Research Methodology

Unit 4

Overview

Qualitative and Quantitative research Concept of measurement Causality

Generalization & replication merging the two

Qualitative Research vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research is about investigating the features of a market through in-depth research that explores the background and context for decision-making.

In qualitative research there are 3 main methods of collecting primary data:

i. Depth interviews ii. Focus/discussion groups iii. Projective techniques

Depth Interviewing

Depth interviews are the main form of qualitative research in most business markets. Here an interviewer spends time in a one-on-one interview finding out about the customers particular circumstances and their individual opinions. The majority of business depth interviews take place in person, which has the added benefit that the researcher visits the respondents place of work and gains a sense of the culture of the business. However, for multi-national studies, telephone depth interviews, or even on-line depth interviews may be more appropriate.

Focus Group

The main alternative to depth interviews focus group discussions - is typically too difficult or expensive to arrange with busy executives. However, on-line techniques increasing get over this problem.

Projective Techniques

Used in Consumer research to understand consumers knowledge in association with a particular product or brand. Used by clinical psychologists to understand a consumers hidden attitudes, motivation and feelings. These techniques could be: Word association: Respondents are presented with a series of words or phrases and asked to say the first word, which comes to your mind. This method is helpful to check whether the proposed product names have undesirable associations.
i.

Sentence completion: The beginning of a sentence is read out to the respondent and he/she is asked to complete it with the first word that comes to the mind. E.g., people who dont prefer to eat from fast food joints are
ii.

Projective Techniques (cont..)

iii. Third party techniques: Respondents are asked to describe a third person about whom they have little information. Useful in determining attitudes of the respondents. iv. Thematic appreciation test: Respondents are shown an ambiguous picture or drawing or fill in a blank speech bubble associated with a particular character in an ambitious situation and then asked to interpret the same.

Helps in understanding the perception of the respondents towards the various aspects of the product.

Quantitative Research

Involves numbers The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

"There's no such thing as qualitative data. Everything is either 1 or 0" - Fred Kerlinger

Features of Qualitative & Quantitative Research

Research
According to purpose According to Methods of Study

Pure Research Applied Research Exploratory Research Descriptive Study Diagnostic Study Evaluation Study Action Research

Experimental Research Analytical Study Historical Research Survey Case study

Types of Research (Based on Purpose)

Pure Research - It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intentions to apply it in practice. Applied Research Carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action. It is problem oriented and action directed. Exploratory Research It just attempts to see what is there, rather than to predict the relationship that will be founded. Descriptive Study It is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation ( more specific than exploratory study).

(Cont..)

Diagnostic Study Similar to descriptive study, but with a different focus. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it. Evaluation Study It is determination of results attained by some activity designed to accomplish some valued goal or objective, e.g. Family Planning Scheme. Action Research It is concurrent evaluation study of an action program launched for solving a problem/for improving an existing situation.

Types of Research (Based on Methods)

Experimental Research It aims at determining Whether & in what manner variables are related to each other. Dependent variable - The factor, which is influenced, by other factors. Independent variable - The other factors, which influence DV.

Analytical study or Statistical Method it is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative data.

(Cont..)

Historical Research It is a study of past records and other information sources with the view to reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or movement or system and discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. Survey It is a fact finding study. Its a method of research involving the collection of data directly from a population or a sample, thereof at particular time. Case Study- It is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, social group, episode, a situation, program, a community, an institution, business unit etc.

Concept of Attitude
Mental

state of an individual which makes him to act or respond for or against, situations etc. with which his/her vested feelings of interest, liking, desire and so on, are directly or indirectly linked or associated.

Basic Purpose for Conducting Attitude Survey

To compare results with other survey results To measure the effect of change that occurs To determine the nature and extent of feeling

The concept of measurement

Selecting observable empirical events Using numbers or symbols to represent aspects of the events

Applying a mapping rule to connect the observation to the symbol

Characteristics of Data

Classification Order Distance (interval between numbers)

Origin of number series

Measurement

The four widely accepted levels of measurement called measurement scales are:

Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale

(Cont..)
Data Type Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio Classification yes yes yes yes Order yes yes yes Interval yes yes Origin yes

Nominal Scale : Applied to qualitative data where the objects or items are classified into various discrete and distinctive groups or categories without any ranking or order associated Example :-

(Cont..)

Categorizing people according to religion According to political affiliation Smoking Vs non-smoking It doesnt posses attribute like magnitude, intervals or absolute zero.

(Cont..)

Ordinal Scale: Categories of items can be compared with each other only in order of rank assigned to these categories. It posses the attribute of magnitude only.

Example : Categorization of students according to grades Categorization designation of employees according to

Ranking of two household according to income

 Interval

Scale : It possess both: magnitude as well as equal interval magnitude. Does not posses the absolute zero point.
:

Example

Measures of height, weight and time etc.

 Ratio

Scale : It posses the attribute of absolute zero beside other attributes of magnitude and equal intervals.
:

Example

Physical measurement such as height, weight, distance etc.

Comparison of Measurement Scales

Type Basic Empirical Operations Typical Usage Typical Statistics
Descriptive Percentage mode Inferential Chi-square Binomial

Nominal

Determination of Classification of Equality male-female, smokernon smoker Determination of Ranking : Preference greater or less data, market position, attitude measurement Determination of equality of intervals Index numbers, attitude measurement

Ordinal

Median

Rank-order correlation

Interval

Mean, Range, Standard Deviation Geometric Mean

T-Test, Factor analysis

Ratio

Determination of Sales, units equality of ratios produced, number of customers, costs, age etc.

Coefficient of variation

Characteristics of Good Measurement

Validity it is the extent to which a test measures what we actually intend to measure Reliability had to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure. Stability A measure is said to possess stability if you can secure consistent results with repeated measurements of the same person with the same instrument. Practicality is concerned with wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and interpretability etc.

Causation

A situation where one variable leads to specified effect on the other variable. Eg: A produces B or A forces B to occur

a) Feedback causes improved sales performance

Feedback ----- Improved Sales Performance b) Improved sales performance causes feedback Improved Sales Performance ----- Feedback

A & B causes C

Eg:

Training and employee motivation causes higher productivity. Absence of raw materials & motivation results in no productivity.

Generalization

Generalizability/ Generalization refers to the extent to which findings from a study apply to a wider population or to different contexts. In a sample survey, random sampling allows generalizability through the principle that the study sample is likely to be statistically representative of the larger population of interest, so findings can be extrapolated to that population.

Replication

Replication is a term referring to the repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be generalized to other participants and circumstances.

Thank you