimated by the
Kalman filter.
The state equations and output expression derived in Section 4.1.2 is
repeated below.
( )
( )
1 1
2 2 2
2
3 3 2
0 1 0
0
0 0
0
B
P
B
leak
B
B B
x x
A b
x x n
m m
x x
D E
A E
E
C
V
V V
o
o
o
o o
(
(
(
(
(
( ( (
(
( ( (
( = +
( ( (
(
( ( (
+
(
+
(
(

(

(

(4.25)
| | | |
1
2 2
3
1 0 0 0
x
y x n
x
(
(
= +
(
(

(4.26)
In order to apply a state feedback, the control signal is chosen to be
u = Kx (4.27)
where
| |
1 2 3
k k k = K (4.28)
K is the state feedback gain vector.
102
All the closed loop poles of the system can be placed at any arbitrary
locations in the complex s-plane if the system is fully state controllable, requiring
that the rank of the controllability matrix M, is equal to number of states, that is 3.
The controllability matrix is defined by
2
( =

M B AB A B (4.29)
Since M is a 3x3 square matrix, the controllability condition reduces to
( )
3
2 2
det( ) 0
P
B
B
D E
A
V m
o
o
| |
+
| |
| = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
M (4.30)
which is automatically satisfied, indicating that the system is fully state
controllable.
The numerical values of A, B, M and ( ) det M are given below by using
the numerical values of the hydraulic system parameters defined in Table 3-7.
0 1 0
0 211.38 81413.22
0 43.27 28.66
(
(
=
(
(

A (4.31)
0
0
674.04
(
(
=
(
(

B (4.32)
7
7 10
2 4 9
0 0 5.48 10
0 5.48 10 1.32 10
6.74 10 1.93 10 2.37 10
(
(
=
(
(

M (4.33)
18
det( ) 2.03 10 = M (4.34)
The characteristic equation of the system is obtained as
3 2 6
240.04 3.53 10 0 s s s s = + + + I A (4.35)
with the following coefficients of the characteristic equation
6
1 2 3
240.04 3.53 10 0 a a a = = = (4.36)
103
It is seen that since there is a free s term in characteristic equation, the open
loop system for position output behaves as an integrator. For the speed output
system, the order reduces to two and the system is stable, as all the coefficients are
of the same sign (positive).
In this thesis study, the performance of the system is determined through a
sine sweep test, from their frequency responses. Therefore an m-file script is
written which is calculating the state feedback gains for desired bandwidths, and
then the system is tested for these gains and compared with the mathematical model
results. The calculation of the controller gains for 5.Hz bandwidth is illustrated
below.
For the closed loop position control system, in order to have a 5.Hz
bandwidth, the desired closes loop poles are chosen as
( )
1 2 3
5 2 600 700 t = = = (4.37)
The locations of the last two of the desired poles are chosen far away from
the origin compared to the location of the first pole, which is the dominant one. The
last two poles will decay very quickly, so that the fist pole, closer to the origin, will
dominate in system response and determine the bandwidth of the system.
As a result the desired characteristic equation becomes,
( )( )( )
3 3 2 5 7
1 2 3
1.33 10 4.61 10 1.32 10 s s s s s s = + + + (4.38)
yielding the following coefficients of the desired characteristic equation,
3 5 7
1 2 3
1.33 10 =4.61 10 1.32 10 b b b = = (4.39)
Then the state feedback matrix can be obtained by the flowing equation [29].
| |
1
3 3 2 2 1 1
b a b a b a

= K T (4.40)
where the transformation matrix T is given by
= T MW (4.41)
where M is the controllability matrix derived previously, and W is given by
104
6
2 1
1
1 3.53 10 240.04 1
1 0 240.04 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
a a
a
( (
(
(
= =
(
(
(
(

W (4.42)
thus T is calculated to be
7
7
7 5 2
5.49 10 0 0
0 5.49 10 0
9.54 10 1.42 10 6.74 10
(
(
=
(
(

T (4.43)
Finally the desired feedback gain vector K, obtained by use of the Eq.(4.40), is
calculated to be,
| | 0.2404 0.0601 1.6191 = K (4.44)
The feedback gain vector K is used to control the linear variable speed
pump controlled hydraulic system. The MATLAB Simulink model of the closed
loop position control system is shown in Figure 4-2.

Figure 4-2 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Closed Loop Pump Controlled
Position Control System

K3
K1
Ab 1/M
b
Cl eak
Modul us/(alfa*Vb) (gama^2+al fa)*Dp
K2
(gama^2+al fa)*Ab
Vel
Si gnal
Generator
Pl oad
POSITION4
MotorSpeed
(rps)
1
s
1
s
1
s
yin
mm
105
4.4 Controller Design for the Valve System
The same procedure applied in the pumped controlled system will be
repeated here for the valve controlled system. Because of the inherent property that
different extending and retracting dynamic characteristics of the single rod
cylinder, unlike from the pump controlled system, here two set of controller gains
are calculated one set for extension and another for retraction.
Similar to the variable speed pump controlled system, the valve control
system is designed using the linearized set of reduced order system equations
defined in Section 4.2.2 through pole placement via linear state feedback. The
system is defined by three states which are
- cylinder position,
- cylinder velocity,
- load pressure.
The block diagram representation of the closed loop position control of the
valve controlled system with the defined states is given in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3 Block Diagram Representation of the Closed Loop Valve
Controlled System
2
n x
L
p
B
E
V s o
( )
2
4_ u ext
K o +
B
A
L
f
1
ms b +
p
q
-
-
+
PL
K
2_
1
p ext
K
o

+
+
-
+
pos
K
-
-
+
ref
x
x
( )
2
B
A o +
vel
K
1
s
106
In Figure 4-3, the parameters , , represent the state feedback
gains of the position, velocity and the load pressure signals.
Note that this block diagram representation is for the extension of the
hydraulic actuator, for the retraction it will be the same if the replacement of valve
gains defined in Eq. (3.112) are made.
After adding state feedback the closed loop transfer function of the position
control system becomes
( )
( )
( )
2
4 _
3 2
1 2 3 4
u ext B pos
ref
K A K
X s
X s a s a s a s a
o +
=
+ + +
(4.45)
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
1
2
2 2 _ 4 _
2 2
3 2 _ 4 _ 4 _
2
4 4 _
1
1
B
B
p ext LP u ext
p ext LP u ext B vel u ext B
u ext B pos
V
a m
E
V
a m K K K b
E
a b K K K A K K A
a K A K
o
o o
o
o
o o
o
=
| | +
= + + +
|
+
\ .
| | +
= + + + + +
|
+
\ .
= +

In the controller designs, it is assumed that all the state variables are
available for feedback. The position and chamber pressures are measured and
filtered through the unscented Kalman filter while the cylinder velocity is estimated
through the unscented Kalman filter.
The state equations and output expression derived in Section 4.2 is repeated
below for extension
( )
( )
1_ 1
2 _ 2 2
2
3 _ 3 2
4 _
2 _
0 1 0
0
0 0
0
1
ext
B
ext
ext
u ext
B
p ext
B
B B
x x
A b
x x n
m m
x x
K E
A E
E
K
V
V V
o
o
o
o
o o
(
(
(
(
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
( = +
(
( (
(
(
( (
+ (
+
(
+
(

(

(
+

(4.46)
for retraction
pos
K
vel
K
PL
K
107
( )
( )
1_ 1
2 _ 2 2
2
3 _ 3 2
3 _
1_
0 1 0
0
0 0
0
1
ret
B
ret
ret
u ext
B
p ext
B
B B
x x
A b
x x n
m m
x x
K E
A E
E
K
V
V V
o
o
o
o
o o
(
(
(
(
(
(
( (
(
(
( (
( = +
(
( (
(
(
( (
+ (
+
(
+
(

(

(
+

(4.47)
| | | |
1
2 2
3
1 0 0 0
x
y x n
x
(
(
= +
(
(

(4.48)
In the state feedback control algorithm of the valve controlled system, two
different control signals are generated, one for extension and another for retraction.
ext ext ext
ret ret ret
u
u
=
=
K x
K x
(4.49)
where
1_ 2 _ 3 _
1_ 2 _ 3_
ext ext ext ext
ret ret ret ret
k k k
k k k
( =

( =

K
K
(4.50)
where
ext
K is the state feedback gain vector for the extension of the hydraulic
cylinder and
ret
K is the state feedback gain vector for the retraction of the hydraulic
cylinder.
All the closed loop poles of the system can be replaced at any arbitrary
locations in the complex plane if the system is fully state controllable, requiring
that the rank of the controllability matrix M, is equal to number of states, that is 3.
The controllability matrix is defined by
2
( =

M B AB A B (4.51)
Since M is a 3x3 square matrix, the controllability condition reduces to
108
( )
( )
3
2 2
3 _
det 0
u ext
B
B
K E
A
V m
o
o
| |
+
| |
| = =
|
|
\ .
\ .
M (4.52)
which is automatically satisfied, indicating that the system is fully state
controllable.
The valve system is linearized at a spool position corresponding to
0.1
o
u V = and for a supply pressure of 8.3
s
P MPa = . The numerical values of A,
B, M and ( ) det M are given below by using the numerical values of the hydraulic
system parameters defined in Table 3-7.
0 1 0
0 211.38 81413.22
0 48.21 5.68
0 1 0
0 211.38 81413.22
0 48.21 7.96
ext
ret
(
(
=
(
(

(
(
=
(
(

A
A
(4.53)
0 0
0 0
1295.98 925.52
ext ret
( (
( (
= =
( (
( (

B B (4.54)
8
8 10
3 9
7
7 10
3 9
0 0 1.05 10
0 1.05 10 2.29 10
1296 7.37 10 5.09 10
0 0 7.53 10
0 7.53 10 1.65 10
925 7.37 10 3.63 10
ext
ret
(
(
=
(
(

(
(
=
(
(

M
M
(4.55)
19
18
det( ) 1.44 10
det( ) 5.25 10
ext
ret
=
=
M
M
(4.56)
The characteristic equation of the system is obtained as for extension
109
3 2 6
217.07 3.93 10 0
ext
s s s s = + + + I A (4.57)
and for retraction
3 2 6
219.34 3.93 10 0
ret
s s s s = + + + I A (4.58)
with the following coefficients of the characteristic equationfor extension
6
1_ 2_ 3_
217.07 3.93 10 0
ext ext ext
a a a = = = (4.59)
and for retraction
6
1_ 2_ 3_
219.34 3.93 10 0
ret ret ret
a a a = = = (4.60)
It is seen that, for the speed output, the system is stable, as all the
coefficients are of the same sign (positive).
In order to be compatible with the pump controlled system, the state
feedback gains will be calculated for the same desired closed loop pole locations.
( )
1 2 3
5 2 600 700 t = = = (4.61)
The desired characteristic equation is the same with the variable speed
pump controlled system,
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 2 5 7
1 2 3
1.33 10 4.61 10 1.32 10 s s s s s s = + + + (4.62)
yielding the following coefficients of the desired characteristic equation,
3 5 7
1 2 3
1.33 10 =4.61 10 1.32 10 b b b = = (4.63)
Then the state feedback matrix sets both for extension and retraction can be
obtained by the flowing equation [29].
1
3 3_ 2 2 _ 1 1_
1
3 3_ 2 2 _ 1 1_
ext ext ext ext ext
ret ret ret ret ret
b a b a b a
b a b a b a
( =

( =

K T
K T
(4.64)
where the transformation matrix T is given by
110
ext ext ext
ret ret ret
=
=
T M W
T M W
(4.65)
where M is the controllability matrix derived previously, and W is given by
6
2 1
1
6
2 1
1
1 3.93 10 217.07 1
1 0 217.07 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 3.93 10 219.34 1
1 0 219.34 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
ext
ret
a a
a
a a
a
( (
(
(
= =
(
(
(
(

( (
(
(
= =
(
(
(
(

W
W
(4.66)
thus T is calculated to be
8
6 8
6 5 3
7
6 7
5 2
1.05 10 0 0
3.81 10 1.05 10 0
1.91 10 2.74 10 1.29 10
7.53 10 0 0
3.31 10 7.53 10 0
0 1.96 10 9.25 10
ext
ret
(
(
=
(
(

(
(
=
(
(

T
T
(4.67)
Finally the desired feedback gain vector sets
ext
K and
ret
K are obtained by use of
the Eq.(4.40), is calculated to be,
| |
| |
0.1251 0.0351 0.8598
0.1751 0.0491 1.2015
ext
ret
=
=
K
K
(4.68)
The feedback gain vector sets
ext
K and
ret
K are used to control the
linearized vale controlled hydraulic system. According to the spool position at the
previous time step
1 k
u

, the control signal at time step k,
k
u is chosen as follows,
1
1
0
0
k k ext ext
k k ret ret
u u K x
u u K x
> =
< =
(4.69)
111
The MATLAB Simulink model of the closed loop position control system is
shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4 MATLAB Simulink Model of the Closed Loop Valve Controlled
Position Control System

4.5 Kalman Filter Theory and Design
In this thesis study, Kalman filter is used both for filtering and estimation
purposes. The measured states cannot be used directly as feedback signals to the
controller, because the noise on the measurements disturbs the control signal
resulting in chattering of the actuator (servomotor for the pump controlled case and
solenoid valve for the valve controlled case). Therefore, the noise on the measured
signals should be attenuated and the signal should be smoothed before feedingback
to the controller. Both in the variable speed pump controlled and valve controlled
systems, three states are measured, which are hydraulic actuator position ( x) and
hydraulic actuator chamber pressures (
A
p ,
B
p ). The noisy measured states are
smoothed via Kalman filter and send to the controller. However, the controller
needs another state, which is the hydraulic actuator velocity ( x ); this state is
estimated via Kalman filter.
1
Mass_Pos
gama
Swi tch2
Spl_pos
Mass_Pos
xdot
Pa
Pb
Mathemati cal Model
sp
Kr(1)
Kr(3)
Kr(2)
Ke(1)
Ke(3)
Ke(2)
sp
1
Ref_pos
112
In this section, a conventional discrete Kalman filter is designed and
explained for the variable speed pump controlled system. However for the valve
controlled system, an unscented Kalman filter is designed and explained.
4.5.1 Discrete Kalman Filter
A Kalman filter is a set of mathematical equations that provides an efficient
way to estimate the state of the process; it minimizes the mean of the squared error
between the measured and estimated state. The filter is powerful in estimation of
past, present and even future states [30].
In order to use a Kalman filter to remove noise from a signal, the process
that is measured must be describable by a linear system [31]. A general linear
discrete time system is simply a process that can be described by the following two
difference equations; namely,
state equation,
.q
k
= 4 q
k-1
+ Cq
k-1
+w
k-1
(4.70)
and measurement equation
k k k
= + z Hq v (4.71)
where is the (nxn) state transition matrix, G is the (nxr) input matrix, H is the
(mxn) measurement matrix,
k
q is the (nx1) state vector,
k
z is the system output,
1 k
u is the (rx1) control input,
k
w is the (nx1) process noise and
k
v is the (mx1)
measurement noise.
Both process and measurement noise (
k
w ,
k
v ) are assumed to have zero
mean and Gaussian distribution. The covariances of these noise vectors are
represented by R and Q covariance matrices in Kalman filter equations.
The (nxn) covariance matrix Q of the process noise
k
w is defined by
T
E ( =

Q ww (4.72)
113
The (mxm) covariance matrix R of the measurement noise
k
v is defined by
T
E ( =

R v v (4.73)
The R and Q matrices depend on the noise level of the measurements
together with the accuracy of the sensors, and the modeling uncertainties.
The Kalman filter uses a predictor corrector algorithm to perform the
estimation of states. Using the system model, a priori state estimate vector at time
state k is predicted by using the previous state estimate at time state k-1. Then this
predicted priori estimate is corrected by the actual measurements. To be more
understandable a block diagram representation of the filter is drawn in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5 Kalman Filter Block Diagram

Here
k
z is the actual measurement,
k
q is the priori estimate, which is an

estimate at step k given the knowledge of the process at step k-1 and
k
q is the
posteriori state estimate which is the corrected value of the measurement prediction
H q with the actual measurements.

