Retail Inventory Management

Outline
Global Company Profile: Amazon.com
Functions of Inventory
Types of Inventory

Inventory Management
ABC Analysis

Record Accuracy
Cycle Counting Control of Service Inventories

Outline Continued
Inventory Models
Independent vs. Dependent Demand Holding, Ordering, and Setup Costs

Outline Continued
Inventory Models for Independent Demand
The Basic Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) Model Minimizing Costs Reorder Points Production Order Quantity Model Quantity Discount Models

Outline Continued
Probabilistic Models and Safety Stock
Other Probabilistic Models

Fixed-Period (P) Systems

Amazon.com
Amazon.com started as a virtual retailer no inventory, no warehouses, no overhead; just computers taking orders to be filled by others
Growth has forced Amazon.com to become a world leader in warehousing and inventory management

Amazon.com
1. Each order is assigned by computer to the closest distribution center that has the product(s) 2. A flow meister at each distribution center assigns work crews 3. Lights indicate products that are to be picked and the light is reset 4. Items are placed in crates on a conveyor. Bar code scanners scan each item 15 times to virtually eliminate errors.

Amazon.com
5. Crates arrive at central point where items are boxed and labeled with new bar code 6. Gift wrapping is done by hand at 30 packages per hour

7. Completed boxes are packed, taped, weighed and labeled before leaving warehouse in a truck
8. Order arrives at customer within a week

Inventory
One of the most expensive assets of many companies representing as much as 50% of total invested capital Operations managers must balance inventory investment and customer service

Functions of Inventory
1. To decouple or separate various parts of the production process 2. To decouple the firm from fluctuations in demand and provide a stock of goods that will provide a selection for customers 3. To take advantage of quantity discounts

4. To hedge against inflation

Types of Inventory
Raw material
Purchased but not processed

Work-in-process
Undergone some change but not completed A function of cycle time for a product

Maintenance/repair/operating (MRO)
Necessary to keep machinery and processes productive

Finished goods
Completed product awaiting shipment

The Material Flow Cycle

Cycle time 95%
Input Wait for inspection Wait to be moved Move time Wait in queue for operator Setup time

5%
Run time Output

Figure 12.1

Inventory Management
How inventory items can be classified
How accurate inventory records can be maintained

ABC Analysis
Divides inventory into three classes based on annual dollar volume
Class A - high annual dollar volume Class B - medium annual dollar volume Class C - low annual dollar volume

Used to establish policies that focus on the few critical parts and not the many trivial ones

ABC Analysis
Item Stock Number #10286 #11526 #12760 #10867 #10500 30%

Percent of Number of Items Stocked

20%

Annual Volume (units) 1,000 500 1,550 350 1,000

Unit Cost $ 90.00 154.00 17.00 42.86 12.50

Annual Dollar Volume $ 90,000 77,000 26,350 15,001 12,500

Percent of Annual Dollar Volume

38.8% 72% 33.2% 11.3% 6.4% 5.4% 23%

Class A A B B B

ABC Analysis
Item Stock Number #12572 #14075 #01036 #01307 #10572 50%

Percent of Number of Items Stocked

Annual Volume (units) 600 2,000 100 1,200 250 8,550

Unit Cost $ 14.17 .60 8.50 .42 .60

Annual Dollar Volume $ 8,502 1,200 850 504 150 $232,057

Percent of Annual Dollar Volume

3.7% .5% .4% .2% .1% 100.0% 5%

Class C C C C C

ABC Analysis
Percent of annual dollar usage 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 A Items B Items | | | | 10 20 30 40

C Items
| | | | | |

50

60

70

80

90 100
Figure 12.2

Percent of inventory items

ABC Analysis
Other criteria than annual dollar volume may be used
Anticipated engineering changes Delivery problems Quality problems

High unit cost

ABC Analysis
Policies employed may include
More emphasis on supplier development for A items Tighter physical inventory control for A items More care in forecasting A items

Record Accuracy
Accurate records are a critical ingredient in production and inventory systems Allows organization to focus on what is needed Necessary to make precise decisions about ordering, scheduling, and shipping Incoming and outgoing record keeping must be accurate Stockrooms should be secure

