Membrane Structure and Function: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 7
Membrane Structure and Function

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Life at the Edge The plasma membrane

Is the boundary that separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings
The plasma membrane exhibits selective permeability

It allows some substances to cross it more easily than others
Figure 7.1
Concept 7.1: Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins Phospholipids
Are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane Are amphipathic, containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

States that a membrane is a fluid structure with a mosaic of various proteins embedded in it
Membrane Models: Scientific Inquiry Membranes have been chemically analyzed

And found to be composed of proteins and lipids
Scientists studying the plasma membrane

Reasoned that it must be a phospholipid bilayer
WATER
Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Figure 7.2

WATER
The Davson-Danielli sandwich model of membrane structure

Stated that the membrane was made up of a phospholipid bilayer sandwiched between two protein layers Was supported by electron microscope pictures of membranes
In 1972, Singer and Nicolson

Proposed that membrane proteins are dispersed and individually inserted into the phospholipid bilayer
Hydrophobic region of protein
Phospholipid bilayer
Figure 7.3
Hydrophobic region of protein
Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma membrane

Supported the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
APPLICATION TECHNIQUE A cell membrane can be split into its two layers, revealing the ultrastructure of the membranes interior. A cell is frozen and fractured with a knife. The fracture plane often follows the hydrophobic interior of a membrane, splitting the phospholipid bilayer into two separated layers. The membrane proteins go wholly with one of the layers. Extracellular layer
Knife
Proteins
RESULTS
Plasma Cytoplasmic membrane layer These SEMs show membrane proteins (the bumps) in the two layers, demonstrating that proteins are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer.
Figure 7.4
Extracellular layer
Cytoplasmic layer
The Fluidity of Membranes Phospholipids in the plasma membrane

Can move within the bilayer
Lateral movement (~107 times per second)
Flip-flop (~ once per month)
(a) Movement of phospholipids
Figure 7.5 A
Proteins in the plasma membrane

Can drift within the bilayer
EXPERIMENT Researchers labeled the plasma mambrane proteins of a mouse cell and a human cell with two different markers and fused the cells. Using a microscope, they observed the markers on the hybrid cell. RESULTS Membrane proteins
+
Mouse cell Human cell Hybrid cell Mixed proteins after 1 hour
Figure 7.6
CONCLUSION The mixing of the mouse and human membrane proteins indicates that at least some membrane proteins move sideways within the plane of the plasma membrane.
The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids

Affects the fluidity of the plasma membrane
Fluid Viscous
Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks
Saturated hydroCarbon tails
(b) Membrane fluidity
Figure 7.5 B
The steroid cholesterol

Has different effects on membrane fluidity at different temperatures
Cholesterol
Figure 7.5
(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane
Membrane Proteins and Their Functions A membrane

Is a collage of different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer
Fibers of extracellular matrix (ECM) Glycoprotein Carbohydrate
Glycolipid EXTRACELLULAR SIDE OF MEMBRANE
Microfilaments of cytoskeleton
Cholesterol
Peripheral protein
Figure 7.7
Integral CYTOPLASMIC SIDE protein OF MEMBRANE
Integral proteins
Penetrate the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer Are often transmembrane proteins, completely spanning the membrane
N-terminus EXTRACELLULAR SIDE
C-terminus
Figure 7.8
a Helix
CYTOPLASMIC SIDE
Peripheral proteins
Are appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane
An overview of six major functions of membrane proteins

(a) Transport. (left) A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. (right) Other transport proteins shuttle a substance from one side to the other by changing shape. Some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy ssource to actively pump substances across the membrane. ATP (b) Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway. (c) Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external messenger (signal) may cause a conformational change in the protein (receptor) that relays the message to the inside of the cell. Enzymes
Signal
Figure 7.9
Receptor
(d) Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells.
Glycoprotein
(e)
Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as gap junctions or tight junctions (see Figure 6.31).
(f)
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM). Microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that adhere to the ECM can coordinate extracellular and intracellular changes (see Figure 6.29).
Figure 7.9
The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition Cell-cell recognition

Is a cells ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another
Membrane carbohydrates
Interact with the surface molecules of other cells, facilitating cell-cell recognition
Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes Membranes have distinct inside and outside faces This affects the movement of proteins synthesized in the endomembrane system
Membrane proteins and lipids

Are synthesized in the ER and Golgi apparatus
ER
Transmembrane glycoproteins Secretory protein Glycolipid 1
Golgi 2 apparatus
Vesicle
3
4 Secreted protein Plasma membrane: Cytoplasmic face Extracellular face Transmembrane glycoprotein
Figure 7.10
Membrane glycolipid
Concept 7.2: Membrane structure results in selective permeability A cell must exchange materials with its surroundings, a process controlled by the plasma membrane
The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer Hydrophobic molecules