For the predictor-corrector algorithm of the Kalman filter defined in Figure
4-5, two estimate errors can be defined. One is the error between the actual state
values and priori estimates, and the other is the error between the actual state values
and posteriori state estimates as expressed below.
k k k

= e q q (4.74)

k
q
k
K
Time Delay
H
k
z
+
- -
+
k
q
q
Priori
estimate
(Predictor)

Posteriori
estimate
(Corrector)
k
q
114
k k k
= e q q (4.75)

The nxn covariance matrices of the priori and posteriori estimate errors are
defined as
T
k k k
E

( =

P e e (4.76)
T
k k k
E ( =

P e e (4.77)
Returning to the Figure 4-5 again, the mathematical formulation of the
block diagram can be written as,
( )

k k k k k

= + q q K z Hq (4.78)
The main goal of the filter here is to find the nxm Kalman gain matrix
k
K
which will minimize posteriori estimate error covariance, which is defined as
Eq..(4.77). This minimization can be accomplished by first substituting Eq..(4.78)
into the above definition for
k
e , substituting that into Eq..(4.77), performing the
indicated expectations, taking the derivative of the trace of the result with respect to
k
K , setting that equal to zero and then solving for
k
K . The details of these
calculations can be found in literature [30].
The resulting Kalman gain matrix K that minimizes the posteriori state
estimate error covariance Eq. (4.77) is found as,
T
k
k
T
k
=
+
P H
K
HP H R
(4.79)
From the Eq. (4.79) it is seen that as the measurement error covariance goes
to zero, the Kalman gain weights the residual
( )
k k
z Hq defined in Eq.(4.78).
1
0
lim
k

=
R
K H (4.80)
As the priori estimate error covariance
k
P goes to zero, the Kalman gain

weights the residual
( )
k k
z Hq less heavily.
115
0
lim 0
k
k
P

= K (4.81)
In other words, if the measurement error covariance R goes to zero, that is
using high accuracy sensors in a noise-free environment, the Kalman filter trusts
more on the actual measurements
k
z , while the predicted measurement
k
H q are
trusted less. If the priori estimate error covariance
k
P goes to zero the Kalman

filter trusts less on the actual measurements
k
z , and trusts more on the system
model, which is the predicted measurement
k
H q .
Kalman Filter Algorithm
The equations of the Kalman filter fall into two groups, time update
equations and measurement update equations. Time update equations can also be
considered as predictor equations, while measurement equations can be considered
as corrector equations.
Time update equations are responsible for projecting the current state and
error covariance estimates at time step k-1 to obtain the priori estimates for the time
step k.
.q
k
-
= 4 q
k-1
+ Cu
k-1
(4.82)
.P
k
-
= 4 P
k-1
4
1
+ Q (4.83)
In Eq. (4.82) a priori (predicted) state estimate vector,
k
q , at time step k is
defined from the posteriori (corrected) state estimate,
1
k
q , at the previous time step
k-1, by using the given system model and the control input
1 k
u . Likewise, in the
Eq. (4.83) a priori estimate error covariance
k
P at time step k is defined from the

posteriori estimate error covariance
1 k
P at the previous time step k-1.
The measurement update equations are responsible for incorporating new
measurements into the priori estimate to obtain an improved posteriori estimate
( )
1
T T
k k k

= + K P H HP H R (4.84)
( )

k k k k

= + q q K z Hq (4.85)
116
( )
k k k
= P I K H P (4.86)
In Eq. (4.84) the (nxm) Kalman gain
k
K at time step k is calculated. As
explained above this equation is the result of the minimization operation of the
posteriori estimate error covariance. In other words, if the Kalman gain
k
K is
written in the way defined in Eq. (4.84), the error covariance between the actual
measured states and the output estimated states will be minimized.
In Eq. (4.85) a posteriori state estimate
k
q is obtained as a linear
combination of the priori estimate
k
q and a weighted difference between the actual

measurements
k
z and a measurement prediction
k
Hq . Lastly in Equation (4.86) a

posteriori estimate error covariance is obtained.
After each time and measurement update pair, the process is repeated with
the previous a posteriori estimates used to project or predict the new a priori
estimates. This recursive predictor corrector structure of the Kalman filter defined
by the Equations (4.82), (4.83), (4.84), (4.85), (4.86).is represented in the Figure
4-6.

Figure 4-6 Kalman Filter Algorithm
Predictor
Time Update Equations
Priori Estimate
.q
k
-
= 4 q
k-1
+ Cu
k-1

Priori Estimate Error Covarince
.P
k
-
= 4 P
k-1
4
1
+ Q
Corrector
Measurement Update Equations
Kalman Gain
( )
1
T T
k k k

= + K P H HP H R
Posteriori estimate
( )

k k k k k

= + q q K z Hq
Posteriori Estimate Error Covariance

( )
k k k
= P I K H P
Initial Values
1
k
q ,
1 k
P
117
4.5.2 Application in Pump Controlled System
Since the Kalman filter is a discrete time process and to be compatible with
the real time digital computing, the state space equations defining the pump
controlled systems are discretized.
Instead of writing analytical expressions for the discrete time state space
equations MATLAB software is used to convert the continuous time states space
equations which, are defined by Eq. (4.5), to discrete time state space equations.
The MATLAB function used for this conversion is "c2dm".
The state space equations are discretized by using forward difference
method for the sampling frequency of 1000.Hz. The resulting, system matrix, input
matrix and output matrix are given below.

1 0.0005 0.0548 0.0279
0 0.3069 72.1932 36.6187
0 0.0067 0.1762 0.4178
0 0.0067 0.7826 0.5927
d
(
(

(
=
(
(

A (4.87)
0.0072 0.0001
18.8356 0.1223
0.1213 0.0015
0.1153 0.0054
d
(
(
(
=
(
(

B (4.88)
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
d
(
(
(
=
(
(

C (4.89)
MATLAB Simulink model of the Kalman filter is shown in Figure 4-7. The
model is formed by using the Eq. (4.82) to (4.86).

118

Figure 4-7 MATLAB Simulink Kalman Filter Model for the Variable Speed
Pump Controlled System

4.5.3 Unscented Kalman Filter
Application of Kalman filters to non-linear systems is difficult, for this
reason an extension of linear Kalman filter which is called extended Kalman filter
(EKF) is developed to apply the Kalman filter algorithm in non-linear systems.
EKF linearize all the non-linear system equations around the last states so that the
traditional linear Kalman filter algorithm can be applied to non-linear systems.
However, although it has common use, in literature a number of drawbacks of EKF
algorithm is given, such as possibility of unstable filter, dependence on time
interval, and especially unreliable estimates for highly non-linear systems.
In this thesis study a new approach, called unscented Kalman filter (UKF),
is employed for the filtering and estimation purposes of the states of the valve
controlled hydraulic system.
The unscented Kalman filter has the same structure with the linear discrete
Kalman filter. Linear Kalman filter utilize linear transformation to predict the mean
and covariance of the estimated states, Eq.(4.82) and Eq. (4.83), as the state
transition matrix and the measurement matrix are linear, however UKF uses a
transformation called unscented transform to calculate the mean and covariance of
the states undergoing a non-linear transform. The details of this transformation can
4
Pb
3
Pa
2
vel
1
Pos
A
SystemMatri ce
H
Z
qk(-)
e
Resi dual
A
U
qk
qk(-)
Pri ori _State_Est
P
A
Q
P(-)
Pri ori _Error_Cov
Q
PrNsCovMtr
K
e
qk(-)
qk
Posteri ori _State_Est
P(-)
H
K
P
Posteri ori _Error_Cov
C
OutputMatri ce
R
MeasNsCov.Mtx
H
MeasMtr
Matri x
Mul ti pl y
P(-)
R
H
K
Kal man_Gai n
2
Measurement
1
Control Input
119
be found in the papers of Julier and Uhlmann [32]. Here the procedure will be
summarized.
The problem of the unscented transformation is to predict the mean y and
the covariance
yy
P of a m-dimensional vector random variable y from the n-
dimensional random variable x with mean x and covariance
xx
P , where the y is
related to x by the non-linear transformation,
| | f = y x (4.90)
The unscented transformation procedure can be summarized as below,
- Compute a 2n dimensional vector of sigma points, x . The mean of
the set of the sigma points are zero and all the sigma points have the
same covariance
xx
P with the random variable x .
( )
1
i xx
i
n i n = + = x x P (4.91)
( )
1
i n xx
i
n i n
+
= = x x P (4.92)
where
( ) xx
i
nP is the i
th
row or column of the matrix square root of
- Transform each point.
| |
i i
f = y x (4.93)
- Compute the meanyand covariance
yy
P by computing the average
of the transformed sigma points,
2
1
1
2
n
i
i
n
=
=

y y (4.94)
( )( )
2
1
1
2
n
T
yy i i
i
n
=
=
P y y y y (4.95)

120
Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm
A non-linear discrete time process is simply described by the following two
difference equations; namely,
discrete time non-linear state transition equation,
| |
1 1 1
, ,
k k k k
= q f q u w (4.96)
and measurement equation
| | ,
k k k
= z h q v (4.97)
where | | f is the non-linear process mode, | | h is the non-linear measurement
model,
k
q is the (nx1) state vector,
k
z is the system output,
1 k
u is the (rx1) control
input,
k
w is the (nx1) process noise and
k
v is the (mx1) measurement noise. Both
process noise and measurement noise (
k
w ,
k
v ) are assumed to have zero mean
Gaussian distribution and uncorrelated. The covariances of the noise vectors are
represented by R and Q covariance matrices in unscented Kalman filter equations.
The structure of the UKF algorithm is the same as Kalman filter. Likewise
the Kalman filter, the equations of the UKF fall into two main groups, time update
equations and measurement update equations.
Time update equations are responsible for transforming the current state and
the error covariance estimates at time step k-1 to obtain the priori estimates for the
time step k. Different from the Kalman filter where linear transformation is applied,
unscented transformation is applied in UKF to find the priori estimates and their
covariance.
The algorithm for time updating states are supplied below.
Compute the sigma points
1
i
k
q at time k-1, by using the posteriori
(corrected) state estimate
1
k
q at time step k-1 and the posteriori (corrected)
estimate error covariance
1 k
P .
( ) 1 1 1
1
i
k k k
i
n i n

= + = q q P (4.98)
121
( ) 1 1
1
i n
k k xx
i
n i n
+

= = q q P (4.99)
Transform the sigma points
1
i
k
q at time step k-1, to time step k, by using
the given non-linear system model and the control input
1 k
u

.
1 1
, ,
i i
k k k k
u t

( =

q f q (4.100)
Compute the priori state estimate
k
q at time step k, by averaging the 2n

dimensional transformed sigma points
i
k
q .
2
1
1

2
n
i
k k
i
n
=
=

q q (4.101)
Compute the priori estimate error covariance
k
P at time step k-1.

( )( )
2
1
1
1

2
n
T
i i
k k k k k k
i
n

=
= +
P q q q q Q (4.102)
Similarly the observation vector and the observation error covariance is
calculated as,
,
i i
k k k
t ( =

z h z (4.103)
2
1
1

2
n
i
k k
i
n
=
=

z z (4.104)
( )( )
2
1
1

2
n
T
i i
z k k k k k
i
n
=
= +
P z z z z R (4.105)
and the cross covariance matrix between the priori state estimates and observation
is calculates as,
( )( )
2
1
1

2
n
T
i i
qz k k k k
i
n

=
=
P q q z z (4.106)
Likewise in the Kalman filter, the measurement update equations are
responsible for incorporating new measurements into the priori estimate to obtain
an improved posteriori estimate.
The algorithm for time updating measurements are supplied below.
122
First calculate the Kalman filter gain
k
K at time step k
1
k qz z
= K P P (4.107)
Calculate the posteriori (corrected) state estimate
k
q as a linear
combination of the priori state estimate
k
q and a weighted difference between the

actual measurement
k
z and measurement prediction which is the predicted
observation vector
k
z .
( )

k k k k k
= + q q K z z (4.108)
Lastly calculate the posteriori (corrected) estimate error covariance at time
step k
T
k k k z k
= P P K P K (4.109)
Likewise in the linear Kalman filter, after each time and measurement
update pair, the process is repeated with the previous posteriori estimates used to
predict the new priori estimates. This recursive predictor corrector structure of the
Kalman filter defined through Eq.(4.98) to Eq.(4.109) is represented in the Figure
4-8.
123

Figure 4-8 Unscented Kalman Filter Algorithm

4.5.4 Application in Valve Controlled System
For the real time control of the valve controlled hydraulic cylinder a
MATLAB embedded function is written, implementing Eq.(4.98) to Eq.(4.109) in
discrete time. The MATLAB m-file script is given in Appendix C. The sampling
time of all the real time application is selected to be 1000 Hz that is measurements
(observations) are taken every 1.ms.
Predictor
Time Update Equations
CalculaSigma Points
( ) 1 1 1
1
i
k k k
i
n i n

= + = q q P
( ) 1 1
1
i n
k k xx
i
n i n
+

= = q q P
Transform the sigma points
1 1
, ,
i i
k k k k
f u t

( =

q q
Compute the priori estimate
2
1
1

2
n
i
k k
i
n
=
=

q q
Priori estimate error covariance
( )( )
2
1
1
1

2
n
T
i i
k k k k k k
i
n

=
= +
P q q q q Q
Compute the observation vector
,
i i
k k k
h t ( =

z z
2
1
1

2
n
i
k k
i
n
=
=

z z
Compute cross covariance matrix
( )( )
2
1
1

2
n
T
i i
qz k k k k
i
n

=
=
P q q z z
Corrector
Measurement Update Equations
Kalman filter gain
1
k qz z
= K P P
Posteriori state estimate
( )