Cycle Counting
Items are counted and records updated on a periodic basis

Often used with ABC analysis to determine cycle

Has several advantages
Eliminates shutdowns and interruptions
Eliminates annual inventory adjustment Trained personnel audit inventory accuracy Allows causes of errors to be identified and corrected Maintains accurate inventory records

Cycle Counting Example

5,000 items in inventory, 500 A items, 1,750 B items, 2,750 C items

Policy is to count A items every month (20 working days), B items every quarter (60 days), and C items every six months (120 days)

Item Class A B C

Quantity 500 1,750 2,750

Cycle Counting Policy Each month Each quarter Every 6 months

Number of Items Counted per Day 500/20 = 25/day 1,750/60 = 29/day 2,750/120 = 23/day 77/day

Control of Service Inventories

Can be a critical component of profitability Losses may come from shrinkage or pilferage Applicable techniques include
1. Good personnel selection, training, and discipline

2.
3.

Tight control on incoming shipments

Effective control on all goods leaving facility

Independent Versus Dependent Demand

Independent demand - the demand for item is independent of the demand for any other item in inventory Dependent demand - the demand for item is dependent upon the demand for some other item in the inventory

Holding, Ordering, and Setup Costs

Holding costs - the costs of holding or carrying inventory over time

Ordering costs - the costs of placing an order and receiving goods

Setup costs - cost to prepare a machine or process for manufacturing an order

Holding Costs
Category Housing costs (building rent or depreciation, operating costs, taxes, insurance) Material handling costs (equipment lease or depreciation, power, operating cost) Labor cost Investment costs (borrowing costs, taxes, and insurance on inventory) Pilferage, space, and obsolescence Overall carrying cost
Cost (and range) as a Percent of Inventory Value

6% (3 - 10%)

3% (1 - 3.5%)
3% (3 - 5%) 11% (6 - 24%) 3% (2 - 5%) 26%
Table 12.1

Holding Costs
Category Housing costs (building rent or depreciation, operating costs, taxes, insurance) Material handling costs (equipment lease or depreciation, power, operating cost) Labor cost Investment costs (borrowing costs, taxes, and insurance on inventory) Pilferage, space, and obsolescence Overall carrying cost
Cost (and range) as a Percent of Inventory Value

6% (3 - 10%)

3% (1 - 3.5%)
3% (3 - 5%) 11% (6 - 24%) 3% (2 - 5%) 26%
Table 12.1

Inventory Models for Independent Demand

Need to determine when and how much to order Basic economic order quantity

Production order quantity

Quantity discount model

Basic EOQ Model

Important assumptions
1. Demand is known, constant, and independent 2. Lead time is known and constant 3. Receipt of inventory is instantaneous and complete 4. Quantity discounts are not possible 5. Only variable costs are setup and holding 6. Stockouts can be completely avoided

Inventory Usage Over Time

Order quantity = Q (maximum inventory level) Usage rate Average inventory on hand Q 2

Inventory level

Minimum inventory
0

Time
Figure 12.3

Minimizing Costs
Objective is to minimize total costs
Curve for total cost of holding and setup Minimum total cost Annual cost Holding cost curve

Setup (or order) cost curve

Table 11.5

Optimal order quantity (Q*)

Order quantity

The EOQ Model

Q Q* D S H = Number of pieces per order = Optimal number of pieces per order (EOQ) = Annual demand in units for the inventory item = Setup or ordering cost for each order = Holding or carrying cost per unit per year Annual setup cost = (Number of orders placed per year) x (Setup or order cost per order) Setup or order cost per order

Annual demand Number of units in each order D (S) Q

Annual setup cost =

D Q

The EOQ Model

Q Q* D S H

Annual setup cost =

= Number of pieces per order = Optimal number of pieces per order (EOQ) = Annual demand in units for the inventory item = Setup or ordering cost for each order = Holding or carrying cost per unit per year Annual holding cost =

Annual holding cost =

D Q Q H 2

(Average inventory level) x (Holding cost per unit per year)

