Introduction to

the HyperReals
An extension of the Reals
with infinitely small and
infinitely large numbers.
Introduction to the
HyperReals
Descriptive introduction
Pictures of the HyperReals
Axioms for the HyperReals
Some Properties (Theorems) of
HyperReals

Descriptive introduction
A complete ordered field extension of the
Reals
(in a similar way that the Reals is a complete
ordered field extension of the Rationals)
Contains infinitely small numbers
Contains infinitely large numbers
Has the same logical properties as the
Reals
The HyperReals
Near the Reals
The HyperReals
Far from the Reals
Axioms for the HyperReals
Axioms common to the Reals
Algebraic Axioms
Order Axioms
Completeness Axiom
Axioms unique to the HyperReals
Extension Axiom
Transfer Axiom
Algebraic Axioms
Closure laws: 0 and 1 are numbers. If a and b are
numbers then so are a+b and ab.
Commutative laws: a + b = b + a and ab = ba
Associative laws: a + (b + c) = (a + b) +c and
a(bc)=(ab)c
Identity laws: 0 + a = a and 1a = a
Inverse laws:
For all a, there exists number a such that a + (-a) = 0 and
if a 0, then there exist number a
-1
such that a(a
-1
) = 1
Distributive law: a( b+c ) = ab + ac
Order Axioms
The is a set P of positive numbers which satisfies:

If x, y are elements of P then x + y is an element of P.
If x, y are elements of P then xy is an element of P.
If x is a number then exactly one of the following must
hold:
x = 0,
x is an element of P or
-x is an element of P.
Definition of < and >
a < b
if and only if
(b - a) is an element of P
i.e. (b - a) is positive


a > b if and only if b < a
Properties of <
0 < 1
Transitive law:
If a<b and b<c then a<c.
Trichotomy law:
Exactly one of the relations a<b, a = b, b<a, holds.
Sum law:
If a<b, then a+c<b+c.
Product law:
If a<b and 0<c, then ac<bc.
Root law:
For a>0 and positive integer n,
there is a number b>0 such that b
n
= a.
Completeness Axiom
A number b is said to be an upper bound of a
set of numbers A if b > x for all x in A.
A number c is said to be an least upper bound
of the set of numbers A if c is an upper bound
of A and b > c for all upper bounds b of A.

Completeness Axiom:
Every non-empty set of numbers which is
bounded above has a least upper bound.
Axioms unique to the
HyperReals
Extension Axiom
Transfer Axiom

Note: Actually these axioms are all that are
needed as for the HyperReals as the previous
axioms can be derived from these two axioms.
Extension Axiom
The set R of real numbers is a subset of the set R* of
hyperreal numbers.
The order relation <* on R* is an extension of the
order < on R.
There is a hyperreal number such that 0 <*
and <* r for each positive real number r.
For each real function f there is a given hyperreal
function f* which has the following properties
domain(f) = R domain(f*)
f(x) = f*(x) for all x in domain(f)
range(f) = R range(f*)
(Extension actually applies to any standard set built from the Reals.)
Transfer Axiom
(Function version)
Every real statement that holds for one or more particular
real functions holds for the hyperreal extensions of
these functions

(Full version)
Every standard statement (about sets built from the Reals)
is true if and only if the corresponding non-standard
statement (about sets built from HyperReals - formed by
adding the * operator) is true.
Example: Deriving the Commutative Laws
from the Extension and Transfer Axioms
Commutative laws for the Reals:
S: aeR beR a+b=b+a and ab=ba.

The Extension axiom gives us R*, +*, *, and e* and
the Transfer axiom tells us that S*, the commutative
laws for the HyperReals is true.

Commutative laws for the HyperReals:
S*: ae*R* be*R* a+*b=b+*a and a*b=b*a.

Definition: Infinitesimal
A HyperReal number b is said to be:

positive infinitesimal if b is positive but
less than every positive real number.
negative infinitesimal if b is negative but
greater than every negative real number.
infinitesimal if b is either positive
infinitesimal, negative infinitesimal, or 0.
Definitions:
Finite and Infinite
A HyperReal number b is said to be:

finite if b is between two real numbers.
positive infinite if b is greater than every
real number.
negative infinite if b is smaller than every
real number.
infinite if b is positive infinite or negative
infinite.
Theorem:
The only real infinitesimal number is 0.
Proof:
Suppose s is real and infinitesimal.
Then exactly one of the following is true:
s is negative, s = 0, or s is positive.
If s is negative then it is a negative infinitesimal and hence
r < s for all negative real numbers r. Since s is negative
real then s < s which is nonsense.
Thus s is not negative.
Likewise if s is positive we get s < s. So s is not positive.
Hence s = 0.
The Standard Part Principle
Theorem:
For every finite HyperReal number b, there is
exactly one real number r infinitely close to b.

Definition:
If b is finite then the real number r, with r b, is
called the standard part of b.
We write r = std( b ).

Proof of the Standard Part Principle
Uniqueness:

Suppose r, s c R and r ~ b and s ~ b.
Hence r ~ s.
We have r-s is infinitesimal and real.
The only real infinitesimal number is 0.
Thus r-s = 0 which implies r = s.
Existence:
Since b is finite there are real numbers s and t with s < b < t.
Let A = { x | x is real and x < b }. A is non-empty since it contains s
and is bounded above by t. Thus there is a real number r which is
the least upper bound of A.
We claim r ~ b.
Suppose not. Thus r = b and Hence r-b is positive or negative.
Case r-b is positive. Since r-b is not a positive infinitesimal there is a
positive real s, s < r-b which implies b < r-s so that r-s is an upper
bound of A. Thus r-s > r but r-s < r. Thus r-b is not positive.
Case r-b is negative. Since r-b is not a negative infinitesimal there is a
negative real s, r-b<s which implies r-s < b so r-s is in A and
hence r > r-s but r < r-s, since s<0.
Thus r-b is infinitesimal. So r ~ b.