k k k k k
= + q q K z z
Posteriori estimate error covariance
T
k k k z k
= P P K P K
Initial Values
1
k
q ,
1 k
P
124
Likewise in the pump controlled system, to be compatible with real time
digital computing the non-linear state equations represented by | | f in Eq. (4.96)
are discretized by forward difference method, and the measurement model
represented by | | h in Eq.(4.97) is not discretized, as it is linear and equal to the
measurement matrix H appearing in the pump controlled system.
However, during the offline tests, it is seen that, for time steps smaller than
1.ms, while transforming the sigma points from time step k-1 to time step k, the
process defined by Eq. (4.100), the non-linear discrete state equations diverge
resulting in a failure of the UKF. Therefore to be on the safe side, a 4
th
order Runge
Kutta scheme with 4 steps between each sample time is employed for the numerical
integration process defined by Eq. (4.100). The 4
th
order Runge Kutta algorithm
can be seen in the UKF m-file script given in Appendix C with the name "ffunc".
The remaining UKF equations are written directly in the m-file script.
4.5.5 Filter Tuning
In this sub-section, the selection of the measurement noise and process
noise covariance matrices (R & Q) that are introduced in Section 4.5.1 is
explained.
The measurement noise matrix, R, represents the accuracy of the
measurement. It is the covariance of the measurement noise
k
v that appears in Eq.
(4.71). As it is measurable and depends on the quality of the measurement device it
is possible to determine the R matrix from a sample off-line measurement.
The diagonal terms of the R matrix are found directly by taking the
covariance of the measured data from the sensors of systems. The diagonal
elements of the R matrix are written below.
11
22
33
cov( )
cov( )
cov( )
A
B
x Measurement
P Measurement
P Measurement
=
=
=
R
R
R
(4.110)
125
It should be noted that R is a 3x3 matrix, as there are 3 measured states,
which are hydraulic cylinder position and hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures
, .
The off-diagonal elements of the measurement noise matrix represent the
covariances between the measurements. These elements can be set to any value
between 0 and
ii jj
R R [33]. Since no appreciable amount of covariance between
the measurements is expected due to independent measurements, the off-diagonal
elements are set to zero.
0
ij
= R (4.111)
Note that, using a diagonal matrix as the measurement noise covariance so
that using independent scalar measurements rather than a vector measurement is
more advantages in terms of reduced computation time and improved numerical
accuracy [34].
The process noise matrix, Q, represents the accuracy of the mathematical
model of the system. It is the covariance matrix of errors in the state variables
represented by
k
w in Eq.(4.70) that have been caused by not being truly
representative of the system. Unlike the measurement noise matrix R, the
determination of Q matrix is not easy as it is not a measurable quantity.
However it should be noted that the Kalman filter performance does not
depend on the absolute values of Q and R matrices but on their relative relationship
[35]. This relation was investigated in Eq. (4.79). Therefore first fixing the
measurement noise covariance matrix R, which can be determined from
measurements and then tuning the process noise matrix Q through an offline
procedure is a reasonable way.
Likewise the measurement noise covariance matrix R, the off-diagonal
elements of the nxn Q matrix can be taken any value between 0 and
ii jj
Q Q .
These elements represent the covariance between the uncertainty of the states of the
system and taking them as zero reduces the computation time and numerical
accuracy. Therefore the off-diagonal elements are taken as zero.
x
A
p
B
p
126
0
ij
= Q (4.112)
The diagonal elements of the Q matrix are written below.
11
22
33
44
cov( uncertaintyof model )
A
B
x
x
P
P
=
=
=
=
Q
Q
Q
Q
(4.113)
It should be noted that the Q is a 4x4 dimensional matrix, as the system is
defined by 4 states, hydraulic cylinder position , hydraulic cylinder velocity
and hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures , .
4.5.5.1 Pump Controlled System
To find the diagonal elements of the measurement noise matrix R the
position and pressure data is acquired from the sensors while sending zero
reference signals to the servomotors. By this way the only data collected by the
sensors are the environment noise.
The Figure 4-9 shows the noise of the position transducer. The covariance
of position data is calculated by MATLAB built in "cov" function and written as
the first diagonal element of the measurement covariance matrix.
The Figure 4-10 and Figure 4-11 show the noise on the pressure transducers
at the hydraulic cylinder chambers A and B. Likewise in the position transducer,
the covariance of these data are calculated and written as the second and third
diagonal elements of the measurement noise matrix R.

x x
A
p
B
p
127

Figure 4-9 Position Transducer Measurement for Zero Reference Input

Figure 4-10 Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber B Pressure Transducer
Measurement for Zero Speed
0 5 10 15 20 25
21.5
22
22.5
23
23.5
24
24.5
25
25.5
26
Hydraulic Cylinder Position
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber B Pressure, P
B
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
M
P
a
]
Time [s]
128

Figure 4-11 Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber A Pressure Transducer
Measurement for Zero Reference Signal

Then the measurement noise covariance matrix is found as,
2
3
3
2.3635 10 0 0
0 5.7700 10 0
0 0 6.5500 10
(
(
=
(
(

R (4.114)

As it was explained in the above section, the Kalman filter performance
does not depends on the absolute values of the R and Q matrix but their relative
relationship.
Therefore the process noise covariance matrix Q is found through an offline
iterative procedure. For tuning purposes a R/Q ratio is defined for each diagonal
element of the process noise covariance matrix. If the R/Q ratio increases the
Kalman filter trusts on the measurement more heavily, while if the R/Q ratio
decreases the Kalman filter trusts on the model more heavily.
0 5 10 15 20 25
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber A Pressure, P
A
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
M
P
a
]
Time [s]
129
For the position estimation R/Q ratio is decreased till the noise on the
position measurement is attenuated. A lower
r
R/Q ratio means a smoother position
signal. But, as the Kalman filter trusts more on the model than the measurement, at
higher frequencies the filtered signal differs from the actual measured signal. For
the velocity and pressure estimation R/Q ratio is decreased more to thrust on the
model, rather than the measurement.
The resulting process noise covariance matrix found throughout the offline
trial and error iterative process is given below,

5
9
7
7
2.36 10 0 0 0
0 2.36 10 0 0
0 0 5.77 10 0
0 0 0 6.55 10
(
(
(
=
(

Q (4.115)

According to the selected process noise matrix Q, and the measurement
noise matrix R, the Kalman filter performance tested on the variable speed
hydraulic test set up with proportional controller. The proportional gain is 1 while
the reference input signal is a 1.Hz sinusoidal signal with 5 mm amplitude.
Figure 4-12 shows the performance of the designed Kalman filter for
position estimate. The covariance of the error between the measured and filtered
position signal is 0.229 with standard deviation 0.15 mm.
Figure 4-13 shows the pressure filtering performance of the Kalman filter.
The noisy blue data is the actual measurement data, the red one is the filtered
pressure data, and the magenta data is the linear MATLAB Simulink model
response. Note that the actual pressure measurements seem different from the
model response. This is due to the static friction of the hydraulic cylinder which is
not taken into account in the linear model of the system. The effect of static friction
can be seen more clearly in Figure 4-14.

130

Figure 4-12 Kalman Filter Position Filtering Performance

Figure 4-13 Kalman Filter Pressure Filtering Performance

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]

Measurement
Filtered
Model
0 2 4 6 8 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber Pressures, P
A
& P
B
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
M
P
a
]
Time [s]

Measurement
Filtered
Model
131
In Figure 4-14 it is seen that the measured load pressure response of the
system is a square wave like signal, although the reference input of the system is a
sinusoidal position signal. This is due to the static friction on the hydraulic
cylinder, which becomes dominant at low cylinder speeds. However, despite the
real square wave like load pressure, Kalman filter estimated the load pressure as a
sinusoidal signal, which is similar to the linear MATLAB Simulink model
response. This is done intentionally. Because the load pressure is one of the
feedback elements of the linear state feedback controller, the Q matrix is tuned
such that the filter thrusts on the model more heavily and do not reflect the non-
linear system properties on the linear controller, as it may result in the instability of
the system.

Figure 4-14 Kalman Filter Performance Load Pressure

0 5 10 15
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Measured, Filtered and Model Output Load Pressure P
L
Time [s]
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
M
P
a
]
132
4.5.5.2 Valve Controlled System
The same sensors are used in the valve controlled system as in the variable
speed controlled system. Therefore the measurement noise covariance matrix R, is
taken to be the same in the variable speed pump controlled system. However, as the
two system models are different, the process noise covariance matrix Q , is
different.
Likewise in the variable speed pump controlled system, the process noise
covariance matrix is tuned offline through a trial and error procedure, by defining
/ R Q ratio for each diagonal element.
The numerical values of R and Q used throughout all the valve controlled
system tests are given below
Measurement noise matrix covariance,
2
3
3
2.3635 10 0 0
0 5.7700 10 0
0 0 6.5500 10
(
(
=
(
(

R (4.116)
Process noise matrix covariance
6
11
12
12
2.36 10 0 0 0
0 2.36 10 0 0
0 0 5.77 10 0
0 0 0 6.55 10
(
(
(
=
(

Q (4.117)

133
CHAPTER 5

PERFORMANCE TESTS OF THE SYSTEM

In this chapter, real time test results of the valve controlled and pump
controlled system are given. In Section 5.1, the test procedure to find the pump
leakage coefficients and hydraulic cylinder friction are explained. In Section 5.2
and 5.3, step responses of pump controlled and valve controlled system are
illustrated. In Section 5.4, frequency responses of valve controlled and pump
controlled systems are given for 5.Hz desired dominant closed loop pole location.
In Section 5.5, a comparison of two systems is made in terms of dynamic
performance.
All the tests are conducted on the MATLAB Simulink Real Time Windows
Target environment. For the entire control applications, a discrete fixed step size
solver with 1000.Hz sampling frequency is used.
Figure 5-1 shows the MATLAB Simulink Real Time Windows Target
model of the pump controlled system. The inputs of the model measured via data
acquisition card are: actuator position, the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures,
and the servomotor speeds. Through a look up table, the measured signals in terms
of Volts are converted to mm, MPa, and rps, respectively. Then, the position and
pressure signals are feed through the Kalman filter. The Kalman filter attenuates
the noise on the position and pressure signals and estimates the velocity. Then, the
smoothed position signal is compared with the reference position signal, and sent
through the controller accompanying with the other two states. The controller
generates the manipulated input signal that is the speed of the servomotor 2. After
adding the offset speeds determined according to the desired sum of the chamber
134
pressures, the signal is converted to Volts from rps through a look up table and sent
to the servomotor 2 driver, meanwhile the reference speed of the servomotor 1 is
adjusted according to the servomotor 2 speed.

Figure 5-1 MATLAB Simulink RTWT Controller of the Pump Controlled
System

Figure 5-2 shows the MATLAB Simulink Real Time Windows Target
model of the valve controlled system. All the procedure is the same in the pump
controlled case, differently in the controller, two manipulated input signals are
generated, and according to the spool position one of them is selected and send to
the valve driver. The second output of the system is the servomotors' speed
command which is constant and determined manually according to the frequency
and amplitude of the test signal. The servomotor speeds should be chosen such that
the pumps always deliver excess flow to the system so that the pressure relief valve
is always open fixing the supply pressure.
The magnitude and frequency of test signals are selected such that no
saturation occurs in servomotors or valve driver. For this reason, each test signal is
run on the MATLAB Simulink models of the systems before conducting real time
tests.

PumpControl l ed System
Sampl i ng Ti me: 1ms
Di screte Sol ver
12
RefPos
11
MtRev2
10
MtRev1
9
EstPb
8
EstPa
7
EstVel
6
Fi l tPos
5
MsSv2
4
MsSv1
3
Pb
2
Pa
1
Posi ti on
S
e
r
v
o
2
S
e
r
v
o
1
Servo Motor
Input Command
Pset
Psum
Pset
Posi ti on [mm]
Opti ons
OL or CL
Control Input
Measurement
Pos
v el
Pa
Pb
KALMAN FILTER
K_pos
K_prs
K_vel
gama-1
Beta
PSI
Frequency Sweep
Off
Frequency Sweep
yi n
gama
AreaRati o
Pos [mm]
PA [MPa]
PB [MPa]
Sv 1 [rps]
Sv 2 [rps]
Anal og Inputs
NI PCI6025E
mm
mm
mm
135

Figure 5-2 MATLAB Simulink RTWT Controller of the Valve Controlled
System

5.1 System Identification
In this sub-section, the test procedures are explained in order to determine
those parameters which are not measurable. The unknown parameters to be found
are pump leakage coefficients and hydraulic actuator friction force. The leakage
coefficients are found throughout the steady state pressure response of the system,
the friction force is found by applying a low frequency chirp signal to the system
and measuring the chamber pressures.
5.1.1 Hydraulic Pump Leakage Coefficients
In Section 3.2.2.1, it is explained that the flow losses of a hydraulic pump /
motor unit can be expressed by internal and external leakage coefficients. In
Section 3.2.3, it is shown that these coefficients determine the characteristics of the
steady state behavior of the pump controlled system. The steady state pressures of
11
RefSpl
10
RefPos
9
EstPb
8
EstPa
7
EstVel
6
Fi l tPos
5
Spl Pos
4
Ps
3
Pb
2
Pa
1
Pos
xEst_km1
PEst_km1
U
z
Q
R
Ts
Param_Mod
qEst
PEst
zOut
UKF
UNSCENTED KALMAN
FILTER
S
e
r
v
o
2
V
a
lv
e
S
p
l
Servo Motor
Input Command
Ts
Sampl eTi me
Q
Process Noi se
Posi ti on [mm]
Opti ons
OL or CL
5
Motor Speed
ModPar
Model Parameters
R
Measurement Noi se
Kr_ps
Kr_pl
Kr_vl
gama
Ke_ps
Ke_pl
Ke_vl
Frequency Sweep
Off
FrequencySweep
yi n
Pos [mm]
PA [MPa]
PB [MPa]
Ps [MPa]
SplPos [V]
Anal og Inputs
NI PCI6025E
mm
mm
mm
136
the hydraulic cylinder chambers are determined mainly by the leakage coefficients
and pump flow rate.
Remembering the electrical analogy of the pump controlled system
represented by Figure 3-13, if the voltage difference across a resistance and the
current through it are known, then the value of the resistance can be obtained. Thus,
in this sub-section the internal and external leakage coefficients are obtained by
using the steady state sum pressure of the hydraulic cylinder chambers due to
steady state flow rate generated by a known pump speed command.
The relation between the pump offset speeds and the relation between the
hydraulic cylinder chambers pressure sum and pump 2 speed, expressed in Section
3.2.3, are repeated here for convenience.
( )
1
2
2
1
o i ea eb
o i eb
n C C C
n C C
|

+ +
= =
+
(5.1)
( )
( )
2
1
1
i eb
o sum sum
P
C C
n p p
D

+
= + =
+
(5.2)
Note that as the two pumps used in the system are identical and there is no
external leakage paths added to the system, the leakage coefficients
ea
C and
eb
C are
assumed to be the same and will be represented by
e
C .
From the Eq. (5.1), a ratio between the internal and external leakages can be
found as,
( )
1
1 1
Ratio
i
ie
e
C
C
C
|
|
| |
+
= =
|
|
+ +
\ .
(5.3)
In Eq. (5.3), because the | constant has always a negative value and both
| and are greater than unity,
Ratio
ie
C is a positive constant. If the Eq..(5.3) is
substituted in Eq. (5.2) then the external leakage coefficient is expressed as
( )
( ) ( )
20
1
1
Ratio
p
e
ie sum
n D
C
C p

+
=
+
(5.4)

137
To find the pump internal coefficients an open loop test procedure is
applied. Pumps are driven with two independent speed inputs,
10
n ,and
20
n . It is
important to remember that the above equations are valid for zero hydraulic
cylinder movement. Thus, through a trial and error process the right speed ratio
which makes the hydraulic cylinder velocity zero is found.
Shown in Figure 5-3 is the steady state chamber pressures, for a given two
independent pump speeds
10
0.5 n = rps and
20
0.42 n = rps. The mean value of the
measured chamber pressure is
_
5.05
A ss
P = MPa and the mean value of the
chamber B pressure is
_
9.74
B ss
P = MPa.

Figure 5-3 Steady State Chamber Pressures

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Steady State Chamber Pressures
Time [s]
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
M
P
a
]

P
B
P
A
138
If the steady state chamber pressure values and the motor speeds are
inserted into Eq. (5.3) and Eq. (5.4), the internal and external leakage coefficients
of the pumps will be found as,
3
120 / .
e ea eb
C C C mm s MPa = = = (5.5)

3
1097 / .
i
C mm s MPa = (5.6)

Figure 5-4 shows the steady state cylinder position due to the applied offset
speeds. Because this is an open loop process, it is very hard to fix the hydraulic
cylinder without position feedback. However as can be seen from the Figure 5-4,
during 33.seconds the actuator moves only 2.mm and can be assumed to be
motionless. Then, the flow rates delivered by the pumps directly used to
compensate the leakages, while pressurizing the hydraulic cylinder chambers.

