Chapter 10: Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do cracks that lead to failure form?
How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

Neal Boenzi/New York Times Pictures/Redux

Pictures

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 10, Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e. Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Courtesy of National Semiconductor Corporation.) Callister 7e.

Chapter 10 - 1
 Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Accompanied by significant plastic
deformation
Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic

Chapter 10 - 2
 Ductile vs Brittle Failure
Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 10.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

%AR or %EL Large Moderate Small

Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 10 - 3
 Example: Pipe Failures
Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 10 - 4
 Moderately Ductile Failure
Failure Stages:
void void growth shearing
necking fracture
nucleation and coalescence at surface

Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with
nucleation and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: permission.
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
sites. 1971, pp. 347-56.)
Chapter 10 - 5
Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

Fig. 10.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 6
 Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Fig. 10.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 10 - 7
 Brittle Fracture Surfaces
Intergranular Transgranular
(between grains) 304 S. Steel (through grains)
(metal) 316 S. Steel
Reprinted w/permission (metal)
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R. Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
160 mm
4 mm National Lab.)

Polypropylene Al Oxide
(polymer) (ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg, from "Failure Analysis of
"Deformation and Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Fracture Mechanics of Copyright 1990, The
Engineering Materials", American Ceramic
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p. Society, Westerville, OH.
303, John Wiley and (Micrograph by R.M.
Sons, Inc., 1996. Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.) Chapter 10 - 8
 Ideal vs Real Materials
Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
perfect matl-no flaws
E/10 TS engineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1 e
DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
-- the longer the wire, the "Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Reasons: Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
-- flaws cause premature failure. and Sons, Inc., 1996.

-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Chapter 10 - 9
 Flaws are Stress Concentrators!

Griffith Crack

t where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip

Fig. 10.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 10
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 10.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 11
 Engineering Fracture Design
Avoid sharp corners!
0 max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t =
0
w
max 2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius
Adapted from Fig. 1.5
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)
1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius

Chapter 10 - 12
 Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
blunts the crack.
deformed
region
brittle ductile

Energy balance on the crack

Elastic strain energy-
energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires energy

Chapter 10 - 13
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (m)
exceeds a critical stress (c)

i.e., m > c

where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p

where p is plastic deformation energy

Chapter 10 - 14
 Fracture Toughness Ranges
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
100
C-C(|| fibers) 1
70 Steels
60 Ti alloys
50
40
Al alloys
30 Mg alloys Based on data in Table B.5,
K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

20 Composite reinforcement geometry is: f
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2 = fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4 p = particles. Addition data as noted
10 C/C( fibers) 1 (vol. fraction of reinforcement):
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3 1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Diamond Si nitr/SiC(w) 5 Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
7 Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4 2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
6 Si carbide Glass/SiC(w) 6 Waltham, MA.
5 Al oxide PET 3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
4 Si nitride Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
PP (1986). pp. 61-73.
3 PVC 4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
2 PC Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
1 <100>
Si crystal PS Glass 6
<111>
0.7 Glass -soda
0.6 Polyester
Concrete
0.5 Chapter 10 - 15
 Design Against Crack Growth
Crack growth condition:
K Kc =
Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw --Scenario 2: Design stress
size dictates design stress. dictates max. flaw size.

amax

fracture fracture
no no
fracture amax fracture
Chapter 10 - 16
 Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A Design B
--largest flaw is 9 mm --use same material
--failure stress = 112 MPa --largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
Use...

Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm 4 mm

Answer:
Chapter 10 - 17
 Impact Testing
Impact loading: (Charpy)
-- severe testing case
-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Fig. 10.12(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 10 - 18
 Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy

Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)

polymers
Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials ( y > E/150)

Temperature Adapted from Fig. 10.15,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

Chapter 10 - 19
 Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.) Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

Problem: Steels were used having DBTTs just below

room temperature.
Chapter 10 - 20
 Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.

Adapted from Fig. 10.18(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

max
Stress varies with time. m S
-- key parameters are S, m, and
min time
cycling frequency
Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though max < y.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

Chapter 10 - 21
 Types of Fatigue Behavior

S = stress amplitude
Fatigue limit, Sfat: case for
--no fatigue if S < Sfat unsafe steel (typ.)
Sfat

safe Adapted from Fig.

10.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure

S = stress amplitude
For some materials, case for
there is no fatigue unsafe Al (typ.)
limit!
safe Adapted from Fig.
10.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
10 3 10 5 10 7 10 9
N = Cycles to failure
Chapter 10 - 22
 Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth
Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6

increase in crack length per loading cycle

crack origin
Failed rotating shaft
-- crack grew even though
Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
increases Fig. 10.22, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
crack gets longer (From D. J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
loading freq. increases. Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission
of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 10 - 23
 Improving Fatigue Life

S = stress amplitude
1. Impose compressive Adapted from
surface stresses Fig. 10.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(to suppress surface near zero or compressive m
cracks from growing) moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing

shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress bad better

concentrators. Fig. 10.26, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
bad better
Chapter 10 - 24
 Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs. time

,e

0 t

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)

decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope (e /t).
Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate) Rethwisch 9e.

increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate. Chapter 10 - 25

 Creep: Temperature Dependence
Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Figs. 10.30, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 26
 Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)

activation energy for creep

strain rate (material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
Strain rate 200
427C
Fig. 9.38, Callister &
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 4e.
increases 100 [Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
538C
with increasing 40
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool

T,
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
20 ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
649C ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 10 - 27
 Creep Failure
Failure: along grain boundaries.

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)

Chapter 10 - 28
 Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime
Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800C, s = 140 MPa

1000 Time to rupture, tr

Stress (MPa)
temperature function of
100 applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

data for
S-590 Iron

12 16 20 24 28
(1073 K)(20 log tr ) 24x103
103 T(20 + log tr (K-h)
Adapted from Fig. 10.33, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)
Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 10 - 29
 SUMMARY
Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic ):
- cycles to fail decreases as increases.
- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):
- time to rupture decreases as or T increases.
Chapter 10 - 30
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 10 - 31