Order quantity (Holding cost per unit per year) 2 Q (H) 2

The EOQ Model

Q Q* D S H

Annual setup cost =

= Number of pieces per order = Optimal number of pieces per order (EOQ) = Annual demand in units for the inventory item = Setup or ordering cost for each order = Holding or carrying cost per unit per year

Annual holding cost =

D Q Q H 2

Optimal order quantity is found when annual setup cost equals annual holding cost D S = Q Solving for Q* Q H 2

2DS = Q2H Q2 = 2DS/H Q* = 2DS/H

An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles to order D = 1,000 units S = $10 per order H = $.50 per unit per year

Q* = Q* =

2DS H 2(1,000)(10) = 40,000 = 200 units 0.50

An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles to order D = 1,000 units Q* = 200 units S = $10 per order H = $.50 per unit per year

Expected number of orders =N=

Demand = Order quantity 1,000 = 200

D Q*

N=

5 orders per year

An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles to order D = 1,000 units Q* = 200 units S = $10 per order N = 5 orders per year H = $.50 per unit per year

Expected time between orders

=T=

Number of working days per year N

T=

250 = 5

50 days between orders

An EOQ Example
Determine optimal number of needles to order D = 1,000 units Q* = 200 units S = $10 per order N = 5 orders per year H = $.50 per unit per year T = 50 days

Total annual cost = Setup cost + Holding cost TC = D SQ + H Q 2 200 ($.50) 2

TC =

1,000 ($10) + 200

TC = (5)($10) + (100)($.50) = $50 + $50 = $100

Robust Model
The EOQ model is robust
It works even if all parameters and assumptions are not met

The total cost curve is relatively flat in the area of the EOQ

An EOQ Example
Management underestimated demand by 50% D = Q* = 200 units 1,500 units S = $10 per order N = 5 orders per year H = $.50 per unit per year T = 50 days

TC =

D SQ +

Q 2
200 ($.50) = $75 + $50 = $125 2

TC =

1,500 ($10) + 200

Total annual cost increases by only 25%

An EOQ Example
Actual EOQ for new demand is 244.9 units D = Q* = 244.9 units 1,500 units S = $10 per order N = 5 orders per year H = $.50 per unit per year T = 50 days

TC =

D SQ +

Q 2
244.9 ($.50) 2

TC =

1,500 ($10) 244.9 +

Only 2% less than the total cost of $125 when the order quantity was 200

TC = $61.24 + $61.24 = $122.48

Reorder Points
EOQ answers the how much question The reorder point (ROP) tells when to order

ROP =

Demand per day

Lead time for a new order in days

=dxL
d=
D Number of working days in a year

Reorder Point Curve

Q* Inventory level (units)

Slope = units/day = d

ROP (units)

Figure 12.5

Lead time = L

Time (days)

Reorder Point Example

Demand = 8,000 iPods per year 250 working day year Lead time for orders is 3 working days

d=

D Number of working days in a year

= 8,000/250 = 32 units ROP = d x L = 32 units per day x 3 days = 96 units

Production Order Quantity Model

Used when inventory builds up over a period of time after an order is placed Used when units are produced and sold simultaneously

Production Order Quantity Model

Part of inventory cycle during which production (and usage) is taking place

Inventory level

Maximum inventory

Demand part of cycle with no production

Time
Figure 12.6

Production Order Quantity Model

Q = Number of pieces per order H = Holding cost per unit per year t = Length of the production run in days
Annual inventory holding cost

p = Daily production rate d = Daily demand/usage rate

= (Average inventory level) x

Holding cost per unit per year

Annual inventory level

Maximum inventory level

= (Maximum inventory level)/2

Total produced during the production run

Total used during the production run

= pt dt

Production Order Quantity Model

Q = Number of pieces per order H = Holding cost per unit per year t = Length of the production run in days
Maximum inventory level =

p = Daily production rate d = Daily demand/usage rate

Total produced during the production run

Total used during the production run

= pt dt

However, Q = total produced = pt ; thus t = Q/p

Maximum inventory level =p Q d p Q =Q 1 p d p

Holding cost =

Maximum inventory level (H) = 2

Q H 2

d p

Production Order Quantity Model

Q = Number of pieces per order H = Holding cost per unit per year D = Annual demand p = Daily production rate d = Daily demand/usage rate