Figure 5-4 Steady State Cylinder Position for the Given Offset Pump Speeds

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Position for Constant Pump Speeds n
10
=0.5rps & n
20
=-0.42rps
Time [s]
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
139
5.1.2 Hydraulic Cylinder Friction
In Section 3.2.2.3 in load model, it is assumed that the friction force is
viscous. In this sub-section, the experimental study to find the viscous friction
coefficient is explained.
The friction in the experimental test set-up is mainly due to the sliding
surfaces between the hydraulic piston seals and the hydraulic cylinder. Furthermore
another friction force exists between the steel plate and the two sliders due to the
misalignment of the two sliders.
To find the friction force acting on the system, a reference position signal is
sent to the closed loop hydraulic position control system. The reference signal is
chosen to be a low frequency sinusoidal signal, to minimize the inertial effects on
the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures. Throughout the test the hydraulic
cylinder chamber pressures and cylinder position are measured and the hydraulic
cylinder velocity is estimated by use of a Kalman filter. After calculating the
friction force defined by Eq.(5.7), the friction force versus cylinder velocity is
plotted. The acceleration represented by x

in Eq.(5.7) is neither measured nor
estimated from the Kalman filter. The acceleration data is obtained off-line by
using the MATLAB Simulink model of the system.
( )
f A A B B
f p A p A m g x = +
(5.7)
Note that friction is a highly non-linear process that depends on many
physical parameters and environmental conditions. When two sliding materials are
lubricated, different sliding speeds cause different film thicknesses of the lubricant
and therefore friction characteristics may change. Another factor affecting the
friction is the hydraulic cylinder chamber pressures as it will affect the surface area
of the sealing in contact with the hydraulic cylinder wall. Also it is observed that
the hydraulic cylinder location and thus the amplitude of the reference test signal
effects the friction force characteristics.
To find the friction characteristics of the hydraulic actuator, a chirp signal,
which has an increasing frequency from 0.1.Hz to 4.Hz is used as a test signal. The
140
signal frequency increases linearly in time. The total duration of the signal is
66.seconds. As the hydraulic cylinder location affects the friction characteristics the
amplitude of the chirp signal is chosen as 5 mm with a 50.mm offset cylinder
stroke. Because the chamber pressures affect the friction force the desired chamber
pressure sum is set to 12.MPa, which will be the same in the closed loop position
control system. Figure 5-5 shows the test signal used to determine the friction
characteristics of the hydraulic cylinder.
In Figure 5-5 the blue signal is the reference position signal and the red
signal is the response of the close loop hydraulic system. The position response of
the system is filtered by the Kalman filter. In the close loop hydraulic position
control system a proportional controller with gain 1
p
K = is used.

Figure 5-5 Friction Test Signal and System Response

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
Reference & Measured Position Signal
Time [s]
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]

Reference
Measurement
141
Figure 5-6 shows the friction force versus velocity graph. The friction force
is calculated by using Eq. (5.7). The chamber pressures used for the friction force
calculation are not filtered. However to reduce the noise level, the pressure data
which have a 1000.Hz sampling frequency is averaged at every 10 data interval.
The velocity data which is the x axes of the graph is not measured but estimated by
using the designed Kalman filter for pump controlled system.
Furthermore, the acceleration data to find the inertial forces is calculated by
using the mathematical model of the system. Figure 5-8 shows the inertial forces.
Note that when the chirp signal frequency becomes greater than 2.Hz the inertial
forces seems to be important nevertheless its maximum value is around 17.N which
may be negligible with respect to the friction force.
The friction force data in Figure 5-6 seems very scattered. This is not due to
the noisy pressure measurement but due to the different friction force
characteristics for different cylinder speeds. The friction force resulting from the
low frequency components of the chirp signal dominates the static friction around
zero, while the friction force resulting from the high frequency components of the
chirp signal dominates dynamic friction at higher velocities. Furthermore it seems
there exist a large hysteresis between the extending and retracting friction forces at
low velocity region. However at high velocity region, that is for the velocities
greater than 20 mm/s the friction force for the extracting and retracting seems to be
the same and proportional with velocity.
From the data represented in Figure 5-6 it is very hard to approximate a
viscous friction coefficient. Thus the velocity data is divided into 40 equal velocity
intervals between the maximum and minimum cylinder velocity. An equivalent
friction force is calculated by taking the mean of the friction forces at each velocity
interval. The resulting friction force versus cylinder velocity is represented in
Figure 5-7. The red line in Figure 5-6 is formed by connecting these points.

142

Figure 5-6 Friction Force vs Cylinder Velocity

Figure 5-7 Mean Friction Force vs Cylinder Velocity
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
-1000
-750
-500
-250
0
250
500
750
Friction Force vs Velocity
Velocity [mm/s]
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

[
N
]
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
Friction Force vs Velocity
Velocity [mm/s]
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

[
N
]
143
The friction force characteristics represented in Figure 5-7 is more
understandable. There seems to be a non-linearity around zero velocity, causing a
stick-slip motion while moving the cylinder. After the cylinder is moved the
friction force decreases. This type of friction can be modeled with Karnopps
friction model if the friction at low velocity is considered. However, in this thesis
study, the both hydraulic control systems are modeled as linear systems, therefore,
the friction is assumed to be viscous.
From the higher velocity region of the Figure 5-7, the viscous friction force
coefficient of the system both for extending and retracting is taken to be,
2.6 . / b N s mm =

Figure 5-8 Body Force due to Acceleration

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Body Force due to Acceleration
Time [s]
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e

[
N
]
144
5.2 Step Response of Pump Controlled System
In this sub-section, the step response of the pump controlled system is
given. A step signal with 10.mm amplitude and 0.5.Hz frequency is chosen as the
reference position signal. The system is controlled with linear state feedback
control algorithm as explained in Section 4.3. The bandwidth of the closed loop
system is chosen to be 2.Hz and therefore the dominant desired closed loop pole of
the system is located at -2.2n rad/s. The desired poles of the closed loop position
control system and the corresponding controller gains are given in Table 5-1 with
the accompanying test signal properties.

Table 5-1 Pump Controlled System Step Response Test-1 Data
Reference Step Signal
Magnitude 10 mm
Frequency 0.5 Hz
Desired Closed Loop Poles |-2.2n, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback Gains |u.u962, -u.u6u4, 1.S912]

Figure 5-9 shows the step response of the closed loop pump controlled
system. The black signal is the reference position signal, while the blue one is the
measured position signal, the red one is the filtered signal, which is the output of
the Kalman filter and used as the feedback signal, and lastly the magenta signal is
the position response of the linear MATLAB Simulink model. It is seen that the
linear model response and the real system response are consistent.
Note that the desired closed loop pole that dominates the system behavior is
located at -2.2n rad/s. Because the other two poles (-600.rad/s,-700.rad/s) are
located very far to the left of the desired closed loop pole, their effects on the
response can be assumed to be negligible, so that the closed loop position control
system can be thought as a first order system with the following transfer function.
( )
( )
1
1
r
X s
X s Ts
=
+
(5.8)
145
and the time constant T is equal to
1
0.0795
2 2
T s
t
= =
(5.9)
Time constant T is an important parameter of first order systems, because at
time t=T, the response of the system reaches 63.2% of its total change. This can be
verified from the system response, at time t= 10.08 s the hydraulic cylinder position
is 52.3 mm which is 61.5% of its total change.

Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -2. 2a rad/s

In Figure 5-9 at steady state there seems a 0.15 mm steady state error
corresponding to 0.75% of the 20 mm step input magnitude. However, in Section
3.2.4, the open loop position response of the system was found to be of type 1, with
10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13
40
45
50
55
60

X: 10.08
Y: 52.3
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]
Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
146
a free "s" term in the denominator. Because the system acts as an integrator, the
steady state error in the response is not expected.
The static friction of the hydraulic cylinder and the dead band of the
servomotor and the pump may be the reason of this steady state error.
To decrease the steady state error, the state feedback gains of the system are
increased, the dominant desired closed loop pole of the system is located at
-1u.2t rad/s while the location of the other closed loop poles are remained
unchanged. The test signal properties, the desired closed loop poles and the
corresponding state feedback gains are given in Table 5-2.

Table 5-2 Pump Controlled System Step Response Test-2 Data
Reference Step Signal
Magnitude 2.5 mm
Frequency 0.5 Hz
Desired Closed Loop Poles |-1u.2n, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback Gains |u.48u9, -u.uS9S, 1.66S7]

Figure 5-10 shows the step response of the closed loop pump controlled
system with the dominant desired closed loop located at -1u.2n rad/s. Again, the
model response and the real system response are consistent. For the dominant
desired closed loop pole located at -1u.2n rad/s, the time constant of the
equivalent first order system is 0.016 seconds. In Figure 5-10, it is seen that the
system reaches 63.2% of its total change at this time as expected. Different from
the model response there occur a 5.4% overshoot of the real system response
indicating that the closed loop system tends to be oscillatory if a high bandwidth is
desired.

147


5.3 Step Response of Valve Controlled System
The same test signal with the same desired closed loop pole locations
utilized in the pump controlled system, are also applied on the valve controlled
system. The corresponding linear state feedback gains of the valve controlled
system are determined through the linearized system equations defined in Section
4.2. Because the single rod cylinder has inherently different characteristics for
extension and retraction, two set of linear state feedback gains are calculated.
The test signal properties, the desired closed loop poles and the
corresponding state feedback gains are listed in Table 5-3.

11 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12
48
49
50
51
52
53

X: 11.02
Y: 50.65
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]
Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
148

Table 5-3 Valve Controlled System Step Response Test-1 Data
Reference Step
Signal
Magnitude 10 mm
Frequency 0.5 Hz
Desired Closed Loop Poles
|-2.2n, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback
Gains
Extension |u.u449, -u.uS17, -u.7S88]
Retraction |u.u629, -u.u44S, -1.u6u2]

Linearized at
Supply Pressure 8.3 MPa
Spool Position 0.1 V

Figure 5-11 shows the step response of the closed loop valve controlled
system. The black signal is the reference position signal, while the blue one is
measured position signal and the red one is the filtered signal, which is the output
of the unscented Kalman filter and used as the feedback signal, and lastly the
magenta signal is the position response of the non-linear MATLAB Simulink
Model.
Different from the pump controlled system, the non-linear model behavior
and the real system behavior are not the same at transient zone. When the non-
linear model reaches 63.2% of its total change, which corresponds to the cylinder
position of 52.64.mm, the total time passed is 87.ms, this is consistent with the
linearized closed loop system model with the dominant closed loop pole located at
-2.2n rad/s with the corresponding time constant of 80.ms. However from the
graph it is seen that the real system response reaches this position with a 50.ms
delay. The same behavior is valid for the settling time; the real system reaches 96%
of its total change after 250.ms from the non-linear model.
It should be noted that there seems a difference between the real
measurement and the Kalman filter output. This is because the filter trusts on the
model rather than the real position measurement. Thrusting on the model is a
149
necessary strategy for this type of controller. Because the controller gains switch at
zero spool position, any noise in the feedback position signal causes chattering of
the valve.


To be compatible with the pump controlled system tests, a second step
response test is performed with the increased state feedback gains. In the second
case, the dominant desired closed loop pole is located at -1u.2n rad/s, while the
location of the other closed loop poles are remained unchanged. The test signal
properties, the desired closed loop poles and the corresponding state feedback gains
are listed in Table 5-4.
As the dominant closed loop pole moves away from the origin, the response
of the closed loop system becomes faster as seen in Figure 5-12. When the desired
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]

Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
150
dominant closed loop pole moves from -2.2n rad/s to -1u.2n rad/s, the time
constant of the real system decreases from 130 ms to 35 ms.

Table 5-4 Valve Controlled System Step Response Test-2 Data
Reference Step
Signal
Magnitude 2.5 mm
Frequency 0.5 Hz
Desired Closed Loop Poles |-1u.2t, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback
Gains
Extension |u.2246, -u.uS12, u.79S6]
Retraction |u.S14S, -u.u4S7, 1.1u9u]

Linearized at

Supply Pressure 8.3 MPa
Spool Position 0.1 V

Desired Closed Loop Pole Located at -1. 2t rad/s
2 3 4 5 6
47
48
49
50
51
52
P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
m
m
]
Time [s]

Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
151
Despite the high dynamics, it is seen that increasing gains causes stability
problems. At steady state the hydraulic cylinder tends to make random oscillations.
Increasing the state feedback gains make the control signal more sensitive to noise
as seen in Figure 5-13. In this figure, the reference valve spool position command
sent to the valve driver is compared with the valve spool position command of the
non-linear MATLAB Simulink model of the valve controlled system. It is seen
that, in the real system, the spool position command makes oscillations around
zero, whereas in the Simulink model the spool position is constant and equal to
zero at steady state.
In order to overcome this problem, a dead band can be defined in the
controller instead of switching immediately at zero spool position.

Figure 5-13 Real System Valve Spool Position Command and Simulink Model
Spool Position Command

2 3 4 5 6
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Measured and Reference Valve Spool Positions
Time [s]
V
a
l
v
e

S
p
o
o
l

P
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

[
V
]

Reference
Model
152
Next to increasing the controller gains, another way to increase the
dynamics of the closed loop valve controlled systems is to increase the supply
pressure. This can be seen clearly when the block diagram of the valve controlled
system, Figure 3-22, is investigated. The valve spool position gain
4 _ u ext
K is
proportional to the square root of the supply pressure as defined in Eq. (3.87).
Theoretically, doubling the supply pressure will increase the valve spool position
gain 1.414 times, which is equivalent to increasing all the state feedback gains
1.414 times while remaining the supply pressure unchanged. Of course increasing
the supply pressure will decrease the energy efficiency of the system.
5.4 Frequency Response Test
In this sub-section the frequency of a sinusoidal signal is varied over a
certain range and the resulting system response is studied. The open loop and
closed loop frequency responses of the system are obtained throughout an
experimental procedure and compared with the modeled system response.
The dominant closed loop poles are chosen to determine the bandwidth of
the closed loop position control hydraulic system. The desired bandwidth is 5.Hz.
The linear state feedback controller gains corresponding to the desired closed loop
pole locations are determined by following the procedure explained in Section 4.3.
The experimental data in the time domain is transformed into frequency
domain by using MATLAB built in functions. To find the frequency response of
the system Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) of the input signal and the system output
are taken to determine the amplitudes of the constituting harmonics and their
frequencies. FFTs are taken with MATLAB "fft" command. The m-file script
written for this purposes is given in Appendix C.
153
5.4.1 Test Signal
In this experimental study, a MATLAB m-file script is written for
generating the reference sine sweep signal.
For the open loop tests the written m-file generates a sinusoidal signal with
exponentially decaying amplitude and linearly decreasing frequency with time. In
the open loop test in order to prevent the saturation of the hydraulic actuator, that
is, to prevent the piston rod to reach the end of the stroke at low frequencies, this
type of signal is generated.
For the closed loop tests, constant amplitude sinusoidal test signals are
generated with linearly increasing frequencies. This signal is the same as the
MATLAB Simulink Chirp signal.
Note that the amplitude and frequency range of the input signals are
selected by considering the saturation limits of the servomotor and valve drivers.
5.4.2 Open Loop Frequency Response of Pump Controlled Hydraulic System
In the open loop frequency response test, a sinusoidal signal with an
exponentially decaying magnitude is applied. The amplitude of the test signal starts
from 10.V decreases to zero in 70.seconds with a time constant of 13.77.s, while its
frequency starts with 10.Hz and decreases linearly in time down to 0.1 Hz. In
Figure 5-14 the open loop test signal which is the reference signal of the
servomotor 2 and its response is shown.
Figure 5-15 shows the experimental and the theoretical open loop frequency
responses of the system. Since the type number of the transfer function defining the
position response of the open loop system is one, the system acts as an integrator
and the slope of the Bode diagram at the low frequency region is 20.dB/dec as
expected.

154

Figure 5-14 Pump Controlled System Open Loop Frequency Response Test
Signal

Figure 5-15 Experimental and Theoretical Open Loop Frequency Response of the
Pump Controlled System
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
-15
-10
-5
0
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10
Measured and Reference Servo Motor Speeds
Time [s]
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Measurement
Reference
10
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Bode Diagram
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Measurement
Model
155
It is seen from the Bode diagram that the theoretical resonance frequency of
the system is around 295.Hz. Only in the neighborhood of this frequency, damping
dominates the dynamic behavior and some time should pass for the system to reach
steady state. However, at low frequency region the system rapidly responses to the
input signal and there is no need to wait for the system to reach steady state. Thus
continuously changing the test signal frequency is not a problem for this frequency
response tests.
Figure 5-16 shows the hydraulic cylinder position response and illustrates
why an exponentially decaying amplitude sinusoidal signal is chosen as the test
signal. By decreasing the amplitude and frequency with time saturation of the
hydraulic cylinder is prevented.