Are lipid soluble and can pass through the membrane rapidly
Polar molecules
Do not cross the membrane rapidly
Transport Proteins Transport proteins

Allow passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane
Concept 7.3: Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment
Diffusion
Is the tendency for molecules of any substance to spread out evenly into the available space
(a) Diffusion of one solute. The membrane has pores large enough for molecules of dye to pass through. Random movement of dye molecules will cause some to pass through the pores; this will happen more often on the side with more molecules. The dye diffuses from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated (called diffusing down a concentration gradient). This leads to a dynamic equilibrium: The solute molecules continue to cross the membrane, but at equal rates in both directions. Figure 7.11 A Molecules of dye Membrane (cross section)
Net diffusion
Net diffusion
Equilibrium
Substances diffuse down their concentration gradient, the difference in concentration of a substance from one area to another
(b) Diffusion of two solutes. Solutions of two different dyes are separated by a membrane that is permeable to both. Each dye diffuses down its own concentration gradient. There will be a net diffusion of the purple dye toward the left, even though the total solute concentration was initially greater on the left side. Net diffusion Net diffusion Figure 7.11 B Net diffusion Net diffusion
Equilibrium Equilibrium
Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance Osmosis

Is the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances

Lower concentration of solute (sugar)
Higher concentration of sugar Same concentration of sugar
Selectively permeable membrane: sugar molecules cannot pass through pores, but water molecules can More free water molecules (higher concentration) Osmosis
Water molecules cluster around sugar molecules
Fewer free water molecules (lower concentration)
Figure 7.12
Water moves from an area of higher free water concentration to an area of lower free water concentration
Water Balance of Cells Without Walls Tonicity

Is the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water Has a great impact on cells without walls
If a solution is isotonic
The concentration of solutes is the same as it is inside the cell There will be no net movement of water
If a solution is hypertonic
The concentration of solutes is greater than it is inside the cell The cell will lose water
If a solution is hypotonic
The concentration of solutes is less than it is inside the cell The cell will gain water
Water balance in cells without walls
Hypotonic solution (a) Animal cell. An animal cell fares best in an isotonic environment unless it has special adaptations to offset the osmotic uptake or loss of water.
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Lysed Figure 7.13
Normal
Shriveled
Animals and other organisms without rigid cell walls living in hypertonic or hypotonic environments
Must have special adaptations for osmoregulation
Hypotonic solution (a) Animal cell. An animal cell fares best in an isotonic environment unless it has special adaptations to offset the osmotic uptake or loss of water.
Isotonic solution
Hypertonic solution
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Figure 7.13
Lysed
Normal
Shriveled
Water Balance of Cells with Walls Cell walls

Help maintain water balance
If a plant cell is turgid

It is in a hypotonic environment
It is very firm, a healthy state in most plants
If a plant cell is flaccid

It is in an isotonic or hypertonic environment
Water balance in cells with walls
(b) Plant cell. Plant cells are turgid (firm) and generally healthiest in a hypotonic environment, where the uptake of water is eventually balanced by the elastic wall pushing back on the cell.
H2O
H2O
H2O
H2O
Turgid (normal)
Flaccid
Plasmolyzed
Figure 7.13
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by Proteins
In facilitated diffusion
Transport proteins speed the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane
Channel proteins
Provide corridors that allow a specific molecule or ion to cross the membrane
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
Channel protein
Solute
CYTOPLASM
(a) A channel protein (purple) has a channel through which water molecules or a specific solute can pass. Figure 7.15
Carrier proteins
Undergo a subtle change in shape that translocates the solute-binding site across the membrane
Carrier protein
Solute
(b) A carrier protein alternates between two conformations, moving a solute across the membrane as the shape of the protein changes. The protein can transport the solute in either direction, with the net Figure 7.15 movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.
Concept 7.4: Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
The Need for Energy in Active Transport Active transport

Moves substances against their concentration gradient Requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
The sodium-potassium pump

Is one type of active transport system
1 Cytoplasmic Na+ binds to
EXTRACELLULAR [Na+] high FLUID [K+] low Na+ Na+
the sodium-potassium pump.
2 Na+ binding stimulates phosphorylation by ATP.