Setup cost = (D/Q)S Holding cost = (D/Q)S = Q2 =

1HQ[1 - (d/p)] 2

1 HQ[1 - (d/p)] 2
2DS H[1 - (d/p)] 2DS H[1 - (d/p)]

Q* =
p

Production Order Quantity Example

D = 1,000 units S = $10 H = $0.50 per unit per year p = 8 units per day d = 4 units per day

Q* =

2DS H[1 - (d/p)]

2(1,000)(10) 0.50[1 - (4/8)]

= 282.8 or 283 hubcaps

80,000

Production Order Quantity Model

Note:

d=4=

D = Number of days the plant is in operation

1,000 250

When annual data are used the equation becomes

Q* =

2DS

H 1

annual demand rate annual production rate

Quantity Discount Models

Reduced prices are often available when larger quantities are purchased Trade-off is between reduced product cost and increased holding cost
Total cost = Setup cost + Holding cost + Product cost D S+ Q Q H + PD 2

TC =

Quantity Discount Models

A typical quantity discount schedule
Discount Number
1 2 3 Discount Quantity 0 to 999 1,000 to 1,999 2,000 and over Discount (%) no discount 4 5

Discount Price (P)

$5.00 $4.80 $4.75
Table 12.2

Quantity Discount Models

Steps in analyzing a quantity discount
1. For each discount, calculate Q*

2. If Q* for a discount doesnt qualify, choose the smallest possible order size to get the discount
3. Compute the total cost for each Q* or adjusted value from Step 2 4. Select the Q* that gives the lowest total cost

Quantity Discount Models

Total cost curve for discount 1 Total cost curve for discount 2

Total cost $

Total cost curve for discount 3

a
1st price break

Q* for discount 2 is below the allowable range at point a and must be adjusted upward to 1,000 units at point b 2nd price break

1,000

2,000 Order quantity

Figure 12.7

Quantity Discount Example

Calculate Q* for every discount
Q* = 2DS IP

Q1* =
Q2* = Q3* =

2(5,000)(49) = 700 cars/order (.2)(5.00) 2(5,000)(49) = 714 cars/order (.2)(4.80) 2(5,000)(49) = 718 cars/order (.2)(4.75)

Quantity Discount Example

Calculate Q* for every discount
Q* = 2DS IP

Q1* =
Q2* = Q3* =

2(5,000)(49) = 700 cars/order (.2)(5.00) 2(5,000)(49) = 714 cars/order (.2)(4.80) 1,000 adjusted 2(5,000)(49) = 718 cars/order (.2)(4.75) 2,000 adjusted

Quantity Discount Example

Discount Number 1 2 3 Unit Price $5.00 $4.80 $4.75 Order Quantity 700 1,000 2,000 Annual Product Cost $25,000 $24,000 $23.750 Annual Ordering Cost $350 $245 $122.50 Annual Holding Cost $350 $480 $950 Total $25,700 $24,725 $24,822.50
Table 12.3

Choose the price and quantity that gives the lowest total cost Buy 1,000 units at $4.80 per unit

Probabilistic Models and Safety Stock

Used when demand is not constant or certain
Use safety stock to achieve a desired service level and avoid stockouts ROP = d x L + ss
Annual stockout costs = the sum of the units short x the probability x the stockout cost/unit x the number of orders per year

Safety Stock Example

ROP = 50 units Orders per year = 6 Stockout cost = $40 per frame Carrying cost = $5 per frame per year

Number of Units
30 40 50 60 70

Probability
.2 .2 .3 .2 .1 1.0

ROP

Safety Stock Example

ROP = 50 units Orders per year = 6
Safety Stock Additional Holding Cost

Stockout cost = $40 per frame Carrying cost = $5 per frame per year
Total Cost

Stockout Cost

20
10 0

(20)($5) = $100
(10)($5) = $ 50 (10)(.1)($40)(6) $

$0
= $240

$100
$290 $960

0 (10)(.2)($40)(6) + (20)(.1)($40)(6) = $960

A safety stock of 20 frames gives the lowest total cost ROP = 50 + 20 = 70 frames