Infinite Numbers Exist
Let be a positive infinitesimal.
Thus 0 < < r for all positive real number r.
Let r be a positive real number. Then so is 1/r.
Therefore 0 < < 1/r and so 1/ > r.
Let H = 1/ . Thus H > r for all positive real
number r.
Therefore H is an infinite number.
General Approach to Using
the HyperReals
Start with standard (Real) problem
Extend to non-standard (HyperReal) - adding *
Find solution of non-standard problem
Take standard part of solution to yield standard
solution - removing *

Note: In practice we normally switch between
Real and HyperReal without comment.
Theorem 1: Rules for Infinitesimal,
Finite, and Infinite Numbers
Th. Assume that c and o are infinitesimals; b,c
are hyperreal numbers which are finite but
not infinitesimal; and H, K are infinite
hyperreal numbers; and n an integer . Then

Negatives:
-c is infinitesimal.
-b is finite but not infinitesimal.
-H is infinite.
(Theorem cont)
Reciprocals:
1/c is infinite.
1/b is finite but not infinitesimal.
1/H is infinitesimal.

Sums:
c +o is infinitesimal.
b+c is finite but not infinitesimal.
b+c is finite (possibly infinitesimal).
H+c and H+b are infinite.
(Theorem cont)
Products:
c-o and c-b are infinitesimal
b*c is finite but not infinitesimal.
H *b and H*K are infinite.

Roots:
If c >0, is infinitesimal.
If b>0, is finite but not infinitesimal.
If H>0, is infinite.
n
c
n
b
n
H
(Theorem cont)
Quotients:
c/ b, c/ H, and b/ H are infinitesimal
b/c is finite but not infinitesimal.
b/c , H/c, and H/b are infinite provided


0. c =
Indeterminate Forms
Indetermina
te Form

infinitesimal finite
(equal to 1)
infinite
c/o c
2
/c


c/c c/c
2
H/K H/H
2
H/H H
2
/H
H*c H*(1/H
2
) H*(1/H) H
2
*(1/H)
H+K H+(-H)
(H+1)+(-H)
H+H
Examples
Theorem 2
1. Every hyperreal number which is between two
infinitesimals is infinitesimal.
2. Every hyperreal number which is between two
finite hyperreal numbers is finite.
3. Every hyperreal number which is greater than
some positive infinite number is positive
infinite.
4. Every hyperreal number which is less than
some negative infinite number is negative
infinite.

Definitions:
Infinitely Close
Two numbers x and y are said to be
infinitely close ( written x ~ y) if and only
(x-y) is infinitesimal.
Theorem 3.
Let a, b, and c be hyperreal numbers. Then
1. a ~ a
2. If a ~ b, then b ~ a
3. If a ~ b and b ~ c then a ~ b.

(i.e., ~ is an equivalence relation.)

Theorem 4.
Assume a ~ b, Then
1. If a is infinitesimal, so is b.
2. If a is finite, so is b.
3. If a is infinite, so is b.

Definition: Standard Part

Let b be a finite hyperreal number.
The standard part of b, denoted by
st(b), is the real number which is
infinitely close to b.
Note this means:
1. st(b) is a real number
2. b = st(b) + c for some infinitesimal c.
3. If b is real then st(b) =b.


Theorem 5.
Let a and b be finite hyperreal numbers.
Then
1. st(-a) = -st(a).
2. st(a+b) = st(a) + st(b).
3. st(a-b) = st(a) - st(b).
4. st(ab) = st(a) * st(b).
5. If st(b) , then st(a/b) = st(a)/st(b).





0 =
(theorem 5 cont.)
6. st(a)
n
= st(a
n
).
7. .
8. .

0, ( ) ( )
n
n
If a thenst a st a > =
, ( ) ( ) If a b then st a st b s s
Example 1: st(a)
Assume c ~ 4 and c 4.

=
2
2
2 24 ( 6)( 4)
( ) ( )
16 ( 4)( 4)
6 ( 6)
( )
4 ( 4)
( ) (6) 4 6 10 5
( ) (4) 4 4 8 4
c c c c
st st
c c c
c st c
st
c st c
st c st
st c st
+ +
=
+
+ +
= =
+ +
+ +
= = = =
+ +
Example 2: st(a)
Assume H is a positive infinite hyperreal number.

3 2 3 3 2
3 2 3 3 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
2 5 3 (2 5 3 )
( ) ( )
7 2 4 (7 2 4 )
2 5 3 (2 5 3 )
( )
7 2 4 (7 2 4 )
(2) (5 ) (3 ) 2 0 0 2
(7) (2 ) (4 ) 7 0 0 7
H H H H H H H
st st
H H H H H H H
H H st H H
st
H H st H H
st st H st H
st st H st H

+ +
=
+ +
+ +
= =
+ +
+ + +
= = =
+ + +
Example 3: st(a)
Assume e is a nonzero infinitesimal.

(5 25 )
( ) ( )
5 25 (5 25 )(5 25 )
(5 25 ) (5 25 )
( ) ( )
25 (25 )
(5 25 ) (5) ( 25 )
(5) (25 ) 5 5 10
st st
st st
st st st
st st
c c c
c c c
c c c c
c c
c c
c
+ +
=
+ + + +
+ + + +
= =
+
= + + = +
= + = =