Na+ Na+ Na+
low Na+ [K+] high CYTOPLASM
[Na+]
P ADP
ATP
Na+ Na+
Na+
3 K+ is released and Na+
K+ K+ P
4 Phosphorylation causes the
sites are receptive again; the cycle repeats.
protein to change its conformation, expelling Na+ to the outside.
K+ K+
5 Loss of the phosphate
K+
K+
restores the proteins original conformation.
6 Extracellular K+ binds to the

P Pi
protein, triggering release of the Phosphate group.
Figure 7.16
Review: Passive and active transport compared

Passive transport. Substances diffuse spontaneously down their concentration gradients, crossing a membrane with no expenditure of energy by the cell. The rate of diffusion can be greatly increased by transport proteins in the membrane. Active transport. Some transport proteins act as pumps, moving substances across a membrane against their concentration gradients. Energy for this work is usually supplied by ATP.
ATP
Diffusion. Hydrophobic molecules and (at a slow rate) very small uncharged polar molecules can diffuse through the lipid bilayer.
Facilitated diffusion. Many hydrophilic substances diffuse through membranes with the assistance of transport proteins, either channel or carrier proteins.
Figure 7.17
Maintenance of Membrane Potential by Ion Pumps Membrane potential

Is the voltage difference across a membrane
An electrochemical gradient
Is caused by the concentration electrical gradient of ions across a membrane
An electrogenic pump
Is a transport protein that generates the voltage across a membrane
+ + EXTRACELLULAR FLUID H+ H+ H+ CYTOPLASM Figure 7.18
ATP
Proton pump + + + + H+ H+
H+
Cotransport: Coupled Transport by a Membrane Protein
Cotransport
Occurs when active transport of a specific solute indirectly drives the active transport of another solute
Cotransport: active transport driven by a concentration gradient

ATP +
H+ H+
+
H+
H+

Proton pump
H+
+
Sucrose-H+ cotransporter
+ +
H+ Diffusion of H+ H+
Figure 7.19
Sucrose
Concept 7.5: Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis Large proteins
Cross the membrane by different mechanisms
Exocytosis In exocytosis
Transport vesicles migrate to the plasma membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents
Endocytosis In endocytosis
The cell takes in macromolecules by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane
Three types of endocytosis

In phagocytosis, a cell engulfs a particle by Wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membraneenclosed sac large enough to be classified as a vacuole. The particle is digested after the vacuole fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
EXTRACELLULAR CYTOPLASM FLUID Pseudopodium
1 m
Pseudopodium of amoeba Food or other particle Food vacuole
Bacterium Food vacuole An amoeba engulfing a bacterium via phagocytosis (TEM).
In pinocytosis, the cell gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles. It is not the fluid itself that is needed by the cell, but the molecules dissolved in the droplet. Because any and all included solutes are taken into the cell, pinocytosis is nonspecific in the substances it transports.
PINOCYTOSIS
Plasma membrane 0.5 m Pinocytosis vesicles forming (arrows) in a cell lining a small blood vessel (TEM).
Vesicle
Figure 7.20
Receptor-mediated endocytosis enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those substances may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid. Embedded in the membrane are proteins with specific receptor sites exposed to the extracellular fluid. The receptor proteins are usually already clustered in regions of the membrane called coated pits, which are lined on their cytoplasmic side by a fuzzy layer of coat proteins. Extracellular substances (ligands) bind to these receptors. When binding occurs, the coated pit forms a vesicle containing the ligand molecules. Notice that there are relatively more bound molecules (purple) inside the vesicle, other molecules (green) are also present. After this ingested material is liberated from the vesicle, the receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane by the same vesicle.
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Coat protein Receptor Coated vesicle
Ligand
Coated pit
Coat protein
A coated pit and a coated vesicle formed during receptormediated endocytosis (TEMs).
Plasma membrane 0.25 m


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Chapter 7

Membrane Structure and Function

Lectures by Chris Romero

Overview: Life at the Edge The plasma membrane

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The plasma membrane exhibits selective permeability

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Membrane Models: Scientific Inquiry Membranes have been chemically analyzed

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Scientists studying the plasma membrane

Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail Figure 7.2

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Davson-Danielli sandwich model of membrane structure

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In 1972, Singer and Nicolson

Hydrophobic region of protein

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma membrane

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Fluidity of Membranes Phospholipids in the plasma membrane

Lateral movement (~107 times per second)

Flip-flop (~ once per month)

(a) Movement of phospholipids

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Proteins in the plasma membrane

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids

Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks

Saturated hydroCarbon tails

(b) Membrane fluidity

The steroid cholesterol

(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Membrane Proteins and Their Functions A membrane

Glycolipid EXTRACELLULAR SIDE OF MEMBRANE

Integral CYTOPLASMIC SIDE protein OF MEMBRANE

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

An overview of six major functions of membrane proteins

The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in Cell-Cell Recognition Cell-cell recognition

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Membrane proteins and lipids

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer Hydrophobic molecules

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Transport Proteins Transport proteins

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Effects of Osmosis on Water Balance Osmosis

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Is affected by the concentration gradient of dissolved substances

Water molecules cluster around sugar molecules

Fewer free water molecules (lower concentration)