Chapter 17

Domain Name
System: DNS
Objectives
Upon completion you will be able to:
Understand how the DNS is organized
Know the domains in the DNS
Know how a name or address is resolved
Be familiar with the query and response formats
Understand the need for DDNS
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17.1 NAME SPACE

The names assigned to machines must be unique because the addresses
are unique. A name space that maps each address to a unique name can
be organized in two ways: flat or hierarchical.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Flat Name Space
Hierarchical Name Space

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17.2 DOMAIN NAME SPACE

The domain name space is hierarchical in design. The names are
defined in an inverted-tree structure with the root at the top. The tree can
have 128 levels: level 0 (root) to level 127.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Label
Domain Name
Domain

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Figure 17.1

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Domain name space

Figure 17.2

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Domain names and labels

Figure 17.3

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FQDN and PQDN

Figure 17.4

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Domains

17.3 DISTRIBUTION OF
NAME SPACE
The information contained in the domain name space is distributed
among many computers called DNS servers.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Hierarchy of Name Servers
Zone
Root Server
Primary and Secondary Servers

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Figure 17.5

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Hierarchy of name servers

Figure 17.6

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Zones and domains

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Note:
A primary server loads all information
from the disk file; the secondary server
loads all information from the primary
server. When the secondary downloads
information from the primary, it is called
zone transfer.

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17.4 DNS IN THE INTERNET

The domain name space (tree) is divided into three different sections:
generic domains, country domains, and the inverse domain.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Generic Domains
Country Domains
Inverse Domain
Registrar

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Figure 17.7

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DNS used in the Internet

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Figure 17.8

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Generic domains

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Table 17.1 Generic domain labels

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Table 17.1 Generic domain labels (Continued)

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Figure 17.9

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Country domains

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Figure 17.10

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Inverse domain

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17.5 RESOLUTION
Mapping a name to an address or an address to a name is called nameaddress resolution.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Resolver
Mapping Names to Addresses
Mapping Addresses to Names
Recursive Resolution
Iterative Resolution
Caching

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Figure 17.11 Recursive resolution

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Figure 17.12

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Iterative resolution

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17.6 DNS MESSAGES

The DNS query message consists of a header and question records; the
DNS response message consists of a header, question records, answer
records, authoritative records, and additional records.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Header

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Figure 17.13

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DNS messages

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Figure 17.14

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Query and response messages

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Figure 17.15

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Header format

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Figure 17.16

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Flags field

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Table 17.2 Values of rCode

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17.7 TYPES OF RECORDS

Two types of records are used in DNS. The question records are used in
the question section of the query and response messages. The resource
records are used in the answer, authoritative, and additional information
sections of the response message.

The topics discussed in this section include:

Question Record
Resource Record

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Figure 17.17

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Question record format

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Figure 17.18

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Query name format

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Table 17.3 Types

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Table 17.4 Classes

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Figure 17.19

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Resource record format

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17.8 COMPRESSION
DNS requires that a domain name be replaced by an offset pointer if it is
repeated. DNS defines a 2-byte offset pointer that points to a previous
occurrence of the domain name or part of it.

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Figure 17.20

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Format of an offset pointer

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Example 1
A resolver sends a query message to a local server to find the
IP address for the host chal.fhda.edu.. We discuss the query
and response messages separately.
Figure 17.21 shows the query message sent by the resolver. The first 2 bytes
show the identifier (1333). It is used as a sequence number and relates a
response to a query. Because a resolver may even send many queries to the
same server, the identifier helps to sort responses that arrive out of order.
The next bytes contain the flags with the value of 0x0100 in hexadecimal.
In binary it is 0000000100000000, but it is more meaningful to divide it into
the fields as shown below:

QR

OpCode

0000

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AA

TC

RD

RA

Reserved

000

rCode
0000
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Figure 17.21

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Example 1: Query message

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Example 1

(Continued)

The QR bit defines the message as a query. The OpCode is 0000, which
defines a standard query. The recursion desired (RD) bit is set. (Refer back
to Figure 17.16 for the flags field descriptions.) The message contains only
one question record. The domain name is 4chal4fhda3edu0. The next 2
bytes define the query type as an IP address; the last 2 bytes define the class
as the Internet.
Figure 17.22 shows the response of the server. The response is similar to
the query except that the flags are different and the number of answer
records is one. The flags value is 0x8180 in hexadecimal. In binary it is
1000000110000000, but again we divide it into fields as shown below:
QR
1

OpCode

AA

TC

RD

RA

Reserved

rCode

0000

000

0000

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Example 1

(Continued)

The QR bit defines the message as a response. The OpCode is 0000, which
defines a standard response. The recursion available (RA) and RD bits are
set. The message contains one question record and one answer record. The
question record is repeated from the query message. The answer record has
a value of 0xC00C (split in two lines), which points to the question record
instead of repeating the domain name. The next field defines the domain
type (address). The field after that defines the class (Internet). The field
with the value 12,000 is the TTL (12,000 s). The next field is the length of
the resource data, which is an IP address (153.18.8.105).

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Figure 17.22

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Example 1: Response message

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Example 2
An FTP server has received a packet from an FTP client with
IP address 153.2.7.9. The FTP server wants to verify that the
FTP client is an authorized client. The FTP server can consult
a file containing the list of authorized clients. However, the file
consists only of domain names. The FTP server has only the IP
address of the requesting client, which was the source IP
address in the received IP datagram. The FTP server asks the
resolver (DNS client) to send an inverse query to a DNS server
to ask for the name of the FTP client. We discuss the query and
response messages separately.

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Example 2

(Continued)

Figure 17.23 shows the query message sent from the resolver to the server.
The first 2 bytes show the identifier (0x1200). The flags value is 0x0900 in
hexadecimal. In binary it is 0000100100000000, and we divide it into fields
as shown below:
QR
0

OpCode

AA

TC

RD

RA

0001

Reserved
000

rCode
0000

The OpCode is 0001, which defines an inverse query. The message contains
only one question record. The domain name is 19171231537in-addr4arpa.
The next 2 bytes define the query type as PTR, and the last 2 bytes define
the class as the Internet.

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Figure 17.23

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Example 2: Inverse query message

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Example 2

(Continued)

Figure 17.24 shows the response. The flags value is 0x8D80 in

hexadecimal. In binary it is 1000110110000000, and we divide it into fields
as shown below:
QR

OpCode

AA

TC

RD

RA

0001

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Reserved
000

rCode
0000

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Figure 17.24

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Example 2: Inverse response message

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Example 3
In UNIX and Windows, the nslookup utility can be used to
retrieve address/name mapping. The following shows how we
can retrieve an address when the domain name is given.
$ nslookup fhda.edu
Name: fhda.edu
Address: 153.18.8.1

The nslookup utility can also be used to retrieve the domain

name when the address is given as shown below:
$ nslookup 153.18.8.1
1.8.18.153.in-addr.arpa name = tiptoe.fhda.edu.

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17.9 DDNS
The Dynamic Domain Name System (DDNS) updates the DNS master
file dynamically.

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17.10 ENCAPSULATION
DNS uses UDP as the transport protocol when the size of the response
message is less than 512 bytes. If the size of the response message is
more than 512 bytes, a TCP connection is used.

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Note:
DNS can use the services of UDP or
TCP using the well-known port 53.

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