Figure 5-16 Hydraulic Cylinder Position in Open Loop Tests

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
40
45
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60
65
70
75
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90
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Measurement
Filtered
Model
156
Theoretically the cylinder is expected to make oscillations without moving
upwards or downwards movement. However in the open loop frequency response
test it is seen that the cylinder is continuously moving upwards while making
oscillations. This is due to the leakage coefficients found in Section 5.1.1 not truly
representing the real system leakage characteristics. While modeling the system,
the leakage flow is assumed to be linear, however it is known that the volumetric
efficiency of the pump, which is the representative of the pump flow losses changes
with the pump drive speed. Furthermore, the pump excitation frequency also affects
the pump leakage characteristics. Because the pump leakage coefficients in Section
5.1.1 are found for constant pump speeds it is not an unexpected result to see that
the model and the real system behaves differently. However despite the sharp slope
of the upwards movement at high frequency region, this slope decreases at low
frequency region showing that the real system leakage characteristics are much
similar to the assumed ones.
5.4.3 Close Loop Frequency Response of Pump Controlled Hydraulic System
In the closed loop frequency response test, a sinusoidal signal with 4 mm
amplitude is chosen with a frequency starting from 0.1 Hz and linearly increasing
to 10 Hz in 100 seconds. The maximum motor speed corresponding to maximum
frequency is 8 rps (480 rpm), eliminating the risk of the saturation of the
servomotor speeds. The desired bandwidth of this closed loop position control
system is 5 Hz, therefore the desired closed loop poles are selected as
|-S.2n, -6uu, -7uu]. Note that the last two poles, | -6uu, -7uu], are located far
away from the origin with respect to the first pole, so that their dynamics can be
neglected and the closed loop system dynamics is determined by the first pole
located at -S.2n rad/s.
The linear state feedback controller gains are determined by following the
procedure explained in Section 4.3. The test signal properties, the desired closed
loop poles and the corresponding state feedback gains are listed in Table 5-5.

157

Table 5-5 Pump Controlled System Frequency Response Test Data
Reference Chirp Signal
Magnitude Start Frequency Stop Frequency Duration
4 mm 0.1 Hz 10 Hz 100 s
Desired Closed Loop Poles |-S.2t, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback Gains |u.24uS, -u.u6u1, -1.6191]

Figure 5-17 shows the response to sine sweep input of the variable speed
pump controlled hydraulic system. The black signal is the reference position signal,
while the blue one is measured position signal and the red one is the filtered signal,
which is the output of the Kalman filter and used as the feedback signal, and lastly
the magenta signal is the position response of the linear MATLAB Simulink model.
In Figure 5-17, the general behaviors of the closed loop systems seem to be
consistent with the model, however it is hard to see the performance of the system
therefore a detailed view is given in Figure 5-18.

Figure 5-17 Position Response of Pump Controlled System
0 20 40 60 80 100
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
P
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[
m
m
]
Time [s]
158
The upper plot of the Figure 5-18 shows the response of the closed loop
pump speed controlled system at low frequency range. The excitation frequency is
around 1.Hz. It is seen that, at low frequency region, the Kalman filter works well
and the closed loop model response is similar to the measured real system response.
In low frequency range, the affect of noise on the position signal is substantial. If
the measured signal is to be used directly as the feedback position signal, then it
will cause noise and chattering in the servomotors.

Figure 5-18 Detailed View of Position Response of Pump Controlled System

55 55.5 56 56.5 57 57.5 58
45
50
55
P
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[
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
45
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[
m
m
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Time [s]

Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
159
The bottom plot of the Figure 5-18 shows the response of the system around
10.Hz. It is seen that the model response and the measured real system response are
consistent. However, at high frequency range, the performance of Kalman filter
begins to deteriorate, there occurs a small phase difference between the measured
and estimated position signal. This is an expected result since the filter thrusts more
on the model than the measurement, when the model uncertainties becomes
effective at high frequencies the error between the measurement and model
increases. Note that, different form the conventional low pass, band pass etc. filters,
where the filtered signal lags the measured signal, the Kalman filter output signal
leads the measured signal.
In Figure 5-19 the performance of Kalman filter is illustrated by plotting the
error between the measured and filtered position signals.

Figure 5-19 Error Between the Measured and Filtered Position Signal

From the detailed view of Figure 5-19, it is seen that at high frequency
region, that is exictation frequency of 10.Hz, the error between the real
measurement and the filtered output increases to 0.5.mm, where it is around
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
0
1
Error Between Measured and Filtered Position
E
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55 55.5 56 56.5 57 57.5 58
-0.5
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[
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
-1
0
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[
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Time [s]
160
0.2.mm at around 1 Hz excitation frequency. However, it should be noted that the
increasing error is mainly due to the phase shift at higher frequencies.
Furthermore, from the position response, it is useful to look at the pressure
response as they are feedback signals and are used to manipulated input command.
Figure 5-20 shows the pressure response of the hydraulic cylinder chambers during
the sine sweep test. The blue signal is the measured signal, the red one is the
filtered, and the magenta is the linear MATLAB Simulink model response. The
pressure signal with higher amplitude, around 8.MPa, is the rod side chamber
pressure (Chamber B with smaller cylinder piston area), and the signal with lower
amplitude, around 4.MPa, is the cap side chamber pressure (Chamber A bigger
cylinder piston area).

Figure 5-20 Pressure Response

It is seen that the model response is consistent with the measured ones at
low frequency region. The resulting chamber pressures for a desired 12 MPa
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
A
& P
B
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Time [s]

Measurement
Filtered
Model
161
chamber pressure sum are 4 MPa and 8MPa, showing that the open loop pressure
control works well. This also confirms the internal and external leakages
coefficients found experimentally in Section 5.1.1, as they determine the open loop
pressure control coefficients | and +. Although the open loop sum pressure
control works well at low frequency region, the chamber pressures begin to differ
from the model response around time 75 t s = at high frequency region. This is
mainly due to the changing leakage characteristics at higher frequencies. Also it
should be noted that at these frequencies the servomotors which were assumed to
be ideal angular velocity sources with zero dynamics do not respond to the desired
velocity command. This can be clearly seen in Figure 5-21 where the reference and
measured servomotor 2 speeds are plotted. It is seen that after time 75 t s = at
higher frequencies, the measured velocity signal, the blue one, differs from
reference velocity signal, the red one.

Figure 5-21 Servomotor Response

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
Measured and Reference Servo Motor 2 Speed
Time [s]
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[
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Measurement
Reference
162
In Figure 5-20, it is seen that when the unexpected decrease of the chamber
pressure at higher frequencies occurs, the filtered signals tracks the measured ones.
However, the filtered pressure signals are not truly representative of the real
chamber pressures. In Kalman filter, the measurement and process noise covariance
matrices (R and Q) are tuned such that the filter trusts more and more on the model
rather than the measurement. This is to prevent the effects of the non-linear real
system properties on the linear controller.

Figure 5-22 Load Pressure

In the controller, not the absolute chamber pressures itself but the load
pressure, that is the dynamic change of pressure, is chosen as the state variable. If
the measurements are to be trusted more, then the static friction, which is effective
at low frequency region, will dominate the control signals send through the
servomotors and may result in stability problem of the system. This can be seen in
0 20 40 60 80 100
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0
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
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Measument
Filtered
Model
163
Figure 5-22, where the measured and estimated load pressures are plotted. It is seen
that despite the sinusoidal excitation, the load pressure at low frequency region
resembles a square wave. This is due to the static friction on the sealing of the
hydraulic cylinder, whereas the filtered signal is sinusoidal as expected and is
similar to the model response. By this way, the feedback load pressure signal,
which is calculated with the Kalman filter output chamber pressures, does not
reflect the effect of static friction. At high frequency region the effect of static
friction on the load pressure decreases due to increased effect of the inertial forces.
The model pressure response and filtered pressure signals become consistent with
the real load pressure for higher excitation frequency.
In Figure 5-23 and Figure 5-24, the frequency response of the real system
and the model are compared on frequency domain.

Figure 5-23 Magnitude Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Frequency
Response of Pump Controlled System with Desired Dominant Pole Located at 5. 2a
rad/s

10
-1
10
0
10
1
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
Bode Diagram
M
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[
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Model
164
The red signal shows the frequency response of the closed loop transfer
function given in Eq. (4.24). The frequency response of the transfer function is
drawn by the MATLAB built in "bode" command. The frequency response of the
experimental data is converted from time domain to frequency domain by using
MATLAB built in "fft" function. The MATLAB m-file script written for this
purposes is given in Appendix C. It is seen that the real system response and the
model response are consistent. The magnitude of the closed loop frequency
response is -3.dB at 5.Hz excitation frequency, indicating the bandwidth of the
system. This is an expected result, because the desired closed loop poles were
located at |-S.2n, -6uu, -7uu]. Because the last two poles are far away from the
imaginary axes with respect to the first pole, the pole located at -S.2n rad/s
dominates the system characteristics, and resulting in a 5.Hz bandwidth of the
closed loop system.

Figure 5-24 Phase Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Frequency
Response of Pump Controlled System with Desired Dominant Pole Located at 5. 2a
rad/s
10
-1
10
0
10
1
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
Phase Angle
P
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[
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Model
165
5.4.4 Open Loop Frequency Response of Valve Controlled Hydraulic System
For the open loop test of the valve controlled system a sinusoidal signal
with 1.V amplitude and -0.1.V offset is chosen. The frequency of the test signals
starts from 0.1 Hz and linearly increases to 10.Hz in 100 seconds. The test signal
used in the open loop test of the valve controlled system is shown in Figure 5-25.

Figure 5-25 Test Signal for Valve Controlled System Open Loop Frequency
Response

Figure 5-26 shows the experimental and the theoretical open loop frequency
responses of the system. Since the type number of the transfer function defining the
open loop position response of the system is one like in the pump controlled
system, the slope of the Bode diagram at the low frequency region is 20.dB/dec.
The system behaves like an integrator as expected. It is seen from the Bode
diagram that the theoretical resonance frequency of the system is around 316.Hz.
Likewise in the pump controlled case, at low frequency region, the system rapidly
responses to the input signal and there is no need to wait for the system to reach
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Reference Valve Spool Position
Time [s]
V
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S
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166
steady state. Thus continuously changing the test signal frequency is not a problem
for this frequency response tests.

Figure 5-26 Magnitude Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Open Loop
Frequency Response of the Valve Controlled System

Different from the pump controlled system, two different open loop
frequency response graphs are drawn for the linearized mathematical model of the
valve controlled system. This is due to the inherent property of the single rod
cylinders that different extending and retracting speed exist. It is seen that at low
frequency region the measured frequency response is consistent with the linearized
frequency response for retraction.
Figure 5-27 shows the experimental and the theoretical phase plots of the
open loop frequency response of valve controlled system. Due to the free s term in
the open loop transfer function between the valve spool position and hydraulic
cylinder position, there occurs a 90 degrees phase shift at low frequency region.
Note that there exist two different curves representing the phase plot of the open
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
Bode Diagram
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[
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Linearized Model Extension
Linearized Model Retraction
167
loop valve controlled system. However, as the roots of the characteristic equation
defining the dynamics for retraction and extension is very closer, it is seen as a
single curve.

Figure 5-27 Phase Plot of the Experimental and Theoretical Open Loop
Frequency Response of the Valve Controlled System

5.4.5 Closed Loop Frequency Response of Valve Controlled Hydraulic
System
To be compatible with the pump controlled system, the same test signal is
applied to valve controlled system. Also the desired closed loop pole locations are
chosen to be the same with the pump controlled system. The linear state feedback
gains corresponding to desired closed loop pole locations are determined by
following the procedure explained in Section 4.4. Throughout all the frequency
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
Phase Angle
P
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Linearized Model Extension
Linearized Model Retraction
168
response tests the supply pressure of the servo solenoid valve is fixed by setting the
set pressure of the relief valve to 8.3.MPa. The test signal properties, the desired
closed loop poles and the corresponding state feedback gains are listed in Table
5-6.

Table 5-6 Valve Controlled System Frequency Response Test Data
Reference Chirp Signal
Magnitude Start Frequency Stop Frequency Duration
4 mm 0.1 Hz 10 Hz 100 s
Desired Closed Loop Poles |-S.2n, -6uu, -7uu]
State Feedback
Gains
Extension |u.11S2, -u.uS1S, u.7719]
Retraction |u.1S7S, -u.u441, 1.u784]

Linearized at
Supply Pressure 8.3.MPa
Spool Position 0.1.V

Figure 5-28 shows the response of the valve controlled hydraulic system.
The black signal is the reference position signal, while the blue one is measured
position signal and the red one is the filtered signal, which is the output of the
unscented Kalman filter and used as the feedback signal, and lastly the magenta
signal is the position response of the non-linear MATLAB Simulink model.
The second plot of the Figure 5-28 shows the detailed view of the response
of the closed loop valve controlled system at low frequency range. The excitation
frequency is around 1.Hz. It is seen that at low frequency region unscented Kalman
filter works well, the filtered signal and the measured signal are the same without
any phase difference. In low frequency region, it is seen that the effect of noise is
substantial as in the case of pump controlled system. If the measured signal is not
smoothed and directly used as feedback signal then the noise will cause chattering
in the servo solenoid valve.
169
In the second plot of Figure 5-28, it is seen that the sinusoidal position
response is rugged just after the peaks, for example at time 55.seconds or
57.seconds. This oscillatory behavior is due to the switching of the controller gains,
at this time, the linear state feedback gains for extension is replaced with the
controller gains for retraction. Because the gains are switched exactly at zero spool
position command, there occurs oscillations, this is nothing to do with the noise, in
non-linear MATLAB Simulink model response there also occur oscillations. To get
rid of this response with unwanted property, the controller should be modified.
However this is out of the scope of the thesis, as the aim is just to make
performance comparison with the pump controlled system.

Figure 5-28 Valve Controlled System Position Response
0 20 40 60 80 100
45
50
55
P
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[
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55 55.5 56 56.5 57 57.5 58
45
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
45
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P
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[
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Time [s]

Reference
Measurement
Filtered
Model
170
The third plot of Figure 5-28 is the detailed view at higher frequencies. The
excitation frequency is around 10.Hz. It is seen that the non-linear model response
and the real system response are consistent. However, the performance of
unscented Kalman filter begins to deteriorate and a small phase shift occurs
between the real and measured signals. This is an inevitable property as the filter
trusts more on the model.

Figure 5-29 Valve Controlled System Error Between the Measured and
Filtered Position Signal

In Figure 5-29, the error between the measured and filtered position signal
is plotted. From the detailed views it is seen that the error increases to 0.5.mm
around 10.Hz excitation frequency, where it is 0.3.mm at around 1.Hz excitation
frequency. However this error is mainly due to the phase shift, as the filter output
leads the measured signal.
In the third plot of Figure 5-28, at higher frequencies, it is seen that the real
system and the non-linear model responses seem to track not an exact sinusoidal
profile, but rather a ramp like profile. This the result of switching type controller
strategy with the gains calculated according to the linearized system equations, if
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1
0
1
Error Between Measured and Estimated Position
E
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[
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55 55.5 56 56.5 57 57.5 58
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[
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
-1
0
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E
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[
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m
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Time [s]
171
the same controller is to be applied on the linearized model, it will be seen that the
response profile is exactly sinusoidal.