Probabilistic Demand

Minimum demand during lead time

Inventory level

Maximum demand during lead time

Mean demand during lead time ROP = 350 + safety stock of 16.5 = 366.5 ROP Normal distribution probability of demand during lead time Expected demand during lead time (350 kits) Safety stock 16.5 units

0
Figure 12.8
Place order

Lead time

Time
Receive order

Probabilistic Demand

Probability of no stockout 95% of the time

Risk of a stockout (5% of area of normal curve)

Mean demand 350

ROP = ? kits Safety stock

Quantity

Number of standard deviations

Probabilistic Demand
Use prescribed service levels to set safety stock when the cost of stockouts cannot be determined

ROP = demand during lead time + ZsdLT

where Z = number of standard deviations sdLT = standard deviation of demand during lead time

Probabilistic Example
Average demand = m = 350 kits Standard deviation of demand during lead time = sdLT = 10 kits 5% stockout policy (service level = 95%)
Using Appendix I, for an area under the curve of 95%, the Z = 1.65

Safety stock = ZsdLT = 1.65(10) = 16.5 kits Reorder point = expected demand during lead time + safety stock = 350 kits + 16.5 kits of safety stock = 366.5 or 367 kits

Other Probabilistic Models

When data on demand during lead time is not available, there are other models available 1. When demand is variable and lead time is constant 2. When lead time is variable and demand is constant 3. When both demand and lead time are variable

Other Probabilistic Models

Demand is variable and lead time is constant
ROP = (average daily demand x lead time in days) + ZsdLT

where

sd = standard deviation of demand per day sdLT = sd lead time

Probabilistic Example
Average daily demand (normally distributed) = 15 Standard deviation = 5 Lead time is constant at 2 days 90% service level desired Z for 90% = 1.28 From Appendix I

ROP = (15 units x 2 days) + Zsdlt = 30 + 1.28(5)( 2)

= 30 + 9.02 = 39.02 39
Safety stock is about 9 iPods

Other Probabilistic Models

Lead time is variable and demand is constant
ROP = (daily demand x average lead time in days) = Z x (daily demand) x sLT

where

sLT = standard deviation of lead time in days

Probabilistic Example
Daily demand (constant) = 10 Average lead time = 6 days Standard deviation of lead time = sLT = 3 98% service level desired Z for 98% = 2.055 From Appendix I

ROP = (10 units x 6 days) + 2.055(10 units)(3) = 60 + 61.65 = 121.65

Reorder point is about 122 cameras

Other Probabilistic Models

Both demand and lead time are variable
ROP = (average daily demand x average lead time) + ZsdLT

where

sd = standard deviation of demand per day

sLT = standard deviation of lead time in days

sdLT = (average lead time x sd2) + (average daily demand)2 x sLT2

Probabilistic Example
Average daily demand (normally distributed) = 150 Standard deviation = sd = 16 Average lead time 5 days (normally distributed) Standard deviation = sLT = 1 day 95% service level desired Z for 95% = 1.65 From Appendix I

ROP

= (150 packs x 5 days) + 1.65sdLT = (150 x 5) + 1.65 (5 days x 162) + (1502 x 12) = 750 + 1.65(154) = 1,004 packs

Fixed-Period (P) Systems

Orders placed at the end of a fixed period
Inventory counted only at end of period Order brings inventory up to target level

Only relevant costs are ordering and holding

Lead times are known and constant Items are independent from one another

Fixed-Period (P) Systems

Target quantity (T) Q2 On-hand inventory Q4

Q1 P

Q3

P Time
Figure 12.9

Fixed-Period (P) Example

3 jackets are back ordered It is time to place an order No jackets are in stock Target value = 50

Order amount (Q) = Target (T) - On-hand inventory - Earlier orders not yet received + Back orders Q = 50 - 0 - 0 + 3 = 53 jackets

Fixed-Period Systems
Inventory is only counted at each review period May be scheduled at convenient times

Appropriate in routine situations

May result in stockouts between periods May require increased safety stock

THANK YOU