Figure 5-30 Valve Controlled System Hydraulic Cylinder Chamber Pressure
Response

In Figure 5-30, the pressure response of the hydraulic cylinder chambers
during the sine sweep test is plotted. The blue signal is the measured signal while
the red one is the filtered, and the magenta is the non-linear MATLAB Simulink
model response. It is validated that there exist two different steady state chamber
pressures for extension and for retraction; this can be clearly seen at low frequency
region. Likewise in the pumped controlled system the filtered pressure response
signals are similar to the non-linear model response rather than the measurement, as
the filters trusts more on more on the model. Consequently, the effects of the non-
linear friction on the load pressure are eliminated. This can be seen in Figure 5-31.

0 20 40 60 80 100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
A
& P
B
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[
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Time [s]

Measurement
Filtered
Model
172

Figure 5-31 Valve Controlled System Load Pressure Response

Figure 5-31 shows the load pressure response of the system, during the sine
sweep test. In the detailed view at lower frequency region, which is the second plot,
it is seen that the load pressure tracks a square wave like profile. This is due to the
static friction of the hydraulic cylinder. However, this non-linear load pressure
characteristics is not reflected to the generated manipulated input signal sent to the
servovalve drives. The filtered signal which is very similar to the model response is
fedback to the controller. In the third plot of the Figure 5-31 the detailed view of
the load pressure responses at higher excitation frequency is shown, it is seen that
the effects of the static friction on the load pressure is reduced and the real load
pressure is consistent with the model response.
0 20 40 60 80 100
-2
0
2
L
P
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55 55.5 56 56.5 57 57.5 58
-0.5
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99.5 99.6 99.7 99.8 99.9 100
-1
0
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P
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[
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Time [s]

Measurement
Filtered
Model
173
In Figure 5-32 the frequency response of the real system and the model are
compared. The red signal shows the frequency response of the linearized closed
loop transfer function obtained by the Eq.(3.111). It is drawn by the MATLAB
built in "bode" command.

Figure 5-32 Experimental and Theoretical Frequency Response of Valve
Controlled System with Desired Dominant Pole Located at 5. 2a rad/s

10
-1
10
0
10
1
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
Bode Diagram
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[
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Linearized Model
10
-1
10
0
10
1
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
Phase Angle
P
h
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A
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[
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Frequency [Hz]

Measurement
Linearized Model
174
Note that because the desired closed loop pole locations for extension and
retraction are the same, the dynamic response of the closed loop system for
extension and retraction are identical, therefore unlike from the open loop
frequency response graph, there exists only one frequency response curve defining
the closed loop system characteristics.
In Figure 5-32 it is seen that, the magnitude plot of the real system response
reflects the desired closed loop system behavior. The magnitude of the closed loop
frequency response is -3.dB at 5.Hz excitation frequency, indicating the bandwidth
of the system. This is an expected result, because the desired closed loop poles are
located at |-S.2n, -6uu, -7uu]. Because the last two poles are far away from the
imaginary axis with respect to the first pole, the pole located at -S.2n rad/s
dominates the system characteristics, and resulting in a 5.Hz bandwidth of the
closed loop system. However, the real system response is not consistent with the
linearized model response at higher frequencies. This is the result of linearization,
with the increasing excitation frequency the operating points where the
linearization is performed changes. For example, the valve gains are linearized at
steady state operating pressures both for extension and retraction, the steady state
chamber pressure values are constant and do not change with the spool position,
but the spool direction. However, with the increased excitation frequency when the
valve spool changes direction the time passed in transient period dominates the
total excitation frequency period, resulting in a different system behavior than the
linearized one.
5.5 Comparison of Two Systems
Throughout the performance tests the closed loop position control of a
single rod asymmetric cylinder is performed by utilizing the conventional valve
control and variable speed pump control techniques independently.
Due to the inherent property of the single rod hydraulic actuator with
unequal cylinder areas, the flow rate entering the cap end side chamber is not equal
to the flow rate exiting from the rod end side.
175
In valve controlled systems the asymmetric flow rate of the hydraulic
actuator results in such a non-linearity that different steady state chamber pressures
exists according to the valve spool position; causing different valve spool position
gains and different extension and retraction speeds.
The different dynamics characteristics of the valve controlled system for
extension and retraction brings about the necessity to use different controller gains
for extension and retraction. However switching the controller gains according to
spool position causes somewhat oscillatory-rugged behavior on the hydraulic
actuator position response at switching times. Of course, this unwanted property
can be eliminated by modifying the control strategy, but this brings another
complexity.
However, in pump controlled system, there exist two servo pumps, which
can be actuated and controlled independently. This brings the edge of
compensating the unequal flow rate of the single rod asymmetric hydraulic
actuator. In the constructed variable speed pump control circuit, the pump 1 is
utilized to compensate the leakage flows and the unequal flow rate of the hydraulic
actuator, and the pump 2 is left with the position and direction control of the
hydraulic actuator. Because pump 1 is always compensating the unequal flow rate
pump 2 can be thought as a control element regulating the flow rate of a symmetric
double rod cylinder. Thus the dynamic characteristic defined between the pump 2
drive speed and the hydraulic actuator position remains the same for extension and
retraction.
The same dynamic characteristics for extension and retraction brings the
superiority of the two pump controlled circuit, over the valve control circuit. The
position of the single rod actuator can be controlled with only one set of state
feedback gains thus eliminating the controller complexity and its unwanted results
on the system response.
In addition to the simpler controller requirement the pump controlled circuit
is superior to the valve controlled circuit, due to its linear nature. If the non-linear
friction characteristic of hydraulic actuator is neglected, it is seen that the total
system dynamics can be defined fully by linear set of differential equations. As a
176
result, the desired system response and the real system response are consistent.
However in the valve controlled circuit, unlike from the pumped controlled circuit
where the flow rate is proportional to the drive speed but it is proportional to the
square root of the valve pressure differential. This non-linear valve flow
characteristics brings the necessity of linearization to define a transfer function
representing the system dynamics. From the experimental test results it is seen that
the real system response designed according to the linearized system equations,
performs well at low frequency region. Nevertheless, at high frequency region the
response characteristics of the real system differ from the linearized system, as the
operating points, where the linearization is performed, changes suddenly.
As a result, in terms of dynamic performance, controller simplicity due to
same dynamic characteristics for extension and retraction and the consistency with
the desired system response due to its linear nature are the superiorities of the
variable speed pumped controlled system over the valve controlled system.
Besides the dynamic performance, if the energy efficiency of the two
circuits is to be compared, it is seen that the pump controlled circuit is by far
advantageous over the valve controlled circuit. Because the flow rate is regulated
by adjusting the pump drive speed there exist no throttling losses in the pump
controlled circuit. In valve controlled circuit most of the energy loss is due to
throttling losses. However, if the Figure 2-4, where the power losses of a
conventional valve controlled circuit is illustrated, is to be remembered, it is
understood that most of the power losses is not due to regulate the flow rate
through the hydraulic actuator but to supply a constant pressure for the servo
solenoid valve intake. Most of the flow delivered by the pump to the system passes
through the relief valve to the oil tank, accompanying with a pressure drop
equivalent to the valve supply pressure. One way to reduce the power loss on the
relief valve is to decrease the pump drive speed, thus to decrease the amount of oil
delivered to the system. However, this will result in the fluctuations of the supply
pressure, and affect the dynamic behavior adversely. Another alternative is to use a
pressure compensated pump, where the flow rate is adjusted according to the
system requirements by changing pump displacement, while maintaining a constant
177
supply pressure for the flow control valve intake. However it should be noted that
this will increase the total cost of the hydraulic drive system.
It should be remembered that the fluid power energy lost on the servo
solenoid valve and the relief valve transforms into heat energy, warming up the
hydraulic oil. Hydraulic oil characteristics change with the increasing oil
temperature, thus necessitate for cooling of the hydraulic oil arises in the valve
controlled system. This should be accounted for another additional energy loss.
Furthermore, the oil used in the pump controlled system is not heated up fewer
amount of hydraulic oil is used with respect to the valve controlled system, thus
decreasing the bulky oil reservoir volume.
The hydraulic systems are famous as drive systems, due to their high power
to weight ratio, this is the biggest advantage of the valve controlled circuit. For
example a valve mounted directly on the hydraulic actuator of a robot arm will not
increase the total inertia however if a pumped controlled circuit is utilized, the mass
of the two pumps and the two servomotors, will increase the inertia of the robot
arm considerably. A solution to this may be using long transmission lines and
mounting the pump motor assembly on the ground, but this time the dead volumes
due to long transmission line will decrease the dynamic performance of the
hydraulic system. For this reason in manipulator like applications, where the power
to mass ratio is important, the valve controlled systems seems to be favorable.
In variable speed pump control technique the drive speed of the pumps are
adjusted via servomotors powered from an AC electric supply. In the valve
controlled circuit, the pumps are also driven with electric motors; however, as the
drive speed is constant, an internal combustion engine can also be utilized as the
power source. This brings another superiority of the valve controlled system, which
is the ability to be used in mobile application.
At last, in most of the engineering applications, cost is by far the most
important criteria. Of course, using only a servovalve accompanied with a standard
power supply seems to be reasonable rather than using two special pumps and two
servomotors. But despite the investment cost, if the operating cost is to be
considered, pump controlled systems may be advantageous. The energy savings of
178
the pump controlled circuit, the reduced amount of hydraulic fluid, accompanying
with the increased oil change period are considerable costs in a hydraulic system.
Despite the energy point of view, the maintenance cost of the pump controlled
circuit is another advantage over valve controlled systems, as the pump controlled
hydraulic circuit is simpler than the valve controlled one with less number of
components. Another important factor that determines the cost of a hydraulic
system is the oil contaminations level. It should be noted that because the pump
controlled system is less sensitive to oil contamination, rather than the valve
controlled system the filtering cost will also decrease the operating cost.
179
CHAPTER 6

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Outline of the Study and Discussions
The tasks accomplished within the scope of this thesis study include
- modeling of the valve controlled and pump controlled systems in
MATLAB Simulink environment;
- derivation of linear and linearized reduced order differential equations
defining the system dynamics;
- linear state feedback controller design by using the reduced order linear
and linearized system equations;
- design of linear and non-linear unscented Kalman filters for filtering and
estimation purposes;
- construction of the experimental test set up where the two control
techniques can be applied on the same actuator;
- system identification and finding the unmeasurable quantities
experimentally;
- conducting the performance tests;
- comparison of the two hydraulic control techniques.
At the beginning of the study, detailed mathematical models of pump
controlled systems and valve controlled systems are developed. For simplification
180
purposes, the dynamics of the valve actuator and the pump actuator are considered
to be ideal elements with no dynamics assuming that they have a high bandwidth
controller inside. A non-linear model of the valve controlled system and a linear
model for the pump controlled system consisting of the hydraulic actuator and the
load dynamics are developed in the MATLAB Simulink environment.
Next to numerical methods used in computer environment, both systems are
also modeled analytically to understand their system dynamics fully. The cylinder
dynamics accompanied with the load dynamics results in a 3
rd
order differential
equation between the actuator input and the hydraulic cylinder velocity response.
However when the relation between the dynamic change of hydraulic cylinder
chamber pressures is investigated, it is seen that dynamic pressure changes in the
hydraulic cylinder chambers become linearly dependent above and below some
prescribed cut off frequencies. Thus, assuming linearly dependent chamber
pressure response, the order of the dynamic equations defining the system
dynamics is reduced, resulting in a 2
nd
order transfer function between the actuator
input and the hydraulic cylinder velocity. By this way, the parameters affecting the
system dynamics of the system are explained clearly. Different from the pump
controlled system, the valve flow characteristic equation is linearized at steady state
chamber pressures for extension and retraction at a given spool position to derive a
transfer function for the valve controlled system. From the block diagram
representations drawn for the open loop response of the two systems Figure 3-15
and Figure 3-22 it is concluded that the system dynamics of the two control
techniques are the same except for the actuator gains between the control input and
the flow rate delivered to the system and the load pressure feedback gain, which is
determined by pump leakages in the pump controlled circuit and determined by the
valve pressure gain in the valve controlled circuit.
For the position control of the single rod hydraulic actuator, it is decided to
use a linear state feedback control scheme. In the pump controlled system the state
feedback gains are determined by using the linear reduced order system equations,
and in valve controlled system the linearized reduced order system equations are
used. Unlike from the pump controlled system, there exist only one control element
181
in the valve controlled system. Therefore, the unequal flow rate of the single rod
cylinder is not compensated, resulting in two different system dynamics for
extension and for retraction. For this reason, two different state feedback gain sets
are determined in the valve controlled system for extension and for retraction. In
the applied control algorithm the state feedback gains are switched according to the
valve spool position command.
Because the measured position and the pressure signals are noisy and should
be smoothed in order to be used as the feedback signal through the controller, and
there exist an unknown state which is the actuator velocity and should be estimated
to be used in state feedback control algorithm, Kalman filters are utilized both for
the filtering and estimation purposes. For the pump controlled system due to its
linear nature a conventional discrete linear Kalman filter is designed, however for
the valve controlled system due to its non-linear characteristics an unscented
Kalman filter is designed. The two Kalman filters are tuned such that the filtered
pressure responses and the velocity estimations thrust on the system model rather
than the measurement. By this way the undesirable properties of the real systems,
which are not modeled like the static friction of the hydraulic cylinder, are
prevented to affect the controller performance. Another outcome of this filtering
strategy is that the hydraulic cylinder position can also be controlled with the same
state feedback controller algorithm by only using the position transducer.
In both systems, the unknown parameters, which are the pump leakage
characteristics and the hydraulic cylinder friction characteristics, are found
indirectly through a test procedure as they are not measurable quantities. The
internal and external leakage coefficients are found from the steady state chamber
pressures and the hydraulic cylinder friction characteristics is found by applying a
chirp signal and measuring effective load pressure acting on the hydraulic cylinder.
To test the performance of the valve controlled and pump controlled
hydraulic systems, step response and open loop and closed loop frequency response
tests are conducted on the constructed experimental test set up. For control
purposes, the MATLAB Simulink Real Time Windows Target module is utilized.
The magnitude and frequency of the test signals are chosen such that valve or
182
servomotor actuators will not saturate. Therefore, the test signals are pre-tested on
the MATLAB Simulink system models, before running real time tests. Step
response and frequency response tests are repeated for different closed loop pole
locations. The test signal properties, and the desired closed loop pole locations are
selected to be the same in the pump and valve controlled circuit. The test results
revealed that the dynamic performance of variable speed pump controlled system is
superior to the servo solenoid valve controlled circuit, in terms of controller
simplicity and consistency with the model response. For the both control systems, it
is seen that the bandwidth of the closed loop system can be adjusted via linear state
feedback control algorithm. However in the valve controlled system the
performance of the closed loop system degrades at higher frequencies.
At last a comparison of the variable speed pump controlled and valve
controlled system are made, in terms of dynamic performance, application and cost.
At the end of this thesis study a hydraulic test set up is constructed, this set
up may be used for different linear or non-linear control applications, with
educational purposes.
6.2 Conclusions
Variable speed pump control technique is a recently developed research
area in hydraulic control systems. In this thesis study, this recent method is
investigated in depth with theoretical and experimental analyses and compared with
the conventional valve controlled hydraulic systems.
It is shown that the maximum efficiency of a conventional valve controlled
circuit is 38.5%, and noted that this is valid for only at an instant of time when the
maximum power requirement is equal to the maximum power input of the valve, if
the total duty cycle of the load is considered, the efficiency of the hydraulic circuit
will be lower than this figure. If this low efficiency of the conventional valve
controlled circuits is considered, then the importance of pump controlled systems
will be well understood where there exist no throttling losses. In the variable speed
pump controlled circuit constructed and analyzed throughout the thesis study, two
183
variable speed pumps are utilized to regulate the flow rate going through the
hydraulic actuator and eliminating throttling losses. Thus, all the throttling losses
are eliminated and the only energy loss in this new circuit concept is the losses due
to pump leakages, motor drives and transmission lines.
Besides the elimination of throttling losses, in this thesis study, it is also
revealed that the two pump control principle is superior to the valve control
technique due to the ability to compensate for the asymmetric flow rate of the
single rod cylinder. Thus different from the valve controlled circuit, where two
different dynamic characteristics exist for extension and retraction, the dynamic
response of the pumped controlled system is the same both for extension and
retraction. This property makes the variable speed pump controlled circuit superior
to the valve controlled circuit in terms of controller simplicity. The different
characteristics of the valve controlled circuit for extension and retraction
necessitates a complex controller than in the pumped controlled case. In this thesis
study two different state feedback gains are calculated for extension and retraction
of the valve controlled circuit. These gains are switched between each other for the
zero spool position command and it is observed that this results in a rugged
response at the switching times. However in the variable speed pump controlled
system, a smooth response is obtained by using a simple linear state feedback
control algorithm.
Besides the controller simplicity, due to the linear nature of the variable
speed pump controlled circuit, from the test results it is seen that the linear model
responses are completely in accordance with the test results. Thus a high
performance closed loop variable speed pump control system can be designed just
by using the linear system equations with the conventional analytical controller
design methods. However in valve controlled system the linearized model response
differs from the real system at high frequency excitations, thus to design a high
performance closed loop valve controlled circuit not the linearized system
equations but the non-linear system equations should be used.
Except the dynamic performance and the energy consumption if the two
systems are compared in terms of cost, then it is seen that the investment cost of the
184
pump controlled system is higher than the valve controlled one, however if the
operation and maintenance cost is considered the pump controlled system can
amortize the investment cost depending on the duty cycle of the system.
The main drawbacks of the variable speed controlled systems are the low
power to mass ratio with respect to valve controlled systems and requirement for an
electrical power supplies. Besides, the long transmission lines between the pumps
and actuator is another drawback decreasing the dynamic performance in variable
speed pump controlled system. All these factors oppose to apply variable speed
pump control technique in mobile and robotic, manipulator like applications.
However, for stationary applications, like industrial presses, where power to mass
ratio is not important and a electrical supply is available, the variable speed pump
control principle seem to be favorable.
6.3 Recommendations for Future Work
In this thesis study, motor dynamics is neglected completely and
servomotors are assumed to be angular velocity resources as they have a high
bandwidth controller inside. However, during the tests it is seen that motor
dynamics has an effect on the system performance. Especially at high frequency
excitations, the motor does not respond well, there occur a shift both in phase and
magnitude level resulting in a decrease of the chamber pressures. To model the
system more accurately not only the servomotor model dynamics should be added
to system dynamic equations, but also the non-linear behavior of the servomotor
should be taken into account. Because, the system is controlled by regulating the
servomotor speed, especially at steady state where the servomotor speed is very
low or near to zero, the dead band of the servomotor becomes more of issue and
should be investigated.
In this thesis study, the pumps are also assumed as ideal transformation
elements, with linear internal and external leakage coefficients, transforming the
input shaft speed to the flow rate delivered to the system. The pump characteristics
are not investigated. However, it is known that the pump volumetric efficiency
185
changes with the motor speed implying that the leakage coefficients are not the
same for high speed and low speed excitations. In variable speed pump controlled
systems, the pumps are required to work under high pressures with very low drive
speeds. Therefore, to increase the system performance, pump characteristics at low
drive speeds should be investigated. The dead band in the pump drive speeds and
non-linear leakage flow coefficients may be found experimentally.
Considering the effects of the servomotor dynamics, non-linear pump
characteristics, and of course designing and tuning an appropriate controller, the
steady state behavior of the variable speed pump controlled system could further be
improved.
In this thesis study, the parameters like bulk modulus of the oil, leakage
coefficients of the pump and the friction characteristics of the hydraulic cylinder
are found through an experimental procedure. However, there are some studies in
literature utilizing Kalman filters for monitoring system parameters which are not
measurable directly. In this study, Kalman filters are used for only filtering and
estimation purposes, the unknown parameters may also be estimated from the
Kalman filters by adding these parameters as auxiliary states. By this way, the non-
linear characteristics of these parameters can be obtained without any need for
excess measurement devices. For example, pump leakage flow coefficients are
important parameters affecting the system dynamic and static behavior. To find
these coefficients for variable drive speed a flow meter is required. If such a device
is not available as in in this study, these coefficients can be estimated at different
drive speeds with the help of a Kalman filter.
In Chapter 3, the operation in 4-quadrants is explained, it is said that the
pumps are able to operate as a hydraulic motor. In the pump controlled system
while operating in motor mode the energy transmitted from the system through the
hydraulic pumps to the servomotor drives are dissipated as heat energy on the
servomotor resistances. To increase the energy efficiency of the system, an energy
storage element like a hydraulic accumulator could be added to the system.
Different from the valve controlled system, in pump controlled systems,
pumps are not positioned next to the hydraulic actuator, they are mounted directly
186
on the power source. This arrangement results in long transmission lines,
decreasing the dynamic performance of the system. In the modeling section of the
thesis study, the transmission line volumes are lumped into the hydraulic cylinder
volumes, and the lines are assumed to be lossless. Modeling the lines as conductive
elements and neglecting the resistance is a valid assumption especially when the
lines are short. However when long transmission lines are required as in the pump
controlled case, their resistances may affect the system dynamics. As a future work
in line dynamics, the pressure loss in the lines may be added to the system dynamic
equations, and the effect of the transmission lines on the system performance may
be investigated in more detail.
In Chapter 3 in modeling section, it is explained that for high excitation
frequencies, the dynamic pressure changes of the hydraulic cylinder chambers
become linearly dependent. The state feedback controllers are designed, by using
this property; however the cylinder chamber pressures are measured and filtered
through Kalman filter. As a future work, the state feedback control algorithm for
the position control of the hydraulic cylinder may be applied with reduced number
of transducers.

187

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191

APPENDIX A

TRANSFER FUNCTION DERIVATION FOR PUMP CONTROLLED
SYSTEM

To be uniform and perceptible all the dynamic equations that define the
pump controlled system are repeated below.
The flow continuity equations of the pump/motor unit,
For the outlet (A side) port of Pump 2,
( )
2 2 p A P i A B ea A
q D n C p p C p = (7.1)
For the inlet port (B side) port of Pump 2,
( )
2 2 p B P i A B eb B
q D n C p p C p = + (7.2)
For the outlet (A side) port of Pump 1,
1 1 p A P i A ea A
q D n C p C p = (7.3)
The flow continuity equations of the hydraulic cylinder:
A A
A A
V dp
q A x
E dt
= + (7.4)
B B
B B
V dp
q A x
E dt
= (7.5)
Load Pressure:
L A B
p p p =
(7.6)

Structural equation of the load:
L B
p A mx bx = +
(7.7)

192
Continuity equations:
_ 2 B ss p B
q q = 1.39 (7.8)
_ 1 2 A ss p A p A
q q q = + 1.41 (7.9)
Substituting Eq. (7.2) and Eq. (7.5) into Eq. (7.8), and Eq.(7.1), Eq.(7.3) and
Eq.(7.4) into Eq.(7.9),
( )
2
B B
B P i A B eb B
V dp
A x D n C p p C p
E dt
= + (7.10)
( ) ( )
1 2
A A
A P i ea A P i A B ea A
V dp
A x D n C C p D n C p p C p
E dt
+ = + + ( (

(7.11)
and making the substitution defined below
( )
1 2
1 n n = (7.12)
A B
A A = (7.13)
A B
V V o = (7.14)
the continuity equations can be rewritten as
( )
2
2 2
B A
P i B i ea A B
V dp
D n C p C C p A x
E dt
o
= + + (7.15)

( )
2
B B
P i A i eb B B
V dp
D n C p C C p A x
E dt
= + + (7.16)

Taking the Laplace transformation, with zero initial conditions gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
B
P B i ea A i B
V
D N s A sX s s C C P s C P s
E
o

| |
= + +
|
\ .
(7.17)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
B
P B i A i eb B
V
D N s A sX s C P s s C C P s
E
| |
= + +
|
\ .
(7.18)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
A B L B
P s P s P s A ms bs X s = = + (7.19)
From the load pressure equation (Eq.6), the chamber pressures can be
written as
193
( ) ( ) ( )
B A L
P s P s P s = (7.20)
( )
( ) ( )
L B
A
P s P s
P s
+
= (7.21)
Inserting Eq. (7.20) into Eq.(7.17), and inserting the Eq.(7.21) into
Eq.(7.18) give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2
B
P B i ea A i L
V
D N s A sX s s C C P s C P s
E
o

| |
= + + +
|
\ .
(7.22)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
i B
P B L i eb B
C V
D N s A sX s P s s C C P s
E

| |
= + +
|
\ .
(7.23)
Multiplying Eq. (7.22) with
1
B
i eb
V
s C C
E

| |
+ +
|
\ .
and multiplying
Eq..(7.23) with ( ) 2 2
B
i ea
V
s C C
E
o

| |
+ +
|
\ .
, then summing these two equations
give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
B B
i eb i ea P B
i B B
i eb i ea L
B B
i eb i ea L
V V
s C C s C C D N s A sX s
E E
C V V
s C C s C C P s
E E
V V
s C C s C C P s
E E
o

o

o

( | | | |
+ + + + +
( | |
\ . \ .
( | | | |
= + + + + +
( | |
\ . \ .
| | | |
+ + + + +
| |
\ . \ .
(7.24)
After rearranging, it becomes
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
1 1
2 2 2 2
B
i eb ea P B
L B
i i eb i ea i
B B
i ea eb
L
i i ea i eb ea eb
V
s C C C D N s A sX s
E
P s V
C s C C C C C
E
V V
s C C C s
E E
P s
C C C C C C C
o
o
o o o
o

(
+ + + + +
(

| |
= + + + + +
|
\ .
( | | +
+ + +
( |
\ .
(
+
(

+ + + + (

(7.25)
194
Rearranging again, one obtains
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
B
i eb ea P B
B B
i ea eb i ea eb i ea eb L
V
E
V V
s C C C s C C C C C C P s
E E
o
o
o o
(
+ + + + +
(

(
= + + + + + + + +
(

(7.26)

Inserting Eq. (7.26) into Eq.(7.19) gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
B
i eb ea P B
B B
i ea eb
B
i ea eb i ea eb
V
E
V V
s C C C s
ms bs
E E X s
A
C C C C C C
o
o
o o
(
+ + + + +
(

(
+ + + +
+ (
=
(
(
+ + + +

(7.27)
Then the transfer function between the input pump 2 speed and the output
hydraulic actuator velocity becomes,
( )
( )
1 2
3 2
2 1 2 3 4
V s
a s a
N s b s b s b s b
+
=
+ + +
(7.28)
where
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
1
2 2
2
2
1 2
2
2 2
2 2 2
3
2 2 2 2
4
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
B
P B
i eb ea P B
B
B B
i ea eb
B B
i ea eb i ea eb i ea eb B
i ea eb i ea eb i eb ea B
V
a D A
E
a C C C D A
V
b m
E
V V
b m C C C b
E E
V V
b m C C C C C C b C C C A
E E
b b C C C C C C C C C A
o

o
o
o o
o o o

= +
= + + +
=
= + + + +
= + + + + + + + + +
= + + + + + + +

195
Reduced Order Transfer Function Derivation is explained below.
Multiplying Eq.(7.15) with the area ratio , and multiplying Eq.(7.16) with
the volume ratio o .
( )
2
2 2
B A
P i B i ea A B
V dp
D n C p C C p A x
E dt
o

(
= + + (
(

(7.29)

( )
2
B B
P i A i eb B B
V dp
D n C p C C p A x
E dt
o o
(
= + + (
(

(7.30)

and summing the resulting expressions give the rate of the change of the load
pressure as

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2
B
L P i ea A
i eb B B
V
p D n C C p
E
C C p A x
o
o o
o o o
= + + +
+ + + +
(7.31)

Assuming that the dynamic chamber pressure changes
A
p and
B
p are
linearly dependent and defined by
A B
p p = (7.32)
and through Eq.(7.6) and Eq.(7.32) writing the dynamic chamber pressure changes
A
p and
B
p in terms of load pressure
L
p as
1
L
A
p
p

=
+
(7.33)
1
L
B
p
p
=
+
(7.34)
and substituting Eq.(7.33) and Eq.(7.34) into the Eq.(7.31) give
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2
1
1
B L
L P i ea
L
i eb B
V p
p D n C C
E
p
C C A x
o
o o
o o o
= + + +
+
+ + +
+
(7.35)

L
p
196
Rearranging and taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial
conditions give
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
1
i ea eb
B
L
P B
C C C
V
s P s
E
D N s A sX s
o o o
o
o o
| | + + + + +
+ |
|
+
\ .
= + +
(7.36)

Defining
( ) ( )
2 2
1
i ea eb
Leak
C C C
C
o o o
+ + + + +
=
+
(7.37)

and insert the Eq.(7.19) into Eq.(7.36) give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2
B
Leak B P
B
V ms b
s C sX s A sX s D N s
E A
o
o o
+ | |
+ + + = +
|
\ .
(7.38)
Then the reduced order transfer function between the input pump 2 speed
and the output hydraulic velocity is obtained as
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2
P B
B B
Leak Leak B
D A
V s
V V N s
m s b mC s bC A
E E
o
o o
o
+
=
| |
+ + + + +
|
\ .
(7.39)

197

APPENDIX B

TRANSFER FUNCTION DERIVATION FOR VALVE
CONTROLLED SYSTEM

To be uniform and perceptible all the dynamic equations that define the
pump controlled system are repeated below. Because the procedure is the same, the
transfer function is derived only for the extension of the hydraulic actuator.
The linearized valve flow characteristic equations:
2 2 _ 2 _ v S A u ext p ext A
q K u p p K u K p = = (7.1)
4 4 _ 4 _ v B u ext p ext B
q K u p K u K p = = + (7.2)
The flow continuity equations of the hydraulic cylinder:
A A
A A
V dp
q A x
E dt
= + (7.3)
B B
B B
V dp
q A x
E dt
= (7.4)
Load Pressure:
L A B
p p p = (7.5)
Structural equation of the load:
L B
p A mx bx = + (7.6)
Continuity equations:
2 A
q q = (7.7)
4 B
q q = (7.8)
198
Substituting Eq. (7.1)and Eq. (7.3)into Eq. (7.7), and Eq. (7.2) and Eq. (7.4)
into Eq. (7.8),
2 _ 2 _
A A
u ext p ext A A
V dp
K u K p A x
E dt
= + (7.9)
4 _ 4 _
B B
u ext p ext B B
V dp
K u K p A x
E dt
+ = (7.10)
and making the substitution defined below
A B
A A = (7.11)
2 _ 4 _ u ext u ext
K K = (7.12)
4 _ 2 _ p ext u ext
K K = (7.13)
A B
V V o = (7.14)
and rearranging Eq. (7.9) and Eq. (7.10)
4 _ 2 _
B A
u ext B p ext A
V dp
K u A x K p
E dt
o
= (7.15)
4 _ 2 _
B B
u ext B p ext B
V dp
K u A x K p
E dt
+ = (7.16)
Taking the Laplace transform, and rearranging
( ) ( ) ( )
4 _
2 _ 2 _
u ext
B
A
B B
p ext p ext
K
A
u s sX s P s
V V
K s K s
E E

o o
=
+ +
(7.17)
( ) ( ) ( )
4 _
2 _ 2 _
u ext
B
B
B B
p ext p ext
K
A
u s sX s P s
V V
K s K s
E E

=
+ +
(7.18)
Multiplying the Eq. (7.17) by the area ratio and summing with the Eq.
(7.18) give
199
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
4 _ 2 _ 4 _ 2 _
2 _ 2 _
2
2 _ 2 _
2 _ 2 _
B B
u ext p ext u ext p ext
B B
p ext p ext
B B
B p ext B p ext
A B
B B
p ext p ext
V V
K K s K K s
E E
U s
V V
K s K s
E E
V V
A K s A K s
E E
sX s P s P s
V V
K s K s
E E
o

o

o

o

| | | |
+ + +
| |
\ . \ .
| || |
+ +
| |
\ .\ .
| | | |
+ + +
| |
\ . \ .
=
| || |
+ +
| |
\ .\ .
(7.19)
Inserting Eq.(7.5) and Eq. (7.6) into Eq. (7.19) and rearranging give
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
3 2
2 _
4 _ 2
2 2
2 _ 2 _ 2
3 2
2
2 _
2
2 2
2 _ 2 _ 2
1
1
1
1
B
p ext
u ext
B B
p ext p ext
B
p ext
B
B B B
p ext p ext
V
K s
E
K U s
V V
s K s K
E E
V
K s
ms bs
E
A sX s X s
A V V
s K s K
E E
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+
=
+ + +
(7.20)
Arranging Eq. (7.20) again, the transfer function between the valve spool
position and the hydraulic actuator velocity is given as
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
3 2
1 2 3 4
2
1 4 _
3
2 4 _ 2 _
2
1
2
2
2 2 _ 2
2 2 2
3 2 _ 2 _
2 3 2
4 2 _ 2 _
1
1
1
1
B
u ext B
u ext B p ext
B
B B
p ext
B B
p ext p ext B
p ext p ext B
V s a s a
U s b s b s b s b
V
a K A
E
a K A K
V
b m
E
V V
b mK b
E E
V V
b m K bK A
E E
b b K K A
o
o
o
o
o o

+
=
+ + +
= +
= +
=
= + +
= + + + +
= + +
(7.21)

200
Reduced Order Transfer Function Derivation for Valve Controlled System
for Extension is explained below.
Multiplying Eq.(7.15) with the area ratio and multiplying Eq.(7.16) with
the volume ratio o
,

2 2
4 _ 2 _
B A
u ext B p ext A
V dp
K u A x K p
E dt
o
= (7.22)
4 _ 2 _
B B
u ext B p ext B
V dp
K u A x K p
E dt
o
o o o + = (7.23)
and summing the resulting expressions give the rate of the change of the load
pressure as

( ) ( )
2 2
4 _ 2 _ 2 _
B
u ext B p ext A p ext B L
V
K u A x K p K p p
E
o
o o o + + + = (7.24)
Assuming that the dynamic chamber pressure changes
A
p and
B
p are
linearly dependent and defined by
A B
p p = (7.25)
and through Eq.(7.5) and Eq.(7.25) writing the dynamic chamber pressure changes
A
p and
B
p in terms of load pressure
L
p as
1
L
A
p
p

=
+
(7.26)
1
L
B
p
p
=
+
(7.27)
and substituting Eq.(7.26) and Eq.(7.27) into the Eq.(7.24) give
( ) ( )
2 2
4 _ 2 _
1
B
u ext B p ext L L
V
K u A x K p p
E
o o
o o
+
+ + =
+
(7.28)
Rearranging and taking the Laplace transform of above expression,
assuming zero initial condition give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
4 _ 2 _
1
B
u ext B p ext L
V
K U s A sX s s K P s
E
o o
o o
| | +
+ + = +
|
+
\ .
(7.29)
L
p
201
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq.(7.6) and inserting into Eq. (7.29) give
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2 2
4 _
2 _
1
u ext B B
B
p ext
K A U s A sX s
V
s K ms b sX s
E
o o
o o

+ + =
| | +
+ +
|
+
\ .
(7.30)
Simplifying the above expression, the transfer function between the valve
spool position and hydraulic actuator is obtained as
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
4 _
2 2 2
2 _ 2 _
1 1
u ext B
B B
p ext p ext B
K A
V s
U s m V b V
s m K s b K A
E E
o
o o o o
o

+
=
| | + +
+ + + + +
|
+ +
\ .
(7.31)

202

APPENDIX C

MATLAB FILES

UNSCENTED KALMAN FILTER ALGORITHM
function [xEst_k1,PEst_k1,yOut]=UKF(xEst,PEst,U,z,Q,R,Ts,Param_Mod)
% This function performs one complete step of the unscented Kalman
filter.
% INPUTS
% - xEst : state mean estimate at time k-1
% - PEst : state covariance at time k-1
% - U : control input (spool position) at time k-1
% - z : measurement vector at time k
% - Q : process noise covariance at time k-1
% - R : measurement noise covariance at timek
% - Ts : time step
% - Param_Mod : vector containing model paramter
% OUTPUTS :
% - xEst_k1 : updated estimate of state mean at time k+1
% - PEst_k1 : updated state covariance at time k+1
% - yOut : Output States
% SUB FUNCTIONS:
% - ffunc : process model function
% - hfunc : measurement model function
% - CalcSigmaPoints : sigma point calculation function
% - StateMatrix : non-linear state matrix

% The dimension of the vectors
states = 4; % 1 number of rows, 2 number of columns
observations = 3;
vNoise = 4;
wNoise = 3;
noises = vNoise+wNoise;

% Augment the state vector with the noise vectors.
N=[Q zeros(vNoise,wNoise); zeros(wNoise,vNoise) R];
PQ=[PEst zeros(states,noises);zeros(noises,states) N];
xQ=[xEst;zeros(noises,1)];

% TIME UPDATE EQUATIONS
% Calculate the sigma points and there corresponding weights using
the Scaled Unscented
% Transformation
[xSigmaPts, nsp] = CalcSigmaPoints(xQ, PQ);
nsp=23;

% Project the sigma points and their means
203
xPredSigmaPts =
ffunc(xSigmaPts(1:states,:),repmat(U(:),1,nsp),xSigmaPts(states+1:s
tates+vNoise,:),Ts,Param_Mod); %evaluate the function ffunc
zPredSigmaPts =
hfunc(xPredSigmaPts,xSigmaPts(states+vNoise+1:states+noises,:));

% Calculate the mean
xPred = sum((xPredSigmaPts(:,2:nsp) -
repmat(xPredSigmaPts(:,1),1,nsp-1)),2);
zPred = sum((zPredSigmaPts(:,2:nsp) -
repmat(zPredSigmaPts(:,1),1,nsp-1)),2);
xPred=xPred+xPredSigmaPts(:,1);
zPred=zPred+zPredSigmaPts(:,1);

% Work out the covariances and the cross correlations. Note that
% the weight on the 0th point is different from the mean
% calculation due to the scaled unscented algorithm.

exSigmaPt = xPredSigmaPts(:,1)-xPred;
ezSigmaPt = zPredSigmaPts(:,1)-zPred;

PPred = exSigmaPt*exSigmaPt';
PxzPred = exSigmaPt*ezSigmaPt';
S = ezSigmaPt*ezSigmaPt';

exSigmaPt1 = xPredSigmaPts(:,2:nsp) - repmat(xPred,1,nsp-1);
ezSigmaPt1 = zPredSigmaPts(:,2:nsp) - repmat(zPred,1,nsp-1);
PPred = PPred + exSigmaPt1 * exSigmaPt1';
S = S + ezSigmaPt1 * ezSigmaPt1';
PxzPred = PxzPred + exSigmaPt1 * ezSigmaPt1';

% MEASUREMENT UPDATE
% Calculate Kalman gain
K = PxzPred / S;
% Calculate Innovation
inovation = z - zPred;
% Update mean
xEst_k1 = xPred + K*inovation;
% Output States
C=[1 0 0 0;0 1 0 0; 0 0 1 0; 0 0 0 1];
yOut=C*xEst_k1;
% Update covariance
PEst_k1 = PPred - K*S*K';

function [xPts,nPts] = CalcSigmaPoints(x,P)
% Inputs:
% x mean
% P covariance
% Outputs:
% xPts The sigma points
% nPts The number of points

% Number of sigma points and scaling terms
n = size(x(:),1);
nPts = 2*n+1;

% Allocate space
204
xPts=zeros(n,nPts);

% Calculate matrix square root of weighted covariance matrix
Psqrtm=(chol(n*P))';
% Array of the sigma points
xPts=[zeros(size(P,1),1) -Psqrtm Psqrtm];
% Add mean back in
xPts = xPts + repmat(x,1,nPts);

function xout = ffunc(x,u,v,Ts,Param_Mod)
% This function performs Runge Kutta Integration at 4 times in
% each time step
k1=StateMatrix(x,u,Param_Mod);
k2=StateMatrix(x+0.5*k1*Ts,u,Param_Mod);
k3=StateMatrix(x+0.5*k2*Ts,u,Param_Mod);
k4=StateMatrix(x+k3*Ts,u,Param_Mod);
x_delta=1/6.*(k1+2*k2+2*k3+k4)*Ts;
% Calculate New State
xout=x+x_delta+v;

function x_dot=StateMatrix(x,u,Prm)
%% Define the system Parameters
% Number of States
n=size(x,1);
% Number of Sigma Points
nSig=size(x,2);
% Define the parameters
% Parameters=[M,Aa,Ab,Modulus,Kv,xin,xmax,Ps,Vo,b];
% Mass
M=Prm(1);
% Piston A and B Side Area
Aa=Prm(2);
Ab=Prm(3);
% Bulk Modulus
Modulus=Prm(4);
% Valve Constant
Kv=Prm(5);
% Minimum and the maximum stroke of the cylinder
xin=repmat(Prm(6),1,nSig);
xmax=repmat(Prm(7),1,nSig);
% Supply Pressure
Ps=repmat(Prm(8),1,nSig);
% Initial Volume
Va=repmat(Prm(9),1,nSig);
Vb=repmat(Prm(10),1,nSig);
% Damping Ratio
b=Prm(11);

%% State Matrix
x_dot=zeros(n,nSig); % Since output must be column vector
x_dot(1,:)=x(2,:);
x_dot(2,:)=1/M*(Aa*x(3,:)-Ab*x(4,:)-b*x(2,:));
if (u(1,1)>=0) %As all the other control signalas are the same
x_dot(3,:)=Modulus./(Va+Aa*(x(1,:))).*(Kv*u(1,:).*sqrt(abs(Ps-
x(3,:)))-Aa*x(2,:));
205
x_dot(4,:)=Modulus./(Vb+Ab*(xmax-x(1,:))).*(-
Kv*u(1,:).*sqrt(abs(x(4,:)))+Ab*x(2,:));
else

x_dot(3,:)=Modulus./(Va+Aa*x(1,:)).*(Kv*u(1,:).*sqrt(abs(x(3,:)))-
Aa*x(2,:));
x_dot(4,:)=Modulus./(Vb+Ab*(xmax-x(1,:))).*(-
Kv*u(1,:).*sqrt(abs(Ps-x(4,:)))+Ab*x(2,:));
end

function y = hfunc(x,n)
% Measurement model for UKF
% INPUT
% x : state vetor at time k
% n : measurement noise vector at time k
% OUTPUT
% y : state observation vector at time k
H=[1 0 0 0; 0 0 1 0; 0 0 0 1];
y = H*x+n;

CALCULATION OF THE FFT OF THE MEASURED DATA
function [x,y_mag,y_phase]= DrawBode(dat)
%% Load the mat files and read the data
load(dat);
% Read the input from the Position Scope
FlPos(:,1)=FiltPos; % Filtered position output
RfPos(:,1)=RefPos; % Reference Position
%%
fs=1/Ts; % Sampling Rate [Hz]
tstart=T_step; % Start Time [s]
tend=Tsim; % End Time [s]
FreqMin=fr_start; % Minimum Frequency [Hz]
FreqMax=fr_stop; % Maximum Frequncy [Hz]
Freq_Inc=.01; % Frequency Increment [Hz]
%%
% Take the necessary Data
for i=1:1
out(:,i)=FlPos(tstart*fs:tend*fs,i);
% in(:,i)=input(tstart*fs:tend*fs,i);
% Remove the 'linear' trend of the output
out(:,i)=detrend(out(:,i));
% Calculate the FFT of the input and the Output
% in_fft(:,i)=fft(in(:,i));
out_fft(:,i)=fft(out(:,i));
end
% Input sabit
in(:,1)=RfPos(tstart*fs:tend*fs,1);
in_fft(:,1)=fft(in(:,1));

% Take the Avarage FFT
for i=1:length(out_fft)
206
out_fft_mean(i,1)=mean(out_fft(i,:));
% in_fft_mean(i)=mean(in_fft(i,:));
end
% Time Array
t=0:1/fs:(tend-tstart);
% Frequency Array
FreqArray=0:fs/(length(in_fft)-1):fs;
%% Bode Plot
Mag=20*log10(abs(out_fft_mean)./abs(in_fft));
PhsAngle=(-angle(in_fft)+angle(out_fft_mean))*180/pi;
f=FreqMin;
j=1;
for i=1:(length(Mag)-1)
%
if PhsAngle(i+1,1)-PhsAngle(i,1)>200
PhsAngle(i+1,1)=PhsAngle(i+1,1)-360;
end
if PhsAngle(i+1,1)-PhsAngle(i,1)<-200
PhsAngle(i+1,1)=PhsAngle(i+1,1)+360;
end
%
if FreqArray(i)<FreqMax
if FreqArray(i)>f
x(j)=FreqArray(i-1);
y_mag(j)=Mag(i-1);
y_phase(j)=PhsAngle(i-1);
f=f+Freq_Inc;
j=j+1;
end
end
end

207

APPENDIX D

DRIVERS AND DAQ CARD CONNECTIONS

Servo Proportional Valve Driver Connections
0 V b2 Power Zero
B
O
S
C
H

S
E
R
V
O
-
P
R
O
P
O
R
T
I
O
N
A
L

V
A
L
V
E

D
R
I
V
E
R

Supply 24V z2 24 V
b4 z4
SLND-2 b6 Solenoid output z6
SLND-1 b8 Solenoid output z8
b10 z10
0 V b12 Control Zero z12
b14 z14
b16 Enable 10 V z16 Switch
b18 z18
DAQ-23 b20 Signal Input Ref Signal Input z20 DAQ-20
DAQ-15 b22 LVDT Feedback
Signal
z22
DAQ-1 b24 LVDT Feedback Ref. z24
b26 z26
b28 Ground z28 0 V
LVDT-1 b30 LVDT Supply -15 V LVDT Supply +15
V
z30 LVDT-3
b32 Supply of pot. 10
V
z32 Switch

Connect power zero b2 and control zero b12, b14 or z28 separately to
central ground (neutral point)

208
Valve Controlled System NI 6025E Data Acquisition Card Connections

DAQ Card
Press. Trns. A
Position Trns
Press. Trns. S
Valve Sp. Pos
Servo Mt. 1-2
Valve Sp. z20
Srv. Mts. Gnd
Valve Gnd z20
All
Transducers
Press. Trns. B
209
Pump Controlled System NI 6025E Data Acquisition Card Connections

DAQ Card NI 6025
Press. Trns. A
Position Trns
Press. Trns. S
Srv. Mt. 1
Srv. Mt. 2
Srv. Mt.1 Gnd
Srv. Mt.2 Gnd
All
Transducers
Press. Trns. B
Servo M2 Sp
Servo M1 Sp

Coool Hydraulic System Design Thesis

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Coool Hydraulic System Design Thesis

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What is the thesis about?

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What control techniques are investigated?

What control techniques are investigated?

MODELING AND EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF

VARIABLE SPEED PUMP AND VALVE CONTROLLED HYDRAULIC

Dynamic pressure change ratio of the hydraulic cylinder

Non dimensional valve spool opening

Hydraulic oil density

Discrete state transition matrix

> u (extension of the hydraulic actuator), the

< u (retraction the hydraulic actuator), the pressurized oil

represents the non-dimensional load pressure,

q is the priori estimate, which is an

H q with the actual measurements.

P goes to zero, the Kalman gain

P goes to zero the Kalman

P at time step k is defined from the

q and a weighted difference between the actual

Hq . Lastly in Equation (4.86) a

Posteriori Estimate Error Covariance

q at time step k, by averaging the 2n

P at time step k-1.

q and a weighted difference between the

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